Roman History 02 - The Roman Republic 509 - 386 BC

[Music] [Music] Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Rome. It had been 200 years since the Rome. It had been 200 years since the Rome. It had been 200 years since the founding of Rome. And since that time, founding of Rome. And since that time, founding of Rome. And since that time, the Romans had undergone a massive the Romans had undergone a massive the Romans had undergone a massive transformation. In the beginning, they transformation. In the beginning, they transformation. In the beginning, they were a collection of pastoral herdsmen were a collection of pastoral herdsmen were a collection of pastoral herdsmen and unsavory castoffs making their way and unsavory castoffs making their way and unsavory castoffs making their way in the world by flock and trade. And in the world by flock and trade. And in the world by flock and trade. And since that time they had learned to since that time they had learned to since that time they had learned to become settled farmers, tilling the land become settled farmers, tilling the land become settled farmers, tilling the land and raising crops. They had gone from and raising crops. They had gone from and raising crops. They had gone from being a collection of armed rabbel to a being a collection of armed rabbel to a being a collection of armed rabbel to a society of laws with a welle equipped, society of laws with a welle equipped, society of laws with a welle equipped, welldisiplined army. They had gone from welldisiplined army. They had gone from welldisiplined army. They had gone from upstart village to regional capital and upstart village to regional capital and upstart village to regional capital and now stood ready to challenge a wider now stood ready to challenge a wider now stood ready to challenge a wider pool of neighbors for control of all pool of neighbors for control of all pool of neighbors for control of all Italy. The Atruscans lay to the north Italy. The Atruscans lay to the north Italy. The Atruscans lay to the north and the Greeks to the south. And having and the Greeks to the south. And having and the Greeks to the south. And having conquered the central lowlands during conquered the central lowlands during conquered the central lowlands during the reign of the kings, the Romans now the reign of the kings, the Romans now the reign of the kings, the Romans now turned to the hills and mountains of turned to the hills and mountains of turned to the hills and mountains of East Italy for fresh conquest. and as East Italy for fresh conquest. and as East Italy for fresh conquest. and as always were forced to parry the thrust always were forced to parry the thrust always were forced to parry the thrust of the Atruscan cities to the north. of the Atruscan cities to the north. of the Atruscan cities to the north. This is the world into which the This is the world into which the This is the world into which the republic was born. According to the republic was born. According to the republic was born. According to the legendary chronology, the kings were legendary chronology, the kings were legendary chronology, the kings were overthrown in 509 BC, though the date is overthrown in 509 BC, though the date is overthrown in 509 BC, though the date is highly suspect. Most likely later, highly suspect. Most likely later, highly suspect. Most likely later, patriotic Roman historians changed the patriotic Roman historians changed the patriotic Roman historians changed the timing of the event to slightly predate timing of the event to slightly predate timing of the event to slightly predate the establishment of democracy in Athens the establishment of democracy in Athens the establishment of democracy in Athens by Klestones in 508 BC. The Romans had a by Klestones in 508 BC. The Romans had a by Klestones in 508 BC. The Romans had a hard time believing they were not first hard time believing they were not first hard time believing they were not first and best in everything, especially in and best in everything, especially in and best in everything, especially in the democracy they took so much pride the democracy they took so much pride the democracy they took so much pride in. So, they altered their history to in. So, they altered their history to in. So, they altered their history to outdo the Greeks. However, without any outdo the Greeks. However, without any outdo the Greeks. However, without any concrete data, it is hard to know concrete data, it is hard to know concrete data, it is hard to know exactly when the kings were driven out.

exactly when the kings were driven out. exactly when the kings were driven out. So, we are forced to mark our own So, we are forced to mark our own So, we are forced to mark our own histories of the city with the 509 date. histories of the city with the 509 date. histories of the city with the 509 date. As I said in part one, the sack of Rome As I said in part one, the sack of Rome As I said in part one, the sack of Rome by the Gauls in 389 BC destroyed all by the Gauls in 389 BC destroyed all by the Gauls in 389 BC destroyed all primary documentation. So, we are left primary documentation. So, we are left primary documentation. So, we are left with a mixture of legend and historical with a mixture of legend and historical with a mixture of legend and historical fiction. Before we get into the story of fiction. Before we get into the story of fiction. Before we get into the story of the early republic, I want to pause for the early republic, I want to pause for the early republic, I want to pause for a moment and establish who exactly we a moment and establish who exactly we a moment and establish who exactly we are talking about here. I often say that are talking about here. I often say that are talking about here. I often say that Rome did this and that the Romans did Rome did this and that the Romans did Rome did this and that the Romans did that. But except for a few passing that. But except for a few passing that. But except for a few passing disambiguations, I have not done much to disambiguations, I have not done much to disambiguations, I have not done much to describe the varying nature of the describe the varying nature of the describe the varying nature of the population. Were they some homogeneous population. Were they some homogeneous population. Were they some homogeneous hive mind who agreed on everything and hive mind who agreed on everything and hive mind who agreed on everything and acted with a single will? No, quite the acted with a single will? No, quite the acted with a single will? No, quite the opposite. There were rich Romans and opposite. There were rich Romans and opposite. There were rich Romans and poor Romans and middleclass Romans. poor Romans and middleclass Romans. poor Romans and middleclass Romans. There were men and women and children. There were men and women and children. There were men and women and children. There were slaves and freed slaves and There were slaves and freed slaves and There were slaves and freed slaves and immigrants and criminals and honest men immigrants and criminals and honest men immigrants and criminals and honest men who worked hard every day and lazy men who worked hard every day and lazy men who worked hard every day and lazy men who did not. There were prostitutes and who did not. There were prostitutes and who did not. There were prostitutes and vestal virgins and intellectuals and vestal virgins and intellectuals and vestal virgins and intellectuals and illiterates. Just like any society, the illiterates. Just like any society, the illiterates. Just like any society, the city of Rome was inhabited by a vast city of Rome was inhabited by a vast city of Rome was inhabited by a vast array of individuals, each with their array of individuals, each with their array of individuals, each with their own worldview, motivation, and dream.

own worldview, motivation, and dream. own worldview, motivation, and dream. And just like in any society, the Romans And just like in any society, the Romans And just like in any society, the Romans did not always get along with one did not always get along with one did not always get along with one another, and in fact often fought another, and in fact often fought another, and in fact often fought bitterly with one another for control bitterly with one another for control bitterly with one another for control and freedom from control. and freedom from control. and freedom from control. When the republic was founded, the When the republic was founded, the When the republic was founded, the population of Rome was around 130,000. population of Rome was around 130,000. population of Rome was around 130,000. This population was divided into two This population was divided into two This population was divided into two basic groups. The patricians and the basic groups. The patricians and the basic groups. The patricians and the plebes. Put simply, the patricians came plebes. Put simply, the patricians came plebes. Put simply, the patricians came from those families who could trace from those families who could trace from those families who could trace their roots back to the original 100 their roots back to the original 100 their roots back to the original 100 senators chosen by Romulus and the senators chosen by Romulus and the senators chosen by Romulus and the plebes came from those that could not. plebes came from those that could not. plebes came from those that could not. Generally speaking, the distinction Generally speaking, the distinction Generally speaking, the distinction between patrician and pleb also followed between patrician and pleb also followed between patrician and pleb also followed economic class divisions. Though, as we economic class divisions. Though, as we economic class divisions. Though, as we will see, it was never that simple. In will see, it was never that simple. In will see, it was never that simple. In the early days, the political weight of the early days, the political weight of the early days, the political weight of the classes was inversely related to the classes was inversely related to the classes was inversely related to their numerical size. The smaller set of their numerical size. The smaller set of their numerical size. The smaller set of patricians held power over the larger patricians held power over the larger patricians held power over the larger set of plebs. As I noted last week, the set of plebs. As I noted last week, the set of plebs. As I noted last week, the two richest classes in Rome held between two richest classes in Rome held between two richest classes in Rome held between them enough votes to snuff out any them enough votes to snuff out any them enough votes to snuff out any possible opposition. And those classes possible opposition. And those classes possible opposition. And those classes were for the most part made up of were for the most part made up of were for the most part made up of patricians. So, the patricians made the patricians. So, the patricians made the patricians. So, the patricians made the rules. In the beginning, then the rules. In the beginning, then the rules. In the beginning, then the Democratic Republic was really an Democratic Republic was really an Democratic Republic was really an oligarchy of wealthy aristocratic oligarchy of wealthy aristocratic oligarchy of wealthy aristocratic families who shaped policy to serve families who shaped policy to serve families who shaped policy to serve their interests and who had no intention their interests and who had no intention their interests and who had no intention of ever letting anyone else into the of ever letting anyone else into the of ever letting anyone else into the decision-making process. I don't want to decision-making process. I don't want to decision-making process. I don't want to get too far ahead of myself, but let me get too far ahead of myself, but let me get too far ahead of myself, but let me just say that it did not take long for just say that it did not take long for just say that it did not take long for the plebes, especially those plebs who the plebes, especially those plebs who the plebes, especially those plebs who were wealthy, to demand a greater voice were wealthy, to demand a greater voice were wealthy, to demand a greater voice in government. This tension between the in government. This tension between the in government. This tension between the Petricians and the plebes would dominate Petricians and the plebes would dominate Petricians and the plebes would dominate Roman politics for the duration of the Roman politics for the duration of the Roman politics for the duration of the empire.

empire. empire. Outside the basic patrician plea Outside the basic patrician plea Outside the basic patrician plea dichotomy, there were those without even dichotomy, there were those without even dichotomy, there were those without even nominal political standing, namely nominal political standing, namely nominal political standing, namely women, slaves, and immigrants. These women, slaves, and immigrants. These women, slaves, and immigrants. These groups formed a majority in sheer groups formed a majority in sheer groups formed a majority in sheer numerical terms, but were denied almost numerical terms, but were denied almost numerical terms, but were denied almost all political rights. Even the plebeian all political rights. Even the plebeian all political rights. Even the plebeian males, who howled righteously at the males, who howled righteously at the males, who howled righteously at the injustice of being denied a say in injustice of being denied a say in injustice of being denied a say in government, would have cried just as government, would have cried just as government, would have cried just as loud if someone had suggested suffrage loud if someone had suggested suffrage loud if someone had suggested suffrage being extended to women or slaves or being extended to women or slaves or being extended to women or slaves or immigrants. The idea would have been immigrants. The idea would have been immigrants. The idea would have been beyond comprehension. And the beyond comprehension. And the beyond comprehension. And the contradictions of the early republic contradictions of the early republic contradictions of the early republic bear a striking resemblance to the bear a striking resemblance to the bear a striking resemblance to the contradictions of the early United contradictions of the early United contradictions of the early United States. When you picture the burgeoning States. When you picture the burgeoning States. When you picture the burgeoning Roman Republic, picture what you know of Roman Republic, picture what you know of Roman Republic, picture what you know of the burgeoning American republic. The the burgeoning American republic. The the burgeoning American republic. The United States, though rhetorically United States, though rhetorically United States, though rhetorically cloaked in the language of freedom and cloaked in the language of freedom and cloaked in the language of freedom and equality, allowed only white landowning equality, allowed only white landowning equality, allowed only white landowning males to vote. Eventually, the males to vote. Eventually, the males to vote. Eventually, the propertyless men agitated against the propertyless men agitated against the propertyless men agitated against the injustice of an oligarchical elite injustice of an oligarchical elite injustice of an oligarchical elite trampling on their freedoms and earned trampling on their freedoms and earned trampling on their freedoms and earned the same right. But women and blacks and the same right. But women and blacks and the same right. But women and blacks and Indians and the new immigrants were left Indians and the new immigrants were left Indians and the new immigrants were left out in the cold, present but unheard.

out in the cold, present but unheard. out in the cold, present but unheard. This was Rome, a republic in which the This was Rome, a republic in which the This was Rome, a republic in which the disenfranchised majority were ruled by a disenfranchised majority were ruled by a disenfranchised majority were ruled by a disproportionately powerful elite. This disproportionately powerful elite. This disproportionately powerful elite. This then was the basic political breakdown then was the basic political breakdown then was the basic political breakdown of the population. Economically of the population. Economically of the population. Economically speaking, whether patrician or pleb, the speaking, whether patrician or pleb, the speaking, whether patrician or pleb, the majority of Romans were by this time majority of Romans were by this time majority of Romans were by this time settled farmers. But this was no utopia settled farmers. But this was no utopia settled farmers. But this was no utopia of landowning citizen farmers. The land of landowning citizen farmers. The land of landowning citizen farmers. The land was owned by an elite minority and was owned by an elite minority and was owned by an elite minority and worked by the rest of the population. worked by the rest of the population. worked by the rest of the population. Economics and politics coincided just as Economics and politics coincided just as Economics and politics coincided just as they do today. And the tension between they do today. And the tension between they do today. And the tension between owner and operator mirrored the tension owner and operator mirrored the tension owner and operator mirrored the tension between patrician and plead. Plebs were between patrician and plead. Plebs were between patrician and plead. Plebs were constantly agitating for land constantly agitating for land constantly agitating for land redistribution and patricians blocked redistribution and patricians blocked redistribution and patricians blocked reform whenever they could. In this reform whenever they could. In this reform whenever they could. In this early stage of the empire, the actual early stage of the empire, the actual early stage of the empire, the actual work of the farms was still done by the work of the farms was still done by the work of the farms was still done by the lowerass citizens. Slaves being an lowerass citizens. Slaves being an lowerass citizens. Slaves being an important part of the Roman economic important part of the Roman economic important part of the Roman economic model, but not yet the keystone upon model, but not yet the keystone upon model, but not yet the keystone upon which the entire system was based. The which the entire system was based. The which the entire system was based. The farms produced two basic products. Food farms produced two basic products. Food farms produced two basic products. Food for internal consumption, usually grain for internal consumption, usually grain for internal consumption, usually grain and cereals, and crops for external and cereals, and crops for external and cereals, and crops for external trade, usually olives and grapes, and trade, usually olives and grapes, and trade, usually olives and grapes, and the refined offspring, oil and wine. The the refined offspring, oil and wine. The the refined offspring, oil and wine. The Romans, building on the roots already Romans, building on the roots already Romans, building on the roots already established by the Atruscans, used savvy established by the Atruscans, used savvy established by the Atruscans, used savvy trade policies to enrich themselves with trade policies to enrich themselves with trade policies to enrich themselves with all manner of foreign goods, all manner of foreign goods, all manner of foreign goods, establishing a truly international establishing a truly international establishing a truly international flavor in the city. But as in so many flavor in the city. But as in so many flavor in the city. But as in so many other aspects of Roman society, it was other aspects of Roman society, it was other aspects of Roman society, it was the wealthy patricians who patrolled the the wealthy patricians who patrolled the the wealthy patricians who patrolled the import export boards and it was they who import export boards and it was they who import export boards and it was they who benefited the most from foreign trade.

benefited the most from foreign trade. benefited the most from foreign trade. Needless to say, the landless pleb who Needless to say, the landless pleb who Needless to say, the landless pleb who worked in the fields did not dress in worked in the fields did not dress in worked in the fields did not dress in African finery and eat off of Greek African finery and eat off of Greek African finery and eat off of Greek silverware. Divisions were many within silverware. Divisions were many within silverware. Divisions were many within the population economically and the population economically and the population economically and politically, and hatred abounded between politically, and hatred abounded between politically, and hatred abounded between the classes. But in the end, they were the classes. But in the end, they were the classes. But in the end, they were all Romans and set aside their all Romans and set aside their all Romans and set aside their differences anytime the city was differences anytime the city was differences anytime the city was threatened, though picking up their threatened, though picking up their threatened, though picking up their rivalries right where they left off when rivalries right where they left off when rivalries right where they left off when danger had passed. That all being said, danger had passed. That all being said, danger had passed. That all being said, it's time to continue with our story. it's time to continue with our story. it's time to continue with our story. The tyranny of the monarchy had been The tyranny of the monarchy had been The tyranny of the monarchy had been banished forever. It was decided. And banished forever. It was decided. And banished forever. It was decided. And again, when you picture this, feel free again, when you picture this, feel free again, when you picture this, feel free to picture the patrician senators and to picture the patrician senators and to picture the patrician senators and equites hammering out the details equites hammering out the details equites hammering out the details because it was really them making all because it was really them making all because it was really them making all the early decisions. The lower classes the early decisions. The lower classes the early decisions. The lower classes and plebs had nothing to do with it. The and plebs had nothing to do with it. The and plebs had nothing to do with it. The two men should rule annually to avoid two men should rule annually to avoid two men should rule annually to avoid any single man accumulating too much any single man accumulating too much any single man accumulating too much power. Originally, these men were called power. Originally, these men were called power. Originally, these men were called praers, though the title would be praers, though the title would be praers, though the title would be changed in the early 300s BC to the more changed in the early 300s BC to the more changed in the early 300s BC to the more familiar console. For clarity sake, I familiar console. For clarity sake, I familiar console. For clarity sake, I will use the latter designation even for will use the latter designation even for will use the latter designation even for the early executives who were the early executives who were the early executives who were technically praers because the office technically praers because the office technically praers because the office itself did not change, just the name.

itself did not change, just the name. itself did not change, just the name. And well, most translations of early And well, most translations of early And well, most translations of early Roman history refer to them as consoles Roman history refer to them as consoles Roman history refer to them as consoles anyway. So there is no reason to confuse anyway. So there is no reason to confuse anyway. So there is no reason to confuse an already confusing situation with a an already confusing situation with a an already confusing situation with a lot of semantic lot of semantic lot of semantic nitpicking. Anyway, to the Roman mind, nitpicking. Anyway, to the Roman mind, nitpicking. Anyway, to the Roman mind, ensuring freedom was not so much a ensuring freedom was not so much a ensuring freedom was not so much a matter of scaling back or limiting the matter of scaling back or limiting the matter of scaling back or limiting the power of the executive as the founding power of the executive as the founding power of the executive as the founding fathers sought to do with their system fathers sought to do with their system fathers sought to do with their system of checks and balances as it was a of checks and balances as it was a of checks and balances as it was a matter of limiting the length of time matter of limiting the length of time matter of limiting the length of time within which absolute rule could be within which absolute rule could be within which absolute rule could be wielded. The consoles had all the same wielded. The consoles had all the same wielded. The consoles had all the same powers a king had near absolute power powers a king had near absolute power powers a king had near absolute power over war and peace, life and death. They over war and peace, life and death. They over war and peace, life and death. They just had to give it up after a year. The just had to give it up after a year. The just had to give it up after a year. The second console was the one check the second console was the one check the second console was the one check the Romans did add into the system. One Romans did add into the system. One Romans did add into the system. One console could veto the actions of the console could veto the actions of the console could veto the actions of the other and that was that. Any console who other and that was that. Any console who other and that was that. Any console who tried to run away with power could be tried to run away with power could be tried to run away with power could be stopped at a word from his colleague. If stopped at a word from his colleague. If stopped at a word from his colleague. If the two conspired to oppress the people, the two conspired to oppress the people, the two conspired to oppress the people, their terms of office expired after a their terms of office expired after a their terms of office expired after a year and they were back to being mere year and they were back to being mere year and they were back to being mere citizens with all the legal weight that citizens with all the legal weight that citizens with all the legal weight that would be brought down upon two men who would be brought down upon two men who would be brought down upon two men who sought to make themselves king. In the sought to make themselves king. In the sought to make themselves king. In the end, it was the expiring term of office end, it was the expiring term of office end, it was the expiring term of office that really let the Romans sleep well at that really let the Romans sleep well at that really let the Romans sleep well at night. The executive power sharing was night. The executive power sharing was night. The executive power sharing was merely a useful merely a useful merely a useful novelty. In that year 509 BC, this was novelty. In that year 509 BC, this was novelty. In that year 509 BC, this was as far as the republic had gone as far as the republic had gone as far as the republic had gone constitutionally. Rather than the commit constitutionally. Rather than the commit constitutionally. Rather than the commit and getting together and electing a king and getting together and electing a king and getting together and electing a king who served for life, they got together who served for life, they got together who served for life, they got together and elected two men who served for one and elected two men who served for one and elected two men who served for one year. As I said last week, the first two year. As I said last week, the first two year. As I said last week, the first two consils were Lucius Junius Brutus and consils were Lucius Junius Brutus and consils were Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Colatnus. The former Lucius Tarquinius Colatnus. The former Lucius Tarquinius Colatnus. The former led the revolt against the king and the led the revolt against the king and the led the revolt against the king and the latter's raped wife had sparked the latter's raped wife had sparked the latter's raped wife had sparked the event.

event. event. Brutus's first act was to make all men Brutus's first act was to make all men Brutus's first act was to make all men swear an oath that they should never swear an oath that they should never swear an oath that they should never again allow a king to rule Rome. As you again allow a king to rule Rome. As you again allow a king to rule Rome. As you can see, the legacy of Numa remained a can see, the legacy of Numa remained a can see, the legacy of Numa remained a potent force. Brutus felt that a sacred potent force. Brutus felt that a sacred potent force. Brutus felt that a sacred oath before Jupiter would be enough to oath before Jupiter would be enough to oath before Jupiter would be enough to bind men to oppose monarchy, and barring bind men to oppose monarchy, and barring bind men to oppose monarchy, and barring a few exceptions, it did. The Romans did a few exceptions, it did. The Romans did a few exceptions, it did. The Romans did not mess around with their oaths. There not mess around with their oaths. There not mess around with their oaths. There was, however, an immediate problem. was, however, an immediate problem. was, however, an immediate problem. Colatinus, you will note, bore the hated Colatinus, you will note, bore the hated Colatinus, you will note, bore the hated moniker Tarquinius, being a relative of moniker Tarquinius, being a relative of moniker Tarquinius, being a relative of the overthrown king. The population, the overthrown king. The population, the overthrown king. The population, jittery in their newfound freedom, jittery in their newfound freedom, jittery in their newfound freedom, worried that lust for power was an worried that lust for power was an worried that lust for power was an inborn trait of the Tarquins and inborn trait of the Tarquins and inborn trait of the Tarquins and immediately regretted their election of immediately regretted their election of immediately regretted their election of Colatnus, despite the fact that he had Colatnus, despite the fact that he had Colatnus, despite the fact that he had helped lead the revolution and vocally helped lead the revolution and vocally helped lead the revolution and vocally denounced his cousins. When pressed denounced his cousins. When pressed denounced his cousins. When pressed though, Colatus agreed for the sake of though, Colatus agreed for the sake of though, Colatus agreed for the sake of the stability and viability of the New the stability and viability of the New the stability and viability of the New Republic to resign the consil ship, even Republic to resign the consil ship, even Republic to resign the consil ship, even though everyone agreed it was completely though everyone agreed it was completely though everyone agreed it was completely ridiculous to ask him to do so. In his ridiculous to ask him to do so. In his ridiculous to ask him to do so. In his place, another one of the ring leaders place, another one of the ring leaders place, another one of the ring leaders of the revolt was elected, Publius of the revolt was elected, Publius of the revolt was elected, Publius Valerius, who will in a moment earn the Valerius, who will in a moment earn the Valerius, who will in a moment earn the honorarium Publicoa or friend of the honorarium Publicoa or friend of the honorarium Publicoa or friend of the people for his service to Rome. Students people for his service to Rome. Students people for his service to Rome. Students of American history will immediately of American history will immediately of American history will immediately recognize Publius's name. The Federalist recognize Publius's name. The Federalist recognize Publius's name. The Federalist Papers written by James Madison, Papers written by James Madison, Papers written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John J in Alexander Hamilton, and John J in Alexander Hamilton, and John J in defense of the newly written defense of the newly written defense of the newly written constitution appeared in print under the constitution appeared in print under the constitution appeared in print under the pseudonym Publius in honor of this pseudonym Publius in honor of this pseudonym Publius in honor of this consil's role in securing Rome's new consil's role in securing Rome's new consil's role in securing Rome's new republic. Publius is often cited as republic. Publius is often cited as republic. Publius is often cited as being one of the original consils of being one of the original consils of being one of the original consils of Rome. But we should not forget Colatinus Rome. But we should not forget Colatinus Rome. But we should not forget Colatinus and his selfless resignation in the face

and his selfless resignation in the face and his selfless resignation in the face of baseless and superficial fears for of baseless and superficial fears for of baseless and superficial fears for the sake of his country's freedom. The the sake of his country's freedom. The the sake of his country's freedom. The first threat the new republic faced was first threat the new republic faced was first threat the new republic faced was the first threat all successful the first threat all successful the first threat all successful revolutions face, namely revolutions face, namely revolutions face, namely counterrevolution. There were more than counterrevolution. There were more than counterrevolution. There were more than a few Romans who had lived just fine a few Romans who had lived just fine a few Romans who had lived just fine under the kings and were in no mood to under the kings and were in no mood to under the kings and were in no mood to lose their privileged place in society. lose their privileged place in society. lose their privileged place in society. A collection of young nobles, including A collection of young nobles, including A collection of young nobles, including two sons of the consul Brutus, conspired two sons of the consul Brutus, conspired two sons of the consul Brutus, conspired with envoys of the exiled King Tarkin to with envoys of the exiled King Tarkin to with envoys of the exiled King Tarkin to betray the city to him and reinstate the betray the city to him and reinstate the betray the city to him and reinstate the monarchy. The plot was revealed by one monarchy. The plot was revealed by one monarchy. The plot was revealed by one of the noble slaves and the entire group of the noble slaves and the entire group of the noble slaves and the entire group was arrested. Brutus was shocked to see was arrested. Brutus was shocked to see was arrested. Brutus was shocked to see his own sons involved in the affair, but his own sons involved in the affair, but his own sons involved in the affair, but incontrovertible evidence was produced incontrovertible evidence was produced incontrovertible evidence was produced confirming their guilt. The penalty for confirming their guilt. The penalty for confirming their guilt. The penalty for treason was severe, and despite his treason was severe, and despite his treason was severe, and despite his tortured misgivings, Brutus would not tortured misgivings, Brutus would not tortured misgivings, Brutus would not stop the sentence from being carried stop the sentence from being carried stop the sentence from being carried out. The young conspirators were tied to out. The young conspirators were tied to out. The young conspirators were tied to a post, scourged, and then beheaded. a post, scourged, and then beheaded. a post, scourged, and then beheaded. Brutus's decision was long lauded by the Brutus's decision was long lauded by the Brutus's decision was long lauded by the Romans as a patriotic sacrifice, Romans as a patriotic sacrifice, Romans as a patriotic sacrifice, teaching a moral lesson about putting teaching a moral lesson about putting teaching a moral lesson about putting the welfare of the state before even the welfare of the state before even the welfare of the state before even one's own family. But the ruthlessness one's own family. But the ruthlessness one's own family. But the ruthlessness of the decision often makes it difficult of the decision often makes it difficult of the decision often makes it difficult for us to see the nobility of the act.

for us to see the nobility of the act. for us to see the nobility of the act. The second threat the new republic faced The second threat the new republic faced The second threat the new republic faced was the second threat all successful was the second threat all successful was the second threat all successful revolutions face, namely invasion by an revolutions face, namely invasion by an revolutions face, namely invasion by an opportunistic enemy trying to take opportunistic enemy trying to take opportunistic enemy trying to take advantage of a neopight central advantage of a neopight central advantage of a neopight central government. Tarkin had by this time government. Tarkin had by this time government. Tarkin had by this time taken refuge in VA and pleaded with the taken refuge in VA and pleaded with the taken refuge in VA and pleaded with the nobility there to aid him in nobility there to aid him in nobility there to aid him in reconquering Rome. He argued that the reconquering Rome. He argued that the reconquering Rome. He argued that the virus of republicanism might infect virus of republicanism might infect virus of republicanism might infect Truria and wipe out all the royal Truria and wipe out all the royal Truria and wipe out all the royal families in the region. The nobles of VA families in the region. The nobles of VA families in the region. The nobles of VA were indeed worried about their subjects were indeed worried about their subjects were indeed worried about their subjects catching the freedom bug and believing catching the freedom bug and believing catching the freedom bug and believing that Rome's leadership would be shaky that Rome's leadership would be shaky that Rome's leadership would be shaky and disjointed without a strong king in and disjointed without a strong king in and disjointed without a strong king in charge, agreed to aid Tarquin and charge, agreed to aid Tarquin and charge, agreed to aid Tarquin and attacked. However, to the surprise and attacked. However, to the surprise and attacked. However, to the surprise and consternation of Tarquin and the Vites, consternation of Tarquin and the Vites, consternation of Tarquin and the Vites, Brutus and Publus proved to be extremely Brutus and Publus proved to be extremely Brutus and Publus proved to be extremely capable commanders, routing the army capable commanders, routing the army capable commanders, routing the army from VA easily. The battle was not from VA easily. The battle was not from VA easily. The battle was not without tragedy for the Romans, though. without tragedy for the Romans, though. without tragedy for the Romans, though. In the middle of the fight, Brutus, In the middle of the fight, Brutus, In the middle of the fight, Brutus, liberator of Rome, was killed. His body liberator of Rome, was killed. His body liberator of Rome, was killed. His body was born back to the city, and Rome went was born back to the city, and Rome went was born back to the city, and Rome went into mourning for a full year. Publius into mourning for a full year. Publius into mourning for a full year. Publius now stood alone, and like Colatinus now stood alone, and like Colatinus now stood alone, and like Colatinus before him, soon fell under suspicion by before him, soon fell under suspicion by before him, soon fell under suspicion by the fickle and paranoid the fickle and paranoid the fickle and paranoid masses. After the battle with the V8, masses. After the battle with the V8, masses. After the battle with the V8, Publius began construction on a home at Publius began construction on a home at Publius began construction on a home at top the Valia, a ridge jutting from the top the Valia, a ridge jutting from the top the Valia, a ridge jutting from the north side of the Palatine Hill. The north side of the Palatine Hill. The north side of the Palatine Hill. The people suspected him of making a people suspected him of making a people suspected him of making a fortress from which he could safely fortress from which he could safely fortress from which he could safely enslave them all. Publius caught wind of enslave them all. Publius caught wind of enslave them all. Publius caught wind of the sentiment and called a mass meeting, the sentiment and called a mass meeting, the sentiment and called a mass meeting, shaming the populace for their shaming the populace for their shaming the populace for their irrational fears and announcing that if irrational fears and announcing that if irrational fears and announcing that if it worried them so much, he would move it worried them so much, he would move it worried them so much, he would move his home to the bottom of the hill where his home to the bottom of the hill where his home to the bottom of the hill where they could all keep watch on him. He

they could all keep watch on him. He they could all keep watch on him. He further used the opportunity provided by further used the opportunity provided by further used the opportunity provided by the meeting to propose two new laws the meeting to propose two new laws the meeting to propose two new laws which made him a hero to the now which made him a hero to the now which made him a hero to the now assuaged masses and earned him the assuaged masses and earned him the assuaged masses and earned him the aforementioned title Publacola. The two aforementioned title Publacola. The two aforementioned title Publacola. The two laws are famous even to this day. The laws are famous even to this day. The laws are famous even to this day. The first stated that any man who tried to first stated that any man who tried to first stated that any man who tried to make himself king could be killed at any make himself king could be killed at any make himself king could be killed at any time by any other man without fear of time by any other man without fear of time by any other man without fear of reprisal. And the second stated that any reprisal. And the second stated that any reprisal. And the second stated that any decision by the magistrates could be decision by the magistrates could be decision by the magistrates could be appealed to the people's appealed to the people's appealed to the people's assemblies. Publius content with the assemblies. Publius content with the assemblies. Publius content with the single credit he received for these single credit he received for these single credit he received for these democratic initiatives then called for democratic initiatives then called for democratic initiatives then called for an election to fill the open consilhip. an election to fill the open consilhip. an election to fill the open consilhip. Marcus Horatius Pvus was eventually Marcus Horatius Pvus was eventually Marcus Horatius Pvus was eventually elected after a short detour through a elected after a short detour through a elected after a short detour through a console who was elected but then died console who was elected but then died console who was elected but then died from old age a few days later. This from old age a few days later. This from old age a few days later. This closed the first year of the republic. closed the first year of the republic. closed the first year of the republic. Leadership settled, the people mllified Leadership settled, the people mllified Leadership settled, the people mllified and Rome and Rome and Rome secure. In the coming years, the tension secure. In the coming years, the tension secure. In the coming years, the tension between patrician and pleb would between patrician and pleb would between patrician and pleb would dominate public life in Rome. The dominate public life in Rome. The dominate public life in Rome. The patricians wary always of runaway mob patricians wary always of runaway mob patricians wary always of runaway mob rule and the plebs seeing no practical rule and the plebs seeing no practical rule and the plebs seeing no practical difference between the overthrown king difference between the overthrown king difference between the overthrown king and the newly empowered Senate. Next and the newly empowered Senate. Next and the newly empowered Senate. Next week, we will jump headlong into this week, we will jump headlong into this week, we will jump headlong into this so-called conflict of the orders and so-called conflict of the orders and so-called conflict of the orders and witness the plebes voting with their witness the plebes voting with their witness the plebes voting with their feet and demanding a real voice in the feet and demanding a real voice in the feet and demanding a real voice in the allegedly democratic republic they had allegedly democratic republic they had allegedly democratic republic they had all fought so hard to establish and all fought so hard to establish and all fought so hard to establish and keep.

[Music] [Music] Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Rome. Rome. Rome. Last week we discussed the transitional Last week we discussed the transitional Last week we discussed the transitional year of 509 BC when Rome went from being year of 509 BC when Rome went from being year of 509 BC when Rome went from being a typical Italian kingdom to an atypical a typical Italian kingdom to an atypical a typical Italian kingdom to an atypical Italian republic. Though the actual Italian republic. Though the actual Italian republic. Though the actual workings of the republic were not as workings of the republic were not as workings of the republic were not as democratic as they appeared on the democratic as they appeared on the democratic as they appeared on the surface, the fact remained that the surface, the fact remained that the surface, the fact remained that the monarchy had been abolished and annual monarchy had been abolished and annual monarchy had been abolished and annual elections now determine leadership. The elections now determine leadership. The elections now determine leadership. The first years after the change would prove first years after the change would prove first years after the change would prove difficult for the new government, for it difficult for the new government, for it difficult for the new government, for it face both internal dissension and face both internal dissension and face both internal dissension and external invasion. Those years would see external invasion. Those years would see external invasion. Those years would see the final defeat of the Tarwins, the the final defeat of the Tarwins, the the final defeat of the Tarwins, the resubduing of Latium, and finally the resubduing of Latium, and finally the resubduing of Latium, and finally the extension of political rights to the extension of political rights to the extension of political rights to the plebes with the creation of the office plebes with the creation of the office plebes with the creation of the office of Tribion, the plebeian answer to the of Tribion, the plebeian answer to the of Tribion, the plebeian answer to the patrician consil patrician consil patrician consil ship. After his Viet army was defeated, ship. After his Viet army was defeated, ship. After his Viet army was defeated, the ex- king Tarkin next took refuge in the ex- king Tarkin next took refuge in the ex- king Tarkin next took refuge in the Atrescan city of Clusium under the the Atrescan city of Clusium under the the Atrescan city of Clusium under the protection of its king Lars Porcenna. protection of its king Lars Porcenna. protection of its king Lars Porcenna. Tarwin begged Porsenna to attack the Tarwin begged Porsenna to attack the Tarwin begged Porsenna to attack the Romans, repeating his line about the Romans, repeating his line about the Romans, repeating his line about the threat democracy posed to royalty threat democracy posed to royalty threat democracy posed to royalty everywhere and the necessity of everywhere and the necessity of everywhere and the necessity of returning a king to the throne.

returning a king to the throne. returning a king to the throne. Porcenna, like the V8, no doubt took Porcenna, like the V8, no doubt took Porcenna, like the V8, no doubt took this argument under advisement, but when this argument under advisement, but when this argument under advisement, but when he agreed to make war with the Romans, he agreed to make war with the Romans, he agreed to make war with the Romans, he did so ultimately for his own he did so ultimately for his own he did so ultimately for his own reasons. There are two accounts of what reasons. There are two accounts of what reasons. There are two accounts of what happened next. Either Porcena invaded happened next. Either Porcena invaded happened next. Either Porcena invaded and was successfully repulsed, or he and was successfully repulsed, or he and was successfully repulsed, or he invaded and captured the city. The invaded and captured the city. The invaded and captured the city. The former is alleged by Roman folktales. former is alleged by Roman folktales. former is alleged by Roman folktales. The latter is supported by modern The latter is supported by modern The latter is supported by modern historical historical historical analysis. According to the legendary analysis. According to the legendary analysis. According to the legendary tradition, Porcenna in defense of his tradition, Porcenna in defense of his tradition, Porcenna in defense of his fellow Atruscan king Tarquin marched fellow Atruscan king Tarquin marched fellow Atruscan king Tarquin marched south and was met by the Roman forces at south and was met by the Roman forces at south and was met by the Roman forces at the Tyber. The Romans, seeing the size the Tyber. The Romans, seeing the size the Tyber. The Romans, seeing the size of the Atruscan army, fled back across of the Atruscan army, fled back across of the Atruscan army, fled back across the river, leaving the bridge and the river, leaving the bridge and the river, leaving the bridge and therefore the city unguarded. A single therefore the city unguarded. A single therefore the city unguarded. A single Roman soldier named Horatius, realizing Roman soldier named Horatius, realizing Roman soldier named Horatius, realizing he could not prevent the army's flight, he could not prevent the army's flight, he could not prevent the army's flight, ordered men to set fire to the bridge in ordered men to set fire to the bridge in ordered men to set fire to the bridge in order to prevent the Atruscans from order to prevent the Atruscans from order to prevent the Atruscans from crossing and sacking the city. To buy crossing and sacking the city. To buy crossing and sacking the city. To buy time, he stood alone on the far side of time, he stood alone on the far side of time, he stood alone on the far side of the bridge and challenged the whole of the bridge and challenged the whole of the bridge and challenged the whole of Porcenna's army to combat. While the Porcenna's army to combat. While the Porcenna's army to combat. While the dumbruck Atruscans tried to figure out dumbruck Atruscans tried to figure out dumbruck Atruscans tried to figure out what they should do with this crazy, what they should do with this crazy, what they should do with this crazy, brave, but clearly suicidal soldier, the brave, but clearly suicidal soldier, the brave, but clearly suicidal soldier, the other Romans set fire to the wooden other Romans set fire to the wooden other Romans set fire to the wooden bridge. The Atruscans were finally bridge. The Atruscans were finally bridge. The Atruscans were finally snapped out of their stuper when the snapped out of their stuper when the snapped out of their stuper when the burning bridge collapsed into the river burning bridge collapsed into the river burning bridge collapsed into the river and attacked. But Horatius jumped in the and attacked. But Horatius jumped in the and attacked. But Horatius jumped in the river and swam unscathed to the other river and swam unscathed to the other river and swam unscathed to the other side, saving the city and enrolling side, saving the city and enrolling side, saving the city and enrolling himself in the pantheon of great Roman himself in the pantheon of great Roman himself in the pantheon of great Roman heroes. Porcenna was forced to initiate heroes. Porcenna was forced to initiate heroes. Porcenna was forced to initiate a siege which proved no more effective a siege which proved no more effective a siege which proved no more effective than his initial assault again due to

than his initial assault again due to than his initial assault again due to the bravery of a single Roman citizen. the bravery of a single Roman citizen. the bravery of a single Roman citizen. This time it was Mucius Scavola who This time it was Mucius Scavola who This time it was Mucius Scavola who proved his valor and secured ultimate proved his valor and secured ultimate proved his valor and secured ultimate victory for Rome. The city was suffering victory for Rome. The city was suffering victory for Rome. The city was suffering under Porsenna's siege and showed no under Porsenna's siege and showed no under Porsenna's siege and showed no signs of being able to fight it off. signs of being able to fight it off. signs of being able to fight it off. Mucius, taking matters into his own Mucius, taking matters into his own Mucius, taking matters into his own hand, crossed over to the Atruscan camp. hand, crossed over to the Atruscan camp. hand, crossed over to the Atruscan camp. He made his way to Porcenna's He made his way to Porcenna's He made his way to Porcenna's headquarters and waited for an headquarters and waited for an headquarters and waited for an opportunity to strike. When Porcenna's opportunity to strike. When Porcenna's opportunity to strike. When Porcenna's entourage emerged, Mucus attempted to entourage emerged, Mucus attempted to entourage emerged, Mucus attempted to assassinate the king, but unsure of who assassinate the king, but unsure of who assassinate the king, but unsure of who his target was, mistakenly attacked one his target was, mistakenly attacked one his target was, mistakenly attacked one of the king's secretaries. Mucius was of the king's secretaries. Mucius was of the king's secretaries. Mucius was seized and dragged before the shaken seized and dragged before the shaken seized and dragged before the shaken king. What happened next would be the king. What happened next would be the king. What happened next would be the stuff of Roman legend and a moral story stuff of Roman legend and a moral story stuff of Roman legend and a moral story to inspire generation upon generation of to inspire generation upon generation of to inspire generation upon generation of future citizens. Mucius told the king future citizens. Mucius told the king future citizens. Mucius told the king that the Romans had declared war not on that the Romans had declared war not on that the Romans had declared war not on the men of Clusium but upon Porcenna the men of Clusium but upon Porcenna the men of Clusium but upon Porcenna personally and that he was merely the personally and that he was merely the personally and that he was merely the first in a long line of assassins who first in a long line of assassins who first in a long line of assassins who would not stop until the king was dead. would not stop until the king was dead. would not stop until the king was dead. The king unnerved by this idea ordered The king unnerved by this idea ordered The king unnerved by this idea ordered Mucius burned alive and found himself Mucius burned alive and found himself Mucius burned alive and found himself only further unnerved by what Mucius did only further unnerved by what Mucius did only further unnerved by what Mucius did next. The Romans stuck his right hand next. The Romans stuck his right hand next. The Romans stuck his right hand into the fire and without flinching into the fire and without flinching into the fire and without flinching allowed it to burn. He declared that allowed it to burn. He declared that allowed it to burn. He declared that such was the regard Roman men held for such was the regard Roman men held for such was the regard Roman men held for their bodies and that the king should their bodies and that the king should their bodies and that the king should remember what lay in store for him.

remember what lay in store for him. remember what lay in store for him. Porsenna was, to say the least, Porsenna was, to say the least, Porsenna was, to say the least, impressed and very freaked out. He impressed and very freaked out. He impressed and very freaked out. He allowed Mucius to go free, commending allowed Mucius to go free, commending allowed Mucius to go free, commending the man for his bravery. And not wishing the man for his bravery. And not wishing the man for his bravery. And not wishing to live his life under a death sentence to live his life under a death sentence to live his life under a death sentence from a bunch of psychotic patriot from a bunch of psychotic patriot from a bunch of psychotic patriot assassins, he made peace with Rome and assassins, he made peace with Rome and assassins, he made peace with Rome and lifted the siege, never having taken the lifted the siege, never having taken the lifted the siege, never having taken the city. This was the official legend. city. This was the official legend. city. This was the official legend. Other non-Roman sources tell a Other non-Roman sources tell a Other non-Roman sources tell a different, more plausible story. In this different, more plausible story. In this different, more plausible story. In this version, Porsenna did indeed take Rome version, Porsenna did indeed take Rome version, Porsenna did indeed take Rome in the turbulent years after the in the turbulent years after the in the turbulent years after the founding of the republic and set up a founding of the republic and set up a founding of the republic and set up a puppet government. The outcome seems puppet government. The outcome seems puppet government. The outcome seems reasonable in that the Atruscans of reasonable in that the Atruscans of reasonable in that the Atruscans of Clusium would have been much stronger Clusium would have been much stronger Clusium would have been much stronger and far better equipped than the Romans and far better equipped than the Romans and far better equipped than the Romans were at this point, and resistance would were at this point, and resistance would were at this point, and resistance would have been futile at best. The reason have been futile at best. The reason have been futile at best. The reason Porcenna, who is a confirmed historical Porcenna, who is a confirmed historical Porcenna, who is a confirmed historical figure, invaded Rome is a further divide figure, invaded Rome is a further divide figure, invaded Rome is a further divide between fact and legend. The melodrama between fact and legend. The melodrama between fact and legend. The melodrama of Tarwin's plea for at truscan of Tarwin's plea for at truscan of Tarwin's plea for at truscan solidarity is pure fiction as is the solidarity is pure fiction as is the solidarity is pure fiction as is the decisiveness of individual Roman decisiveness of individual Roman decisiveness of individual Roman bravery. Population upheaval in Italy bravery. Population upheaval in Italy bravery. Population upheaval in Italy around 500 BC had resulted in an around 500 BC had resulted in an around 500 BC had resulted in an estrangement between Aturia and their estrangement between Aturia and their estrangement between Aturia and their Greek trading partners in the south.

Greek trading partners in the south. Greek trading partners in the south. Specifically, Atruscan trade routes were Specifically, Atruscan trade routes were Specifically, Atruscan trade routes were disrupted by the Vulians, a central disrupted by the Vulians, a central disrupted by the Vulians, a central Italian hill tribe who settled the Italian hill tribe who settled the Italian hill tribe who settled the plains between Aturia and Magna Gracia plains between Aturia and Magna Gracia plains between Aturia and Magna Gracia south of Rome. Porcenna's conquest of south of Rome. Porcenna's conquest of south of Rome. Porcenna's conquest of the Romans was just a step in the the Romans was just a step in the the Romans was just a step in the greater project of maintaining the greater project of maintaining the greater project of maintaining the safety of the southern trade roads from safety of the southern trade roads from safety of the southern trade roads from attack. Disabusing the notion that the attack. Disabusing the notion that the attack. Disabusing the notion that the war had been waged on Tarwin's behalf, war had been waged on Tarwin's behalf, war had been waged on Tarwin's behalf, Porsa left his son in charge of matters Porsa left his son in charge of matters Porsa left his son in charge of matters in Latium after defeating Rome. His son in Latium after defeating Rome. His son in Latium after defeating Rome. His son though was defeated by an army of allied though was defeated by an army of allied though was defeated by an army of allied Latins and driven back north, resecuring Latins and driven back north, resecuring Latins and driven back north, resecuring independence for Rome as an unintended independence for Rome as an unintended independence for Rome as an unintended byproduct. The Latin communities emerged byproduct. The Latin communities emerged byproduct. The Latin communities emerged strong from the encounter and Rome strong from the encounter and Rome strong from the encounter and Rome humbled, setting up a major humbled, setting up a major humbled, setting up a major confrontation for control of central confrontation for control of central confrontation for control of central Italy that would ultimately see Rome Italy that would ultimately see Rome Italy that would ultimately see Rome reemerged as the dominant force in reemerged as the dominant force in reemerged as the dominant force in Latium for another 150 Latium for another 150 Latium for another 150 years. The Latins had chafed under Roman years. The Latins had chafed under Roman years. The Latins had chafed under Roman rule during the reign of the Tarkins and rule during the reign of the Tarkins and rule during the reign of the Tarkins and took the opportunity presented by Rome's took the opportunity presented by Rome's took the opportunity presented by Rome's weakened position to attempt a redrawing weakened position to attempt a redrawing weakened position to attempt a redrawing of the political landscape. Disorganized of the political landscape. Disorganized of the political landscape. Disorganized by Porsenna's invasion and a lack of by Porsenna's invasion and a lack of by Porsenna's invasion and a lack of internal political unity, Rome seemed internal political unity, Rome seemed internal political unity, Rome seemed easy pickings for the emboldened Latins.

easy pickings for the emboldened Latins. easy pickings for the emboldened Latins. But they underestimated Rome's will, a But they underestimated Rome's will, a But they underestimated Rome's will, a common mistake made by enemies of the common mistake made by enemies of the common mistake made by enemies of the empire for years to come. An alliance of empire for years to come. An alliance of empire for years to come. An alliance of Latin communities broke from the Romans Latin communities broke from the Romans Latin communities broke from the Romans and forced the issue into an armed and forced the issue into an armed and forced the issue into an armed conflict, which they thought would see conflict, which they thought would see conflict, which they thought would see them master Rome, but instead it led them master Rome, but instead it led them master Rome, but instead it led them right back under the yoke. A them right back under the yoke. A them right back under the yoke. A decisive battle was fought near Lake decisive battle was fought near Lake decisive battle was fought near Lake Regillis, southeast of Rome. And though Regillis, southeast of Rome. And though Regillis, southeast of Rome. And though the details of the fight are the details of the fight are the details of the fight are unimportant, the battle of Lake Regillis unimportant, the battle of Lake Regillis unimportant, the battle of Lake Regillis is important for two reasons. First, as is important for two reasons. First, as is important for two reasons. First, as I mentioned, it ended Latin resistance I mentioned, it ended Latin resistance I mentioned, it ended Latin resistance to Rome for another 150 years until to Rome for another 150 years until to Rome for another 150 years until embroiled in a long war with the embroiled in a long war with the embroiled in a long war with the Samites, Rome was again seen as Samites, Rome was again seen as Samites, Rome was again seen as vulnerable enough to resist. Second, it vulnerable enough to resist. Second, it vulnerable enough to resist. Second, it marked the first time that a dictator marked the first time that a dictator marked the first time that a dictator led a Roman army in battle. led a Roman army in battle. led a Roman army in battle. The office of dictator was a curious The office of dictator was a curious The office of dictator was a curious instrument to find within the instrument to find within the instrument to find within the constitution of a republic. But the constitution of a republic. But the constitution of a republic. But the Romans felt that extraordinary Romans felt that extraordinary Romans felt that extraordinary emergencies called for extraordinary emergencies called for extraordinary emergencies called for extraordinary solutions and dictators were appointed solutions and dictators were appointed solutions and dictators were appointed periodically over the years when such periodically over the years when such periodically over the years when such emergencies emergencies emergencies arose. Basically, a dictator was arose. Basically, a dictator was arose. Basically, a dictator was appointed when all the red tape needed appointed when all the red tape needed appointed when all the red tape needed to be cut through and one single man to be cut through and one single man to be cut through and one single man needed to take decisive action now needed to take decisive action now needed to take decisive action now without complaint or appeal or without complaint or appeal or without complaint or appeal or challenge. According to law, a dictator challenge. According to law, a dictator challenge. According to law, a dictator could be appointed for one six-month could be appointed for one six-month could be appointed for one six-month term, at the end of which he would term, at the end of which he would term, at the end of which he would resign and power would revert back to resign and power would revert back to resign and power would revert back to the consoles. At the beginning of his the consoles. At the beginning of his the consoles. At the beginning of his term, the dictator appointed a vice term, the dictator appointed a vice term, the dictator appointed a vice dictator called his master of horse, who dictator called his master of horse, who dictator called his master of horse, who was accountable to no one but the was accountable to no one but the was accountable to no one but the dictator dictator dictator himself. The Romans were sufficiently himself. The Romans were sufficiently himself. The Romans were sufficiently distressed by the hostility of the

distressed by the hostility of the distressed by the hostility of the Latins that they used their Latins that they used their Latins that they used their extraordinary solution for the first extraordinary solution for the first extraordinary solution for the first time to lead an army against a foreign time to lead an army against a foreign time to lead an army against a foreign threat. And technically the first threat. And technically the first threat. And technically the first dictator ever appointed had been a man dictator ever appointed had been a man dictator ever appointed had been a man named Titus Lardius who had served named Titus Lardius who had served named Titus Lardius who had served briefly in that position two years briefly in that position two years briefly in that position two years before to quote internal riots but before to quote internal riots but before to quote internal riots but beyond trivia the event is hardly worth beyond trivia the event is hardly worth beyond trivia the event is hardly worth mentioning. The appointment of a Lewis mentioning. The appointment of a Lewis mentioning. The appointment of a Lewis Posumish however was a watershed moment. Posumish however was a watershed moment. Posumish however was a watershed moment. Lardius's appointment had been a ploy Lardius's appointment had been a ploy Lardius's appointment had been a ploy used by the patricians to put the fear used by the patricians to put the fear used by the patricians to put the fear of God back into the plebes which of of God back into the plebes which of of God back into the plebes which of course it did but there was never any course it did but there was never any course it did but there was never any question of actually instilling him with question of actually instilling him with question of actually instilling him with dictatorial powers for any period of dictatorial powers for any period of dictatorial powers for any period of time. Posumius, however, was given the time. Posumius, however, was given the time. Posumius, however, was given the keys to the city and told to do whatever keys to the city and told to do whatever keys to the city and told to do whatever was necessary to defeat the Latins, was necessary to defeat the Latins, was necessary to defeat the Latins, essentially that he was now a law unto essentially that he was now a law unto essentially that he was now a law unto himself. Posumius did indeed lead the himself. Posumius did indeed lead the himself. Posumius did indeed lead the army to victory over the Latins, and army to victory over the Latins, and army to victory over the Latins, and then, in a remarkable display of then, in a remarkable display of then, in a remarkable display of constitutional loyalty, stepped down constitutional loyalty, stepped down constitutional loyalty, stepped down from the heady heights of absolute from the heady heights of absolute from the heady heights of absolute dictatorship and restored the consils to dictatorship and restored the consils to dictatorship and restored the consils to their rightful positions. their rightful positions. their rightful positions. The remarkable giving up of power The remarkable giving up of power The remarkable giving up of power demonstrates both Posumius's personal demonstrates both Posumius's personal demonstrates both Posumius's personal honor and the extent to which Rome as a honor and the extent to which Rome as a honor and the extent to which Rome as a whole probably would have cried out for whole probably would have cried out for whole probably would have cried out for his murder if he had considered his murder if he had considered his murder if he had considered remaining in power. The monarchy really remaining in power. The monarchy really remaining in power. The monarchy really was dead. And though dictators would be was dead. And though dictators would be was dead. And though dictators would be appointed off and on for the next 450 appointed off and on for the next 450 appointed off and on for the next 450 years, it was not until Julius Caesar years, it was not until Julius Caesar years, it was not until Julius Caesar that a dictator did not ultimately that a dictator did not ultimately that a dictator did not ultimately resign of his own free resign of his own free resign of his own free will. The Latins reconquered and the will. The Latins reconquered and the will. The Latins reconquered and the dictatorship passed. Rome found itself dictatorship passed. Rome found itself dictatorship passed. Rome found itself at peace and as a general rule whenever at peace and as a general rule whenever at peace and as a general rule whenever Rome found itself at peace abroad it

Rome found itself at peace abroad it Rome found itself at peace abroad it immediately found itself divided at immediately found itself divided at immediately found itself divided at home. The question of plebeian rights home. The question of plebeian rights home. The question of plebeian rights never satisfactorily settled now reared never satisfactorily settled now reared never satisfactorily settled now reared its head once again. The plebs were not its head once again. The plebs were not its head once again. The plebs were not to be put off this time. No amount of to be put off this time. No amount of to be put off this time. No amount of patrician chicainery and backroom patrician chicainery and backroom patrician chicainery and backroom dealing would break their solidarity. dealing would break their solidarity. dealing would break their solidarity. Only rights guaranteed by law would Only rights guaranteed by law would Only rights guaranteed by law would satisfy them now. The plebs would satisfy them now. The plebs would satisfy them now. The plebs would ultimately win political concessions ultimately win political concessions ultimately win political concessions from the patricians. Though it took the from the patricians. Though it took the from the patricians. Though it took the first recorded strike in history to do first recorded strike in history to do first recorded strike in history to do so, trouble arose over the matter of so, trouble arose over the matter of so, trouble arose over the matter of debt bonding. In Roman law at the time, debt bonding. In Roman law at the time, debt bonding. In Roman law at the time, if a debtor could not pay his creditor, if a debtor could not pay his creditor, if a debtor could not pay his creditor, then he became a bonded servant to the then he became a bonded servant to the then he became a bonded servant to the creditor until the debt was repaid. The creditor until the debt was repaid. The creditor until the debt was repaid. The system of indentured servitude system of indentured servitude system of indentured servitude essentially made permanent slaves of the essentially made permanent slaves of the essentially made permanent slaves of the debtors because while servants to the debtors because while servants to the debtors because while servants to the creditors, they were unable to earn any creditors, they were unable to earn any creditors, they were unable to earn any money to pay off their debts. Many of money to pay off their debts. Many of money to pay off their debts. Many of the soldiers who fought in the recent the soldiers who fought in the recent the soldiers who fought in the recent war against the Latins found themselves war against the Latins found themselves war against the Latins found themselves bonded in this way. The practice in this bonded in this way. The practice in this bonded in this way. The practice in this case was especially egregious because case was especially egregious because case was especially egregious because the debts were incurred while the men the debts were incurred while the men the debts were incurred while the men were off fighting in patriotic defense were off fighting in patriotic defense were off fighting in patriotic defense of the city. The plebs agitated for debt of the city. The plebs agitated for debt of the city. The plebs agitated for debt relief but were rebuffed by the relief but were rebuffed by the relief but were rebuffed by the patricians whose attitude was basically patricians whose attitude was basically patricians whose attitude was basically you take on the debt, you pay the price.

you take on the debt, you pay the price. you take on the debt, you pay the price. Offended by this high-handed treatment, Offended by this high-handed treatment, Offended by this high-handed treatment, the plebs were on the verge of the plebs were on the verge of the plebs were on the verge of full-blown revolt when the city suddenly full-blown revolt when the city suddenly full-blown revolt when the city suddenly found itself under attack from all found itself under attack from all found itself under attack from all sides. The Sabines, Vulian, and aquans sides. The Sabines, Vulian, and aquans sides. The Sabines, Vulian, and aquans all began making foray into Roman all began making foray into Roman all began making foray into Roman territory, and the Senate called for territory, and the Senate called for territory, and the Senate called for armies to be raised. The pleb sense an armies to be raised. The pleb sense an armies to be raised. The pleb sense an opportunity, and when the consoles began opportunity, and when the consoles began opportunity, and when the consoles began calling names for enlistment, not one of calling names for enlistment, not one of calling names for enlistment, not one of them made a move. The Senate was them made a move. The Senate was them made a move. The Senate was basically beside itself with this mass basically beside itself with this mass basically beside itself with this mass act of treason and immediately appointed act of treason and immediately appointed act of treason and immediately appointed a dictator to smash the resistance. But a dictator to smash the resistance. But a dictator to smash the resistance. But in an amazing display of moderation and in an amazing display of moderation and in an amazing display of moderation and wisdom, they appointed the brother of wisdom, they appointed the brother of wisdom, they appointed the brother of Publius Publakoa, Manly Valerius, whom Publius Publakoa, Manly Valerius, whom Publius Publakoa, Manly Valerius, whom the plebes loved, to the office. the plebes loved, to the office. the plebes loved, to the office. Valerius begged the plebes to do their Valerius begged the plebes to do their Valerius begged the plebes to do their duty and enlist, promising that once duty and enlist, promising that once duty and enlist, promising that once hostilities were concluded, the issue of hostilities were concluded, the issue of hostilities were concluded, the issue of debt relief would be addressed straight debt relief would be addressed straight debt relief would be addressed straight away. Swayed by Valarius, they relented away. Swayed by Valarius, they relented away. Swayed by Valarius, they relented and legions were formed. In due course, and legions were formed. In due course, and legions were formed. In due course, all three foreign threats were put down all three foreign threats were put down all three foreign threats were put down and the legions returned to Rome. Back and the legions returned to Rome. Back and the legions returned to Rome. Back in the city, however, Valyius was unable in the city, however, Valyius was unable in the city, however, Valyius was unable to fulfill his promise. The Petrician to fulfill his promise. The Petrician to fulfill his promise. The Petrician senators blocked his attempts at debt senators blocked his attempts at debt senators blocked his attempts at debt relief and Valerius resigned his office, relief and Valerius resigned his office, relief and Valerius resigned his office, laying at the Senate's feet all domestic laying at the Senate's feet all domestic laying at the Senate's feet all domestic turmoil that would ensue as a result of turmoil that would ensue as a result of turmoil that would ensue as a result of their decision. The disbanded their decision. The disbanded their decision. The disbanded legionnaires were outraged at the legionnaires were outraged at the legionnaires were outraged at the betrayal and took an extraordinary step betrayal and took an extraordinary step betrayal and took an extraordinary step that would become known to history as that would become known to history as that would become known to history as the secession of the plebes. The the secession of the plebes. The the secession of the plebes. The soldiers marched and mass to the sacred soldiers marched and mass to the sacred soldiers marched and mass to the sacred mount, a hill 3 mi from Rome, and set up mount, a hill 3 mi from Rome, and set up mount, a hill 3 mi from Rome, and set up a fortified camp, refusing to return to a fortified camp, refusing to return to a fortified camp, refusing to return to the city until their demands were met.

the city until their demands were met. the city until their demands were met. The population of the city flew into a The population of the city flew into a The population of the city flew into a panic. The remaining plebes feared panic. The remaining plebes feared panic. The remaining plebes feared retaliatory violence from the retaliatory violence from the retaliatory violence from the Petricians, and conversely, the Petricians, and conversely, the Petricians, and conversely, the patricians feared runaway mob violence patricians feared runaway mob violence patricians feared runaway mob violence without the army around to maintain without the army around to maintain without the army around to maintain order. And what they both feared the order. And what they both feared the order. And what they both feared the most was external invasion. If word got most was external invasion. If word got most was external invasion. If word got out that Rome's army had abandoned her, out that Rome's army had abandoned her, out that Rome's army had abandoned her, every two bit tribe in the neighborhood every two bit tribe in the neighborhood every two bit tribe in the neighborhood would come knocking on the city gates would come knocking on the city gates would come knocking on the city gates and Rome would be at their and Rome would be at their and Rome would be at their mercy. So the Senate relented and sent mercy. So the Senate relented and sent mercy. So the Senate relented and sent an envoy to the plebe camp to broker a an envoy to the plebe camp to broker a an envoy to the plebe camp to broker a deal. The settlement did not address the deal. The settlement did not address the deal. The settlement did not address the debt question directly. Rather, a new debt question directly. Rather, a new debt question directly. Rather, a new office was created to shield the plebs office was created to shield the plebs office was created to shield the plebs from future patrician tyranny, the from future patrician tyranny, the from future patrician tyranny, the tribunate. tribunate. tribunate. The dangerous precedent set by the The dangerous precedent set by the The dangerous precedent set by the strike was pointed out to the plebs by strike was pointed out to the plebs by strike was pointed out to the plebs by the patrician envoy who compared the the patrician envoy who compared the the patrician envoy who compared the republic to a body. It is true, he told republic to a body. It is true, he told republic to a body. It is true, he told them, the hands and feet and mouth could them, the hands and feet and mouth could them, the hands and feet and mouth could join forces and stop working for the join forces and stop working for the join forces and stop working for the lazy stomach who sat there greedily lazy stomach who sat there greedily lazy stomach who sat there greedily receiving all the food the other parts receiving all the food the other parts receiving all the food the other parts worked for. But if they were to do so, worked for. But if they were to do so, worked for. But if they were to do so, the entire body would soon die of the entire body would soon die of the entire body would soon die of starvation, for the stomach pumped starvation, for the stomach pumped starvation, for the stomach pumped energy back out into the limbs. The energy back out into the limbs. The energy back out into the limbs. The plebes would be granted more rights to plebes would be granted more rights to plebes would be granted more rights to end the secession, the envoy said, but end the secession, the envoy said, but end the secession, the envoy said, but they must not think in the future that they must not think in the future that they must not think in the future that starving the stomach was in their starving the stomach was in their starving the stomach was in their enlightened best interest. The plebs enlightened best interest. The plebs enlightened best interest. The plebs took some note of this, but were so took some note of this, but were so took some note of this, but were so absorbed with their success that it is absorbed with their success that it is absorbed with their success that it is doubtful the lesson fully sank in. The doubtful the lesson fully sank in. The doubtful the lesson fully sank in. The role of tribune was defensive in nature.

role of tribune was defensive in nature. role of tribune was defensive in nature. Two plebeian men would be elected each Two plebeian men would be elected each Two plebeian men would be elected each year to act as a counterweight to the year to act as a counterweight to the year to act as a counterweight to the consoles. Initially the power of the consoles. Initially the power of the consoles. Initially the power of the tribunes was modestly held to the right tribunes was modestly held to the right tribunes was modestly held to the right to free any man from patrician to free any man from patrician to free any man from patrician imprisonment though in the future they imprisonment though in the future they imprisonment though in the future they would gain the right to veto literally I would gain the right to veto literally I would gain the right to veto literally I forbid any law passed by the consils or forbid any law passed by the consils or forbid any law passed by the consils or the senate at a word. The tribunes were the senate at a word. The tribunes were the senate at a word. The tribunes were also granted sro sanctity or the right also granted sro sanctity or the right also granted sro sanctity or the right to be free from harm. The plebes took a to be free from harm. The plebes took a to be free from harm. The plebes took a solemn oath to kill any man who solemn oath to kill any man who solemn oath to kill any man who attempted to assault a tribune and more attempted to assault a tribune and more attempted to assault a tribune and more than once that oath was fulfilled. The than once that oath was fulfilled. The than once that oath was fulfilled. The tribunate would become a flash point for tribunate would become a flash point for tribunate would become a flash point for Roman politics for the remainder of the Roman politics for the remainder of the Roman politics for the remainder of the republic. The eventual power to veto led republic. The eventual power to veto led republic. The eventual power to veto led to a number of showdowns with the to a number of showdowns with the to a number of showdowns with the patricians. Both sides bloodying patricians. Both sides bloodying patricians. Both sides bloodying themselves in their attempts to control themselves in their attempts to control themselves in their attempts to control state policy. The power of the office state policy. The power of the office state policy. The power of the office would peak with the Graey brothers would peak with the Graey brothers would peak with the Graey brothers around 125 BC and fall into obsolescence around 125 BC and fall into obsolescence around 125 BC and fall into obsolescence with the ascension of the Caesars. But with the ascension of the Caesars. But with the ascension of the Caesars. But for the bulk of the Republican period, for the bulk of the Republican period, for the bulk of the Republican period, it was an important and powerful office. it was an important and powerful office. it was an important and powerful office. The tribunes would be elected by a new The tribunes would be elected by a new The tribunes would be elected by a new assembly called the comeda tribuda which assembly called the comeda tribuda which assembly called the comeda tribuda which would be made up of the now 35 tribes of would be made up of the now 35 tribes of would be made up of the now 35 tribes of Rome. Suffrage in the assembly was not Rome. Suffrage in the assembly was not Rome. Suffrage in the assembly was not based on a property assessment as it was based on a property assessment as it was based on a property assessment as it was with the centuriata. And so the comma with the centuriata. And so the comma with the centuriata. And so the comma tributa was as democratic a form as Rome tributa was as democratic a form as Rome tributa was as democratic a form as Rome would ever would ever would ever see. The secession of the plebes see. The secession of the plebes see. The secession of the plebes occurred in 494 BC about 15 years after occurred in 494 BC about 15 years after occurred in 494 BC about 15 years after the birth of the republic. Though the birth of the republic. Though the birth of the republic. Though domestic combustion and foreign invasion domestic combustion and foreign invasion domestic combustion and foreign invasion were constant threats, the Republic had

were constant threats, the Republic had were constant threats, the Republic had passed through its infancy and emerged passed through its infancy and emerged passed through its infancy and emerged as an adolescent power ready for fresh as an adolescent power ready for fresh as an adolescent power ready for fresh challenges. Any threat posed by the ex- challenges. Any threat posed by the ex- challenges. Any threat posed by the ex- king Tarkin was gone and monarchy was king Tarkin was gone and monarchy was king Tarkin was gone and monarchy was now firmly in the rearview mirror. The now firmly in the rearview mirror. The now firmly in the rearview mirror. The attempted revolt by the Latin attempted revolt by the Latin attempted revolt by the Latin communities had been suppressed by a communities had been suppressed by a communities had been suppressed by a republican army and Rome managed to republican army and Rome managed to republican army and Rome managed to maintain control of Latium just as it maintain control of Latium just as it maintain control of Latium just as it had while a monarchy. The patricians and had while a monarchy. The patricians and had while a monarchy. The patricians and plebes were settled in an alliance, plebes were settled in an alliance, plebes were settled in an alliance, uneasy though it may have been, and the uneasy though it may have been, and the uneasy though it may have been, and the population was more or less at peace population was more or less at peace population was more or less at peace with itself. Next week, we will cover with itself. Next week, we will cover with itself. Next week, we will cover the creation of the final piece of the the creation of the final piece of the the creation of the final piece of the republican puzzle, the law of the 12 republican puzzle, the law of the 12 republican puzzle, the law of the 12 tables, as well as discuss the rising tables, as well as discuss the rising tables, as well as discuss the rising threat posed by the Vulians, which threat posed by the Vulians, which threat posed by the Vulians, which caused the Romans to make their first caused the Romans to make their first caused the Romans to make their first concerted foray into the Eastern Hills, concerted foray into the Eastern Hills, concerted foray into the Eastern Hills, where they would fight the wars that where they would fight the wars that where they would fight the wars that would ultimately win them control of all would ultimately win them control of all would ultimately win them control of all Italy. [Music] [Music] Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Rome.

Rome. Rome. We ended last week with the plebs We ended last week with the plebs We ended last week with the plebs finally being granted nominal political finally being granted nominal political finally being granted nominal political rights or at least defenders within the rights or at least defenders within the rights or at least defenders within the political arena with the creation of the political arena with the creation of the political arena with the creation of the office of tribune. This stopped plebeian office of tribune. This stopped plebeian office of tribune. This stopped plebeian agitation for a while but as the years agitation for a while but as the years agitation for a while but as the years passed a new generation came of age and passed a new generation came of age and passed a new generation came of age and demanded further protection from the demanded further protection from the demanded further protection from the everpresent threat of patrician tyranny. everpresent threat of patrician tyranny. everpresent threat of patrician tyranny. It was not enough to be protected from It was not enough to be protected from It was not enough to be protected from an abuse of the law because at the time an abuse of the law because at the time an abuse of the law because at the time nobody knew exactly what the law was. nobody knew exactly what the law was. nobody knew exactly what the law was. The legal framework of Rome was a The legal framework of Rome was a The legal framework of Rome was a nebulous body of oral and written nebulous body of oral and written nebulous body of oral and written traditions with precedents and sub traditions with precedents and sub traditions with precedents and sub clauses hiding all over the place in clauses hiding all over the place in clauses hiding all over the place in official decrees, letters, official decrees, letters, official decrees, letters, pronouncements, and most dangerously in pronouncements, and most dangerously in pronouncements, and most dangerously in the minds of old patrician lawyers. Who the minds of old patrician lawyers. Who the minds of old patrician lawyers. Who was to say a man was being treated was to say a man was being treated was to say a man was being treated unjustly if no one knew exactly what unjustly if no one knew exactly what unjustly if no one knew exactly what justice was? This new generation of justice was? This new generation of justice was? This new generation of plebeian agitators would ultimately win plebeian agitators would ultimately win plebeian agitators would ultimately win a great victory for themselves and the a great victory for themselves and the a great victory for themselves and the rule of law, giving the Romans a set of rule of law, giving the Romans a set of rule of law, giving the Romans a set of written precepts that would be memorized written precepts that would be memorized written precepts that would be memorized by every child and recited by every by every child and recited by every by every child and recited by every adult. The 12 tables of Roman adult. The 12 tables of Roman adult. The 12 tables of Roman law. This official codification of the law. This official codification of the law. This official codification of the law occurred around 451 BC. But before law occurred around 451 BC. But before law occurred around 451 BC. But before we get to that point in our story, I we get to that point in our story, I we get to that point in our story, I want to give a brief account of what want to give a brief account of what want to give a brief account of what Rome dealt with in the 40 odd years Rome dealt with in the 40 odd years Rome dealt with in the 40 odd years between the inception of the tribunate between the inception of the tribunate between the inception of the tribunate and the creation of the 12 tables.

and the creation of the 12 tables. and the creation of the 12 tables. Internally, Rome was full of tension, Internally, Rome was full of tension, Internally, Rome was full of tension, but as I said, for the first 20 years or but as I said, for the first 20 years or but as I said, for the first 20 years or so, nothing boiled over too much to so, nothing boiled over too much to so, nothing boiled over too much to disrupt the day-to-day year-to-year disrupt the day-to-day year-to-year disrupt the day-to-day year-to-year operations of the city. The consils and operations of the city. The consils and operations of the city. The consils and senate still held the lion share of the senate still held the lion share of the senate still held the lion share of the power, though they were now checked power, though they were now checked power, though they were now checked somewhat by the tribunes. The Romans somewhat by the tribunes. The Romans somewhat by the tribunes. The Romans were held together by an unceasing were held together by an unceasing were held together by an unceasing series of wars against their neighbors series of wars against their neighbors series of wars against their neighbors to the north, east, and south. To the to the north, east, and south. To the to the north, east, and south. To the north, they fought a particularly hard north, they fought a particularly hard north, they fought a particularly hard campaign against their old nemesis, the campaign against their old nemesis, the campaign against their old nemesis, the Veites that ended in a stalemate in 474 Veites that ended in a stalemate in 474 Veites that ended in a stalemate in 474 BC. A campaign that came complete with a BC. A campaign that came complete with a BC. A campaign that came complete with a dressed up battle of Thermopoly with 306 dressed up battle of Thermopoly with 306 dressed up battle of Thermopoly with 306 members of the noble Fabi family cast in members of the noble Fabi family cast in members of the noble Fabi family cast in the role of King Leonitis and his doomed the role of King Leonitis and his doomed the role of King Leonitis and his doomed Spartans. Protecting an undefensible Spartans. Protecting an undefensible Spartans. Protecting an undefensible pass, the Fabi clan fought to the last pass, the Fabi clan fought to the last pass, the Fabi clan fought to the last man to give the legions a chance to man to give the legions a chance to man to give the legions a chance to regroup. The battles fought to the east regroup. The battles fought to the east regroup. The battles fought to the east and south were of a different sort and and south were of a different sort and and south were of a different sort and revolved around a geographically based revolved around a geographically based revolved around a geographically based cultural clash. VA may have been in cultural clash. VA may have been in cultural clash. VA may have been in competition with Rome, but at least it competition with Rome, but at least it competition with Rome, but at least it was a settled city of civilized farmers.

was a settled city of civilized farmers. was a settled city of civilized farmers. Out in the eastern hills, however, Out in the eastern hills, however, Out in the eastern hills, however, nomadic tribes, particularly the Vulian nomadic tribes, particularly the Vulian nomadic tribes, particularly the Vulian and the Aquans, pressed at Rome's and the Aquans, pressed at Rome's and the Aquans, pressed at Rome's borders. The nomadic herdsmen coveted borders. The nomadic herdsmen coveted borders. The nomadic herdsmen coveted Rome soft flat land and tried every year Rome soft flat land and tried every year Rome soft flat land and tried every year to carve out some or all of Roman to carve out some or all of Roman to carve out some or all of Roman territory and turn it from parcled farms territory and turn it from parcled farms territory and turn it from parcled farms into a massive grazing zone. As a into a massive grazing zone. As a into a massive grazing zone. As a result, the Romans were constantly result, the Romans were constantly result, the Romans were constantly beating back encroachment by the migrant beating back encroachment by the migrant beating back encroachment by the migrant tribes who occasionally mustered enough tribes who occasionally mustered enough tribes who occasionally mustered enough force to give the Romans a run for their force to give the Romans a run for their force to give the Romans a run for their money but were usually dispatched money but were usually dispatched money but were usually dispatched easily. For the first 10 years after the easily. For the first 10 years after the easily. For the first 10 years after the secession of the plebes and running secession of the plebes and running secession of the plebes and running concurrently with the on-again off-again concurrently with the on-again off-again concurrently with the on-again off-again battles with VA, the Vulian posed the battles with VA, the Vulian posed the battles with VA, the Vulian posed the greatest danger. They had already made greatest danger. They had already made greatest danger. They had already made great inroads south of the city, great inroads south of the city, great inroads south of the city, effectively securing all the land effectively securing all the land effectively securing all the land between the hills and the sea, blocking between the hills and the sea, blocking between the hills and the sea, blocking trade with Magnia. The peak of the trade with Magnia. The peak of the trade with Magnia. The peak of the Vulian threat came early in 491 BC when Vulian threat came early in 491 BC when Vulian threat came early in 491 BC when a disgruntled Roman general named a disgruntled Roman general named a disgruntled Roman general named Coralianis defected and led a Vulan army Coralianis defected and led a Vulan army Coralianis defected and led a Vulan army through the legions and right to the through the legions and right to the through the legions and right to the gates of the city. The Roman men beaten, gates of the city. The Roman men beaten, gates of the city. The Roman men beaten, the women were sent to plead with the women were sent to plead with the women were sent to plead with Corolianis to end his attack. And it was Corolianis to end his attack. And it was Corolianis to end his attack. And it was only after a personal appeal from his only after a personal appeal from his only after a personal appeal from his own mother that Coralis' heart finally own mother that Coralis' heart finally own mother that Coralis' heart finally turned and he withdrew the army. His turned and he withdrew the army. His turned and he withdrew the army. His Vulchian officers were appalled at being Vulchian officers were appalled at being Vulchian officers were appalled at being denied their easy victory and back in denied their easy victory and back in denied their easy victory and back in Vulan territory, they murdered their Vulan territory, they murdered their Vulan territory, they murdered their Roman leader. It has been noted that the Roman leader. It has been noted that the Roman leader. It has been noted that the story of Coralianis bears a striking story of Coralianis bears a striking story of Coralianis bears a striking resemblance to the story of the great resemblance to the story of the great resemblance to the story of the great Athenian general Theisticles and that Athenian general Theisticles and that Athenian general Theisticles and that the story was probably inserted later to the story was probably inserted later to the story was probably inserted later to account for the defeat suffered by Rome account for the defeat suffered by Rome account for the defeat suffered by Rome at the hands of nomadic rabble. The at the hands of nomadic rabble. The at the hands of nomadic rabble. The Roman ego demanded that Romans could

Roman ego demanded that Romans could Roman ego demanded that Romans could only be defeated by other Romans. By the only be defeated by other Romans. By the only be defeated by other Romans. By the mid-480s BC though, the Vulian threat mid-480s BC though, the Vulian threat mid-480s BC though, the Vulian threat had largely been contained and the city had largely been contained and the city had largely been contained and the city was never seriously threatened again. was never seriously threatened again. was never seriously threatened again. Though the Vulian maintained control Though the Vulian maintained control Though the Vulian maintained control over the southern plains for the over the southern plains for the over the southern plains for the remainder of the century and were a remainder of the century and were a remainder of the century and were a constant menace along Rome's borders constant menace along Rome's borders constant menace along Rome's borders throughout the 470s and 460s BC. Even throughout the 470s and 460s BC. Even throughout the 470s and 460s BC. Even though the external danger had been though the external danger had been though the external danger had been greatly diminished, the legions still greatly diminished, the legions still greatly diminished, the legions still went out every summer campaigning went out every summer campaigning went out every summer campaigning against the latest foray by the Vulian against the latest foray by the Vulian against the latest foray by the Vulian or Aquan raiders. The total military or Aquan raiders. The total military or Aquan raiders. The total military dominance of Rome over the hill tribes dominance of Rome over the hill tribes dominance of Rome over the hill tribes eventually led the plebe leaders to eventually led the plebe leaders to eventually led the plebe leaders to suspect that the patricians were not suspect that the patricians were not suspect that the patricians were not being totally honest with the threat being totally honest with the threat being totally honest with the threat level posed by the tribes. And with the level posed by the tribes. And with the level posed by the tribes. And with the record the Roman army had, it's hard to record the Roman army had, it's hard to record the Roman army had, it's hard to blame them. Without even breaking a blame them. Without even breaking a blame them. Without even breaking a sweat, the legions dispatched every sweat, the legions dispatched every sweat, the legions dispatched every enemy they encountered. A political enemy they encountered. A political enemy they encountered. A political pattern began to emerge. Plebbe leaders pattern began to emerge. Plebbe leaders pattern began to emerge. Plebbe leaders would decry the raising of yet another would decry the raising of yet another would decry the raising of yet another army to go to battle with the Vulian or army to go to battle with the Vulian or army to go to battle with the Vulian or whoever, even though they posed no whoever, even though they posed no whoever, even though they posed no serious threat, and would denounce the serious threat, and would denounce the serious threat, and would denounce the Senate for starting wars to put off Senate for starting wars to put off Senate for starting wars to put off questions of further economic and questions of further economic and questions of further economic and political reform. These leaders would political reform. These leaders would political reform. These leaders would always in turn be denounced by the always in turn be denounced by the always in turn be denounced by the Senate as self-absorbed traitors who Senate as self-absorbed traitors who Senate as self-absorbed traitors who were putting personal ambition ahead of were putting personal ambition ahead of were putting personal ambition ahead of Rome's safety. The plebe leaders would Rome's safety. The plebe leaders would Rome's safety. The plebe leaders would shoot back that the patricians were shoot back that the patricians were shoot back that the patricians were sending men out to die for no other sending men out to die for no other sending men out to die for no other reason than to tighten their grip on reason than to tighten their grip on reason than to tighten their grip on wealth and power. A standoff would wealth and power. A standoff would wealth and power. A standoff would ensue, but Rome being what it was would ensue, but Rome being what it was would ensue, but Rome being what it was would ultimately raise the legion and the ultimately raise the legion and the ultimately raise the legion and the plebeian demagogues would be silenced.

plebeian demagogues would be silenced. plebeian demagogues would be silenced. The Romans were soldiers and fighting is The Romans were soldiers and fighting is The Romans were soldiers and fighting is what they did. Throughout these years, what they did. Throughout these years, what they did. Throughout these years, Rome's position visav the nomadic Rome's position visav the nomadic Rome's position visav the nomadic herdsman was never seriously threatened. herdsman was never seriously threatened. herdsman was never seriously threatened. Though in the following century, Rome Though in the following century, Rome Though in the following century, Rome would fight a knockdown dragout war with would fight a knockdown dragout war with would fight a knockdown dragout war with a rising hill tribe called the Samites a rising hill tribe called the Samites a rising hill tribe called the Samites that would ultimately see all Italy that would ultimately see all Italy that would ultimately see all Italy eventually fighting on one side or the eventually fighting on one side or the eventually fighting on one side or the other. In the years after the secession other. In the years after the secession other. In the years after the secession of the plebes, there were essentially of the plebes, there were essentially of the plebes, there were essentially two major initiatives that excited the two major initiatives that excited the two major initiatives that excited the plebes and kept the patricians up at plebes and kept the patricians up at plebes and kept the patricians up at night. The first was proposed by a night. The first was proposed by a night. The first was proposed by a tribune named Valero in 473 BC. It tribune named Valero in 473 BC. It tribune named Valero in 473 BC. It stated simply that the tribunes ought to stated simply that the tribunes ought to stated simply that the tribunes ought to be elected by the tribal assembly and be elected by the tribal assembly and be elected by the tribal assembly and not by the communist centuriata as they not by the communist centuriata as they not by the communist centuriata as they had been in the first years after the had been in the first years after the had been in the first years after the office was created. The patricians office was created. The patricians office was created. The patricians balked at the idea knowing full well balked at the idea knowing full well balked at the idea knowing full well that they would no longer have undue that they would no longer have undue that they would no longer have undue weight in choosing who would be tribune. weight in choosing who would be tribune. weight in choosing who would be tribune. As I noted last week, the patricians As I noted last week, the patricians As I noted last week, the patricians inevitably failed in their attempt to inevitably failed in their attempt to inevitably failed in their attempt to quash the proposal. An election of the quash the proposal. An election of the quash the proposal. An election of the tribunes was duly passed to the comma tribunes was duly passed to the comma tribunes was duly passed to the comma tribuda. As if this wasn't bad enough, tribuda. As if this wasn't bad enough, tribuda. As if this wasn't bad enough, in 462 BC, a tribune named Tarantillis in 462 BC, a tribune named Tarantillis in 462 BC, a tribune named Tarantillis made an even more radical proposal. The made an even more radical proposal. The made an even more radical proposal. The laws of Rome should be written down and laws of Rome should be written down and laws of Rome should be written down and posted so that all citizens would be posted so that all citizens would be posted so that all citizens would be bound to the same codes and no man could bound to the same codes and no man could bound to the same codes and no man could rise above them. The Petricians were rise above them. The Petricians were rise above them. The Petricians were horrified at the thought and spent the horrified at the thought and spent the horrified at the thought and spent the next 10 years doing everything in their next 10 years doing everything in their next 10 years doing everything in their power to stop its implementation. It was power to stop its implementation. It was power to stop its implementation. It was during these years that the plebs really during these years that the plebs really during these years that the plebs really started to resist military service and started to resist military service and started to resist military service and openly question motives. At one point, openly question motives. At one point, openly question motives. At one point, however, caught up in their own

however, caught up in their own however, caught up in their own rhetoric, they failed to believe it when rhetoric, they failed to believe it when rhetoric, they failed to believe it when the Senate woke up one morning and the Senate woke up one morning and the Senate woke up one morning and announced that during the night, a small announced that during the night, a small announced that during the night, a small seabine army had penetrated the city and seabine army had penetrated the city and seabine army had penetrated the city and had taken the citadel. It was only after had taken the citadel. It was only after had taken the citadel. It was only after a desperate plea by the consils that the a desperate plea by the consils that the a desperate plea by the consils that the plebes finally agreed to raise an army. plebes finally agreed to raise an army. plebes finally agreed to raise an army. Finding much to their surprise that the Finding much to their surprise that the Finding much to their surprise that the citadel had in fact been taken and their citadel had in fact been taken and their citadel had in fact been taken and their city was under siege. The legions along city was under siege. The legions along city was under siege. The legions along with a contingent of local allies easily with a contingent of local allies easily with a contingent of local allies easily dislodged the Sabbines and the greatest dislodged the Sabbines and the greatest dislodged the Sabbines and the greatest casualty of the whole encounter was what casualty of the whole encounter was what casualty of the whole encounter was what little influence the tribunes had so little influence the tribunes had so little influence the tribunes had so recently achieved. The patricians as a recently achieved. The patricians as a recently achieved. The patricians as a result managed to put off Tarantillis' result managed to put off Tarantillis' result managed to put off Tarantillis' proposal for another 10 years. In the proposal for another 10 years. In the proposal for another 10 years. In the end though they were forced to relent. end though they were forced to relent. end though they were forced to relent. Political consciousness had been raised Political consciousness had been raised Political consciousness had been raised in the city by travelers from the south in the city by travelers from the south in the city by travelers from the south who brought with them word of Solent's who brought with them word of Solent's who brought with them word of Solent's political reforms in the great Greek political reforms in the great Greek political reforms in the great Greek city of Athens, causing proponents of city of Athens, causing proponents of city of Athens, causing proponents of reform to beat a steady drum. Finally, a reform to beat a steady drum. Finally, a reform to beat a steady drum. Finally, a combination of plague, famine, and the combination of plague, famine, and the combination of plague, famine, and the economically destabilizing introduction economically destabilizing introduction economically destabilizing introduction of coins as a medium of exchange in 454 of coins as a medium of exchange in 454 of coins as a medium of exchange in 454 BC led to a crisis of confidence in the BC led to a crisis of confidence in the BC led to a crisis of confidence in the leadership and something had to be done leadership and something had to be done leadership and something had to be done to assuage the masses. It was agreed in to assuage the masses. It was agreed in to assuage the masses. It was agreed in 451 BC that consularor power for the 451 BC that consularor power for the 451 BC that consularor power for the year would be transferred to a body of year would be transferred to a body of year would be transferred to a body of 10 men called the December whose main 10 men called the December whose main 10 men called the December whose main task it would be to collect and condense task it would be to collect and condense task it would be to collect and condense Roman law into a single uniform code to Roman law into a single uniform code to Roman law into a single uniform code to be published on bronze tablets in the be published on bronze tablets in the be published on bronze tablets in the forum for all to see. Unfortunately, the forum for all to see. Unfortunately, the forum for all to see. Unfortunately, the total contents of the 12 tables, each total contents of the 12 tables, each total contents of the 12 tables, each posted on a separate bronze tablet, posted on a separate bronze tablet, posted on a separate bronze tablet, hence the name, have been lost to

hence the name, have been lost to hence the name, have been lost to history, and all we have to rely on is history, and all we have to rely on is history, and all we have to rely on is occasional excerpts and summaries by occasional excerpts and summaries by occasional excerpts and summaries by later Roman authors. We know generally later Roman authors. We know generally later Roman authors. We know generally what topics each table covered, and the what topics each table covered, and the what topics each table covered, and the range in detail gives a fascinating range in detail gives a fascinating range in detail gives a fascinating insight into the Roman mind. Held within insight into the Roman mind. Held within insight into the Roman mind. Held within the tables written 2500 years ago, we the tables written 2500 years ago, we the tables written 2500 years ago, we find the basis for many of our own find the basis for many of our own find the basis for many of our own founding principles. For example, the founding principles. For example, the founding principles. For example, the ninth table explicitly forbids passage ninth table explicitly forbids passage ninth table explicitly forbids passage of laws against specific individuals, a of laws against specific individuals, a of laws against specific individuals, a principle still enforced today, while principle still enforced today, while principle still enforced today, while the first table establishes the sanctity the first table establishes the sanctity the first table establishes the sanctity of the subpoena or the requirement to of the subpoena or the requirement to of the subpoena or the requirement to appear before a court. The tables appear before a court. The tables appear before a court. The tables covered a wide range of matters from covered a wide range of matters from covered a wide range of matters from lawsuit procedures to payment of debts lawsuit procedures to payment of debts lawsuit procedures to payment of debts to inheritance rights to upkeep of to inheritance rights to upkeep of to inheritance rights to upkeep of public sewers to divorce and property public sewers to divorce and property public sewers to divorce and property boundary issues. I will not bore you boundary issues. I will not bore you boundary issues. I will not bore you with a lengthy recitation of the with a lengthy recitation of the with a lengthy recitation of the contents of each table, but I do want to contents of each table, but I do want to contents of each table, but I do want to highlight some of the more curious highlight some of the more curious highlight some of the more curious facets of the Roman legal mind. For facets of the Roman legal mind. For facets of the Roman legal mind. For example, according to the eighth table, example, according to the eighth table, example, according to the eighth table, a thief caught at night may be killed a thief caught at night may be killed a thief caught at night may be killed without penalty. But at the same thief without penalty. But at the same thief without penalty. But at the same thief is caught during the day. He must be is caught during the day. He must be is caught during the day. He must be delivered unharmed to the magistrates.

delivered unharmed to the magistrates. delivered unharmed to the magistrates. Contained within the same table, we Contained within the same table, we Contained within the same table, we discover what the penalty was for discover what the penalty was for discover what the penalty was for throwing an unamed weapon into a crowd. throwing an unamed weapon into a crowd. throwing an unamed weapon into a crowd. The accused was fined one ram. The The accused was fined one ram. The The accused was fined one ram. The seventh table states that fruit that seventh table states that fruit that seventh table states that fruit that falls from a tree onto a neighbor's falls from a tree onto a neighbor's falls from a tree onto a neighbor's property shall be the property of that property shall be the property of that property shall be the property of that neighbor. A provision which demonstrates neighbor. A provision which demonstrates neighbor. A provision which demonstrates just how scrupulously latigious the just how scrupulously latigious the just how scrupulously latigious the Romans could be. Death was the ultimate Romans could be. Death was the ultimate Romans could be. Death was the ultimate penalty and was prescribed for a number penalty and was prescribed for a number penalty and was prescribed for a number of crimes including murder and the of crimes including murder and the of crimes including murder and the destruction of crops, but also destruction of crops, but also destruction of crops, but also interestingly for matters involving the interestingly for matters involving the interestingly for matters involving the integrity of the courts. Magistrates who integrity of the courts. Magistrates who integrity of the courts. Magistrates who took bribes to influence their decisions took bribes to influence their decisions took bribes to influence their decisions as well as witnesses who lied under oath as well as witnesses who lied under oath as well as witnesses who lied under oath were both ordered flung from a high were both ordered flung from a high were both ordered flung from a high cliff. To the Romans, perjury was a cliff. To the Romans, perjury was a cliff. To the Romans, perjury was a heinous crime that threatened the entire heinous crime that threatened the entire heinous crime that threatened the entire community. The final provision I want to community. The final provision I want to community. The final provision I want to point out was hidden deep in the ninth point out was hidden deep in the ninth point out was hidden deep in the ninth table, a piece of fine print that once table, a piece of fine print that once table, a piece of fine print that once discovered outraged the plebs and led to discovered outraged the plebs and led to discovered outraged the plebs and led to violent class violent class violent class confrontations. No patrician shall be confrontations. No patrician shall be confrontations. No patrician shall be allowed to marry a plebbe. Effectively, allowed to marry a plebbe. Effectively, allowed to marry a plebbe. Effectively, this cottified a closing off of upward this cottified a closing off of upward this cottified a closing off of upward social mobility to the majority of the social mobility to the majority of the social mobility to the majority of the population and guaranteed that none of population and guaranteed that none of population and guaranteed that none of them would ever hold the most powerful them would ever hold the most powerful them would ever hold the most powerful office of state, the consil ship. This office of state, the consil ship. This office of state, the consil ship. This did not go over well with the did not go over well with the did not go over well with the plebes. As I mentioned earlier, the 12 plebes. As I mentioned earlier, the 12 plebes. As I mentioned earlier, the 12 tables were the foundation of later tables were the foundation of later tables were the foundation of later Roman law and were memorized by all Roman law and were memorized by all Roman law and were memorized by all citizens, literate or not. The existence citizens, literate or not. The existence citizens, literate or not. The existence of a written body of law was not a Roman of a written body of law was not a Roman of a written body of law was not a Roman innovation, nor did it make them unique innovation, nor did it make them unique innovation, nor did it make them unique in the ancient world, but it did put in the ancient world, but it did put in the ancient world, but it did put them into a select group of states that them into a select group of states that them into a select group of states that valued the objectivity of the law over

valued the objectivity of the law over valued the objectivity of the law over the subjectivity of capriccious the subjectivity of capriccious the subjectivity of capriccious rulers. The story of the rulers. The story of the rulers. The story of the Deceased with the compilation ends with Deceased with the compilation ends with Deceased with the compilation ends with an interesting bit of legendary an interesting bit of legendary an interesting bit of legendary melodrama. During the year or two, melodrama. During the year or two, melodrama. During the year or two, depending on the source, that the depending on the source, that the depending on the source, that the December were in office, they held December were in office, they held December were in office, they held ultimate authority. The unbroken chain ultimate authority. The unbroken chain ultimate authority. The unbroken chain of consular elections had been broken, of consular elections had been broken, of consular elections had been broken, and effectively a new form of government and effectively a new form of government and effectively a new form of government had been briefly ushered in. Rather than had been briefly ushered in. Rather than had been briefly ushered in. Rather than rule by two men, it was ruled by 10 men. rule by two men, it was ruled by 10 men. rule by two men, it was ruled by 10 men. And among those 10 men, one was first And among those 10 men, one was first And among those 10 men, one was first among equals, a man named Apius among equals, a man named Apius among equals, a man named Apius Claudius. Quadius came from a family of Claudius. Quadius came from a family of Claudius. Quadius came from a family of staunch patricians and was a vigorous staunch patricians and was a vigorous staunch patricians and was a vigorous opponent of just about any proposed opponent of just about any proposed opponent of just about any proposed plebeian reform. After finishing their plebeian reform. After finishing their plebeian reform. After finishing their appointed task, the December had lost appointed task, the December had lost appointed task, the December had lost their raise on detra and was set to their raise on detra and was set to their raise on detra and was set to disband. But Claudius, enjoying his disband. But Claudius, enjoying his disband. But Claudius, enjoying his newfound power, convinced his colleagues newfound power, convinced his colleagues newfound power, convinced his colleagues that they should remain in office after that they should remain in office after that they should remain in office after their term expired. The other December, their term expired. The other December, their term expired. The other December, similarly enjoying the trappings of similarly enjoying the trappings of similarly enjoying the trappings of power, agreed. And when the consular power, agreed. And when the consular power, agreed. And when the consular elections for that year arrived, the elections for that year arrived, the elections for that year arrived, the December simply did not allow anyone to December simply did not allow anyone to December simply did not allow anyone to stand, and no elections were held. The stand, and no elections were held. The stand, and no elections were held. The people found themselves unexpectedly in people found themselves unexpectedly in people found themselves unexpectedly in a constitutional crisis. Even though a constitutional crisis. Even though a constitutional crisis. Even though Claudius and the December had made a Claudius and the December had made a Claudius and the December had made a naked power grab, there was no legal naked power grab, there was no legal naked power grab, there was no legal avenue available to stop them, for the avenue available to stop them, for the avenue available to stop them, for the December had been instilled with all December had been instilled with all December had been instilled with all judicial authority. Ironically, the body judicial authority. Ironically, the body judicial authority. Ironically, the body of men who laid down the laws were the of men who laid down the laws were the of men who laid down the laws were the first to blatantly ignore first to blatantly ignore first to blatantly ignore them. Days and weeks passed with the them. Days and weeks passed with the them. Days and weeks passed with the December maintaining their illegal hold December maintaining their illegal hold December maintaining their illegal hold on power until finally Claudius went too

on power until finally Claudius went too on power until finally Claudius went too far and the entire city rose up in far and the entire city rose up in far and the entire city rose up in revolt. Claudius had his eye on a revolt. Claudius had his eye on a revolt. Claudius had his eye on a beautiful plebeian girl who was said to beautiful plebeian girl who was said to beautiful plebeian girl who was said to be married to a young army officer. be married to a young army officer. be married to a young army officer. Claudius declared out of the blue that Claudius declared out of the blue that Claudius declared out of the blue that the girl in question was an escaped the girl in question was an escaped the girl in question was an escaped slave owned by one of his clients and slave owned by one of his clients and slave owned by one of his clients and that she must be returned. A hearing was that she must be returned. A hearing was that she must be returned. A hearing was called to decide the case, and numerous called to decide the case, and numerous called to decide the case, and numerous witnesses were brought up, attesting to witnesses were brought up, attesting to witnesses were brought up, attesting to the freeborn status of the young woman, the freeborn status of the young woman, the freeborn status of the young woman, but the trial was overseen by Claudius, but the trial was overseen by Claudius, but the trial was overseen by Claudius, who, to the astonishment of everyone who, to the astonishment of everyone who, to the astonishment of everyone present, ruled that the girl was indeed present, ruled that the girl was indeed present, ruled that the girl was indeed an escaped slave and was the property of an escaped slave and was the property of an escaped slave and was the property of the complaining client, despite obvious the complaining client, despite obvious the complaining client, despite obvious evidence to the contrary. The people evidence to the contrary. The people evidence to the contrary. The people were appalled at this absurd conclusion, were appalled at this absurd conclusion, were appalled at this absurd conclusion, and the army, when it caught wind of the and the army, when it caught wind of the and the army, when it caught wind of the decision, joined in their outrage. the decision, joined in their outrage. the decision, joined in their outrage. the husband to be and the father of the husband to be and the father of the husband to be and the father of the woman were both officers in good woman were both officers in good woman were both officers in good standing, and the army was incredulous standing, and the army was incredulous standing, and the army was incredulous at the arbitrary injustice of Claudius at the arbitrary injustice of Claudius at the arbitrary injustice of Claudius towards one of their own. The people towards one of their own. The people towards one of their own. The people supported by the army then used their supported by the army then used their supported by the army then used their bargaining chip of last resort and bargaining chip of last resort and bargaining chip of last resort and abandoned the city, removing themselves abandoned the city, removing themselves abandoned the city, removing themselves to the sacred mount just as they had to the sacred mount just as they had to the sacred mount just as they had done 40 years earlier. The December done 40 years earlier. The December done 40 years earlier. The December recognized that their position had recognized that their position had recognized that their position had become untenable, finally resigned.

become untenable, finally resigned. become untenable, finally resigned. Claudius was arrested, but rather than Claudius was arrested, but rather than Claudius was arrested, but rather than face trial, he killed himself. face trial, he killed himself. face trial, he killed himself. Regular consular elections then took Regular consular elections then took Regular consular elections then took place and Rome's domestic tranquility place and Rome's domestic tranquility place and Rome's domestic tranquility was restored. The plebeians actually was restored. The plebeians actually was restored. The plebeians actually emerged from the order better off than emerged from the order better off than emerged from the order better off than they had been. For in their negotiations they had been. For in their negotiations they had been. For in their negotiations to return to the city, they demanded the to return to the city, they demanded the to return to the city, they demanded the number of tributions be raised to 10 number of tributions be raised to 10 number of tributions be raised to 10 which the Senate anxious to get things which the Senate anxious to get things which the Senate anxious to get things back to normal and again fearing back to normal and again fearing back to normal and again fearing invasion agreed to. And of course, the invasion agreed to. And of course, the invasion agreed to. And of course, the cotification of the laws, the decadesl cotification of the laws, the decadesl cotification of the laws, the decadesl long plebeian demand, had already been long plebeian demand, had already been long plebeian demand, had already been accomplished, leaving them in a much accomplished, leaving them in a much accomplished, leaving them in a much stronger position legally to fend off stronger position legally to fend off stronger position legally to fend off future patrician future patrician future patrician tyranny. The creation of the 12 tables tyranny. The creation of the 12 tables tyranny. The creation of the 12 tables left the plebes on the one hand left the plebes on the one hand left the plebes on the one hand overjoyed, but on the other they were overjoyed, but on the other they were overjoyed, but on the other they were horrified by some of the provisions it horrified by some of the provisions it horrified by some of the provisions it contained. True, the rule of law would contained. True, the rule of law would contained. True, the rule of law would now dominate patrician subjectivity, but now dominate patrician subjectivity, but now dominate patrician subjectivity, but that one sticking point of the that one sticking point of the that one sticking point of the illegality of patrician plead marriage illegality of patrician plead marriage illegality of patrician plead marriage opened their eyes to an oppression that opened their eyes to an oppression that opened their eyes to an oppression that they never knew existed. Only patricians they never knew existed. Only patricians they never knew existed. Only patricians could be consoles or hold the other high could be consoles or hold the other high could be consoles or hold the other high magistrates, including Pawn effects magistrates, including Pawn effects magistrates, including Pawn effects maximus. If no pleb could ever marry a maximus. If no pleb could ever marry a maximus. If no pleb could ever marry a patrician, then no pleb would ever hold patrician, then no pleb would ever hold patrician, then no pleb would ever hold high office, and the patricians would high office, and the patricians would high office, and the patricians would always and forever hold the winning always and forever hold the winning always and forever hold the winning political hand. The next cycle of political hand. The next cycle of political hand. The next cycle of patrician plead conflict would revolve patrician plead conflict would revolve patrician plead conflict would revolve around this very issue, eventually around this very issue, eventually around this very issue, eventually leading to a number of reforms that leading to a number of reforms that leading to a number of reforms that further diluted the patrician further diluted the patrician further diluted the patrician strangleold on power, which we will get strangleold on power, which we will get strangleold on power, which we will get to in the weeks to in the weeks to in the weeks ahead. Those of you who know Roman ahead. Those of you who know Roman ahead. Those of you who know Roman history may have noticed that I ran history may have noticed that I ran history may have noticed that I ran right by one of the most well-known folk

right by one of the most well-known folk right by one of the most well-known folk legends which occurred around 460 BC legends which occurred around 460 BC legends which occurred around 460 BC without so much as a mention. That is without so much as a mention. That is without so much as a mention. That is because next week I want to focus in because next week I want to focus in because next week I want to focus in detail on the central figure of that detail on the central figure of that detail on the central figure of that story, the great Catis whose career story, the great Catis whose career story, the great Catis whose career spans both sides of the December spans both sides of the December spans both sides of the December interlude. Join me next week as we interlude. Join me next week as we interlude. Join me next week as we untangle the man from the myth and untangle the man from the myth and untangle the man from the myth and figure out what made Catis such a figure out what made Catis such a figure out what made Catis such a towering figure that American settlers towering figure that American settlers towering figure that American settlers felt compelled to name their new boom felt compelled to name their new boom felt compelled to name their new boom town on the Ohio River after a Roman who town on the Ohio River after a Roman who town on the Ohio River after a Roman who had been dead 2200 years. Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Rome. Rome. Rome. We ended last week in 451 BC with the 12 We ended last week in 451 BC with the 12 We ended last week in 451 BC with the 12 tables of law written down and the tables of law written down and the tables of law written down and the December at December at December at Expelled. This week I want to step back Expelled. This week I want to step back Expelled. This week I want to step back a few years to focus on the life of one a few years to focus on the life of one a few years to focus on the life of one man, Lucius Quenches Catis, who was man, Lucius Quenches Catis, who was man, Lucius Quenches Catis, who was passed into the collective memory as a passed into the collective memory as a passed into the collective memory as a paradigm of Republican virtue, even paradigm of Republican virtue, even paradigm of Republican virtue, even though the decisive moments of his life though the decisive moments of his life though the decisive moments of his life were almost certainly invented by later were almost certainly invented by later were almost certainly invented by later historians to embellish his famous historians to embellish his famous historians to embellish his famous career. And in the end, nothing he did career. And in the end, nothing he did career. And in the end, nothing he did was particularly was particularly was particularly unprecedented. Still, his biography unprecedented. Still, his biography unprecedented. Still, his biography continues to resonate, and taken by continues to resonate, and taken by continues to resonate, and taken by itself, it is a pretty good story of a

itself, it is a pretty good story of a itself, it is a pretty good story of a humble man who had absolute power thrust humble man who had absolute power thrust humble man who had absolute power thrust upon him and then, remarkably upon him and then, remarkably upon him and then, remarkably relinquished that power and returned to relinquished that power and returned to relinquished that power and returned to his plow. A man who sacrificed his plow. A man who sacrificed his plow. A man who sacrificed everything for the republic. everything for the republic. everything for the republic. Catis was born around 519 BC when the Catis was born around 519 BC when the Catis was born around 519 BC when the king still reigned and was just a boy king still reigned and was just a boy king still reigned and was just a boy when Brutus and Colatinus expelled the when Brutus and Colatinus expelled the when Brutus and Colatinus expelled the Tarquins. He was therefore one of the Tarquins. He was therefore one of the Tarquins. He was therefore one of the first citizens in Rome who lived his first citizens in Rome who lived his first citizens in Rome who lived his entire life under a republican entire life under a republican entire life under a republican government without strong memories of government without strong memories of government without strong memories of the monarchy. He was in the vanguard of the monarchy. He was in the vanguard of the monarchy. He was in the vanguard of a critical generation. His elders a critical generation. His elders a critical generation. His elders remembered vividly the tyranny of Tarwin remembered vividly the tyranny of Tarwin remembered vividly the tyranny of Tarwin and their steadfast republican and their steadfast republican and their steadfast republican principles reflect a personally principles reflect a personally principles reflect a personally developed hatred of monarchy. They were developed hatred of monarchy. They were developed hatred of monarchy. They were the victims and would do anything to the victims and would do anything to the victims and would do anything to avoid being victims again. Catis, avoid being victims again. Catis, avoid being victims again. Catis, however, and those of his generation however, and those of his generation however, and those of his generation never personally experienced this never personally experienced this never personally experienced this victimization. Once they came of age, victimization. Once they came of age, victimization. Once they came of age, the Republic would have to sink or swim the Republic would have to sink or swim the Republic would have to sink or swim on its own merit. If a wouldbe tyrant on its own merit. If a wouldbe tyrant on its own merit. If a wouldbe tyrant began to acquire too much power, there began to acquire too much power, there began to acquire too much power, there would be no one to turn to and say, would be no one to turn to and say, would be no one to turn to and say, "Hey, remember Tarquin? This guy's "Hey, remember Tarquin? This guy's "Hey, remember Tarquin? This guy's trying to be another Tarquin." Because trying to be another Tarquin." Because trying to be another Tarquin." Because there would be no one left who actually there would be no one left who actually there would be no one left who actually remembered Tarquin. It is in this remembered Tarquin. It is in this remembered Tarquin. It is in this passing from living memory that mistakes passing from living memory that mistakes passing from living memory that mistakes of history repeat themselves. Ambitious of history repeat themselves. Ambitious of history repeat themselves. Ambitious men of later generations might attempt men of later generations might attempt men of later generations might attempt to seize power and believing their times to seize power and believing their times to seize power and believing their times to be unique, a cowering population to be unique, a cowering population to be unique, a cowering population might allow it. In those times, only might allow it. In those times, only might allow it. In those times, only vigilance born of a love of republic, vigilance born of a love of republic, vigilance born of a love of republic, not a hatred of monarchy, would save the not a hatred of monarchy, would save the not a hatred of monarchy, would save the people from slavery. And Catis was people from slavery. And Catis was people from slavery. And Catis was amongst the first to set down that love amongst the first to set down that love amongst the first to set down that love of the republic for its own sake.

of the republic for its own sake. of the republic for its own sake. To dispel one myth straight away, To dispel one myth straight away, To dispel one myth straight away, Catatus was at no point a defender of Catatus was at no point a defender of Catatus was at no point a defender of the little guy. He was a patrician by the little guy. He was a patrician by the little guy. He was a patrician by birth and upbringing, and when he birth and upbringing, and when he birth and upbringing, and when he emerged on the public stage, it was as a emerged on the public stage, it was as a emerged on the public stage, it was as a steadfast opponent of the tribunes and steadfast opponent of the tribunes and steadfast opponent of the tribunes and their reforms. His first appearance in their reforms. His first appearance in their reforms. His first appearance in the historical record is not a starring the historical record is not a starring the historical record is not a starring role, but rather a supporting part in role, but rather a supporting part in role, but rather a supporting part in the drama of his son, Queso. There was a the drama of his son, Queso. There was a the drama of his son, Queso. There was a great deal of civil unrest in the great deal of civil unrest in the great deal of civil unrest in the aftermath of Tarantillis's proposal to aftermath of Tarantillis's proposal to aftermath of Tarantillis's proposal to cotify the law and plead demonstrations cotify the law and plead demonstrations cotify the law and plead demonstrations in the forum. were often broken up by in the forum. were often broken up by in the forum. were often broken up by collections or gangs if you prefer of collections or gangs if you prefer of collections or gangs if you prefer of young patrician nobles. Queso, an young patrician nobles. Queso, an young patrician nobles. Queso, an abnormally large young man, took to this abnormally large young man, took to this abnormally large young man, took to this with great relish, personally beating with great relish, personally beating with great relish, personally beating and chasing any pleb who tried to take and chasing any pleb who tried to take and chasing any pleb who tried to take part in such part in such part in such demonstrations. Young and hot-tempered demonstrations. Young and hot-tempered demonstrations. Young and hot-tempered that he was, though, he was easy that he was, though, he was easy that he was, though, he was easy pickings for a savvy tribute named pickings for a savvy tribute named pickings for a savvy tribute named Virginiaius, who intentionally goated Virginiaius, who intentionally goated Virginiaius, who intentionally goated Queso by leading provocative public Queso by leading provocative public Queso by leading provocative public marches that would inevitably draw the marches that would inevitably draw the marches that would inevitably draw the wrath of the young man. Once he had wrath of the young man. Once he had wrath of the young man. Once he had enough witnesses and evidence, Virginia enough witnesses and evidence, Virginia enough witnesses and evidence, Virginia brought capital charges against Queso brought capital charges against Queso brought capital charges against Queso for, well, all the horrible things he for, well, all the horrible things he for, well, all the horrible things he had done. Queso was ordered to appear at had done. Queso was ordered to appear at had done. Queso was ordered to appear at a trial, and if he did not, then he a trial, and if he did not, then he a trial, and if he did not, then he would be fined a large sum of money. It would be fined a large sum of money. It would be fined a large sum of money. It is at this point that Catis makes his is at this point that Catis makes his is at this point that Catis makes his first appearance in the public record, first appearance in the public record, first appearance in the public record, defending his son against Virginia's defending his son against Virginia's defending his son against Virginia's accusations and asking that the charges accusations and asking that the charges accusations and asking that the charges be dropped. Rather than face an be dropped. Rather than face an be dropped. Rather than face an obviously hostile and biased court, obviously hostile and biased court, obviously hostile and biased court, Queso fled north to Aturia and out of Queso fled north to Aturia and out of Queso fled north to Aturia and out of the history of Rome completely. His son the history of Rome completely. His son the history of Rome completely. His son having essentially jumped bail, Catis having essentially jumped bail, Catis having essentially jumped bail, Catis was forced to sell most of his was forced to sell most of his was forced to sell most of his properties to pay the debt, leaving him

properties to pay the debt, leaving him properties to pay the debt, leaving him a popper with only a small plot of land a popper with only a small plot of land a popper with only a small plot of land on the far side of the on the far side of the on the far side of the Tyber. It is from this impoverished Tyber. It is from this impoverished Tyber. It is from this impoverished state that Catatus' own legend begins. state that Catatus' own legend begins. state that Catatus' own legend begins. In 460 BC, not long after the Sabbines In 460 BC, not long after the Sabbines In 460 BC, not long after the Sabbines had been expelled from the Citadel, had been expelled from the Citadel, had been expelled from the Citadel, Catis was chosen to serve as one of the Catis was chosen to serve as one of the Catis was chosen to serve as one of the two consoles for that year. The Tribians two consoles for that year. The Tribians two consoles for that year. The Tribians were less than thrilled at this were less than thrilled at this were less than thrilled at this development, recognizing that they had development, recognizing that they had development, recognizing that they had just put the screws to this old man just put the screws to this old man just put the screws to this old man because they were angry with his son, because they were angry with his son, because they were angry with his son, and now he was in a position of and now he was in a position of and now he was in a position of authority over them. Catis did nothing authority over them. Catis did nothing authority over them. Catis did nothing to ease their minds, immediately to ease their minds, immediately to ease their minds, immediately attacking the character of the plebe attacking the character of the plebe attacking the character of the plebe leadership, who he accused of aiding and leadership, who he accused of aiding and leadership, who he accused of aiding and abetting the Sabine capture of the abetting the Sabine capture of the abetting the Sabine capture of the Citadel with their selfish myopia. Citadel with their selfish myopia. Citadel with their selfish myopia. This set the tone for the year. This set the tone for the year. This set the tone for the year. Struggles ensued between the consoles on Struggles ensued between the consoles on Struggles ensued between the consoles on the one hand, the tribunes on the other, the one hand, the tribunes on the other, the one hand, the tribunes on the other, with the Senate and popular assemblies with the Senate and popular assemblies with the Senate and popular assemblies caught in between. Catis managed to kill caught in between. Catis managed to kill caught in between. Catis managed to kill Tarantillis' bill for the year, while Tarantillis' bill for the year, while Tarantillis' bill for the year, while the tribunes banned the consoles from the tribunes banned the consoles from the tribunes banned the consoles from taking any army more than one mile taking any army more than one mile taking any army more than one mile outside the city limits. By the end of outside the city limits. By the end of outside the city limits. By the end of the year, no compromise was reached, and the year, no compromise was reached, and the year, no compromise was reached, and the battle was set to continue on into the battle was set to continue on into the battle was set to continue on into the next year. But the Senate passed a the next year. But the Senate passed a the next year. But the Senate passed a law stating that no magistrate, law stating that no magistrate, law stating that no magistrate, patrician or plead, could serve in patrician or plead, could serve in patrician or plead, could serve in successive years. The Tribians dismissed successive years. The Tribians dismissed successive years. The Tribians dismissed this out of hat and had themselves this out of hat and had themselves this out of hat and had themselves reelected. So the patricians were set to reelected. So the patricians were set to reelected. So the patricians were set to reconfirm Catis when he announced that reconfirm Catis when he announced that reconfirm Catis when he announced that if they were to act no better than the if they were to act no better than the if they were to act no better than the plebes than they were no better than the plebes than they were no better than the plebes than they were no better than the plebes and refused to stand for office.

plebes and refused to stand for office. plebes and refused to stand for office. Agreeing reluctantly to this logic, the Agreeing reluctantly to this logic, the Agreeing reluctantly to this logic, the Petricians allowed Catis to retire to Petricians allowed Catis to retire to Petricians allowed Catis to retire to his small farm. It would not be long, his small farm. It would not be long, his small farm. It would not be long, however, before he was called back to however, before he was called back to however, before he was called back to service in his most famous role, service in his most famous role, service in his most famous role, dictator of dictator of dictator of Rome. In 458, the Aquans had been Rome. In 458, the Aquans had been Rome. In 458, the Aquans had been causing Rome trouble, and one of the causing Rome trouble, and one of the causing Rome trouble, and one of the consoles for the year was sent with an consoles for the year was sent with an consoles for the year was sent with an army to deal with them. However, the army to deal with them. However, the army to deal with them. However, the fight was much rougher than it had been fight was much rougher than it had been fight was much rougher than it had been in the past, and the legions found in the past, and the legions found in the past, and the legions found themselves pinned down, unable to themselves pinned down, unable to themselves pinned down, unable to retreat and facing annihilation. The retreat and facing annihilation. The retreat and facing annihilation. The citizens of Rome panicked, and without citizens of Rome panicked, and without citizens of Rome panicked, and without dissent, a dictator was called for, and dissent, a dictator was called for, and dissent, a dictator was called for, and Cenatis was named. A delegation was sent Cenatis was named. A delegation was sent Cenatis was named. A delegation was sent to inform the old man and famously found to inform the old man and famously found to inform the old man and famously found him at work on the small farm he had him at work on the small farm he had him at work on the small farm he had retired to, a living paradigm of Roman retired to, a living paradigm of Roman retired to, a living paradigm of Roman virtue. The delegation saluted Catis's virtue. The delegation saluted Catis's virtue. The delegation saluted Catis's dictator, imploring him to return to the dictator, imploring him to return to the dictator, imploring him to return to the city at once. The tribunes were appalled city at once. The tribunes were appalled city at once. The tribunes were appalled to see their old political enemy return to see their old political enemy return to see their old political enemy return to such a powerful position, but Catis to such a powerful position, but Catis to such a powerful position, but Catis was greeted in the city with such a was greeted in the city with such a was greeted in the city with such a claim that there was little they could claim that there was little they could claim that there was little they could do but hope that the old patrician would do but hope that the old patrician would do but hope that the old patrician would not turn his absolute power against not turn his absolute power against not turn his absolute power against them.

them. them. Catis, however, was not out to settle Catis, however, was not out to settle Catis, however, was not out to settle political grudges. Well, not yet, political grudges. Well, not yet, political grudges. Well, not yet, anyway, and promptly raised an army and anyway, and promptly raised an army and anyway, and promptly raised an army and marched to the rescue of the besieged marched to the rescue of the besieged marched to the rescue of the besieged legion. Wasting no time, Catis' army legion. Wasting no time, Catis' army legion. Wasting no time, Catis' army swept in and decisively beat the swept in and decisively beat the swept in and decisively beat the acquaintance, saving the legion and acquaintance, saving the legion and acquaintance, saving the legion and ending the threat. He marched back to ending the threat. He marched back to ending the threat. He marched back to Rome and celebrated his well-earned Rome and celebrated his well-earned Rome and celebrated his well-earned triumph a mere 15 days after being named triumph a mere 15 days after being named triumph a mere 15 days after being named dictator. Before stepping down though, dictator. Before stepping down though, dictator. Before stepping down though, Catus did clear up one bit of family Catus did clear up one bit of family Catus did clear up one bit of family business, forcing Virginiaius to plead business, forcing Virginiaius to plead business, forcing Virginiaius to plead guilty to perjury and go into exile. guilty to perjury and go into exile. guilty to perjury and go into exile. Rome safe and his family's honor Rome safe and his family's honor Rome safe and his family's honor restored, Catis resigned the restored, Catis resigned the restored, Catis resigned the dictatorship and returned to his farm. A dictatorship and returned to his farm. A dictatorship and returned to his farm. A hero in his own time and a legend hero in his own time and a legend hero in his own time and a legend thereafter, he would make one final thereafter, he would make one final thereafter, he would make one final appearance in the public record 20 years appearance in the public record 20 years appearance in the public record 20 years later, again appointed as dictator, later, again appointed as dictator, later, again appointed as dictator, though this time it was to deal with though this time it was to deal with though this time it was to deal with internal strife and not an external internal strife and not an external internal strife and not an external threat. Ironically, it was an attempt by threat. Ironically, it was an attempt by threat. Ironically, it was an attempt by a single man to capture total power in a single man to capture total power in a single man to capture total power in Rome that led to the reappoint of Catus' Rome that led to the reappoint of Catus' Rome that led to the reappoint of Catus' dictator. We will talk more next week dictator. We will talk more next week dictator. We will talk more next week about the plot of Meas to make himself about the plot of Meas to make himself about the plot of Meas to make himself king. So, for now, I will just leave it king. So, for now, I will just leave it king. So, for now, I will just leave it that a conspiracy was in motion and that a conspiracy was in motion and that a conspiracy was in motion and Catatus was brought in to deal with it, Catatus was brought in to deal with it, Catatus was brought in to deal with it, which he did as quickly as he dispatched which he did as quickly as he dispatched which he did as quickly as he dispatched the Aquans and again resigned the the Aquans and again resigned the the Aquans and again resigned the dictatorship and returned to his farm.

dictatorship and returned to his farm. dictatorship and returned to his farm. This time for the last This time for the last This time for the last time. since Anatis is a bonafide legend, time. since Anatis is a bonafide legend, time. since Anatis is a bonafide legend, but the particulars of his life are but the particulars of his life are but the particulars of his life are almost certainly an invention. I look almost certainly an invention. I look almost certainly an invention. I look forward to the day when I begin covering forward to the day when I begin covering forward to the day when I begin covering events from the later, more accurate events from the later, more accurate events from the later, more accurate records, so I won't have to keep saying records, so I won't have to keep saying records, so I won't have to keep saying that the story I've just told you is that the story I've just told you is that the story I've just told you is largely fictitious. But we still have largely fictitious. But we still have largely fictitious. But we still have another 50 years before we get to the another 50 years before we get to the another 50 years before we get to the sack of Rome. So, we'll just have to sack of Rome. So, we'll just have to sack of Rome. So, we'll just have to grind through this together. Anyway, the grind through this together. Anyway, the grind through this together. Anyway, the story of Cenatis is largely fictitious. story of Cenatis is largely fictitious. story of Cenatis is largely fictitious. But the man was a giant of his age and But the man was a giant of his age and But the man was a giant of his age and earned a little mythical embellishment. earned a little mythical embellishment. earned a little mythical embellishment. And regardless of its accuracy, the life And regardless of its accuracy, the life And regardless of its accuracy, the life of Catis was handed down from generation of Catis was handed down from generation of Catis was handed down from generation to generation and is still told today. to generation and is still told today. to generation and is still told today. His story had a great impact on the His story had a great impact on the His story had a great impact on the Enlightenment Age soldiers of the Enlightenment Age soldiers of the Enlightenment Age soldiers of the American Continental Army, who often American Continental Army, who often American Continental Army, who often referred to their great leader, General referred to their great leader, General referred to their great leader, General Washington, as the American Catis Washington, as the American Catis Washington, as the American Catis because at the end of the war, he because at the end of the war, he because at the end of the war, he retired rather than allow the people to retired rather than allow the people to retired rather than allow the people to make him king. When the army was make him king. When the army was make him king. When the army was demobilized, the retired officers formed demobilized, the retired officers formed demobilized, the retired officers formed a fraternity of sorts called the Society a fraternity of sorts called the Society a fraternity of sorts called the Society of the Cincinnati. Membership in which of the Cincinnati. Membership in which of the Cincinnati. Membership in which was limited to men who had served in the was limited to men who had served in the was limited to men who had served in the army for three years. One of their army for three years. One of their army for three years. One of their members was later the territorial members was later the territorial members was later the territorial governor of Ohio, and he renamed a governor of Ohio, and he renamed a governor of Ohio, and he renamed a growing urban hub on the Ohio River growing urban hub on the Ohio River growing urban hub on the Ohio River Cincinnati, both in honor of the society Cincinnati, both in honor of the society Cincinnati, both in honor of the society itself and in honor of Washington, to itself and in honor of Washington, to itself and in honor of Washington, to whom the name originally referred.

whom the name originally referred. whom the name originally referred. Ironically, the society still exists Ironically, the society still exists Ironically, the society still exists today, membership being limited to sons today, membership being limited to sons today, membership being limited to sons of the original members, making it a of the original members, making it a of the original members, making it a hereditary institution, completely hereditary institution, completely hereditary institution, completely anathema to everything the officers had anathema to everything the officers had anathema to everything the officers had originally been commissioned to fight. originally been commissioned to fight. originally been commissioned to fight. But I digress. Catis' mark had been set But I digress. Catis' mark had been set But I digress. Catis' mark had been set upon the world. But what do we make of upon the world. But what do we make of upon the world. But what do we make of him? Clearly, he was a towering figure him? Clearly, he was a towering figure him? Clearly, he was a towering figure in the first century of the Republic, a in the first century of the Republic, a in the first century of the Republic, a hero, a console, twice named dictator. hero, a console, twice named dictator. hero, a console, twice named dictator. But why the iconic veneration? But why the iconic veneration? But why the iconic veneration? Allegedly, it is for the act of Allegedly, it is for the act of Allegedly, it is for the act of relinquishing absolute power, but we relinquishing absolute power, but we relinquishing absolute power, but we have already seen that Catis was not the have already seen that Catis was not the have already seen that Catis was not the first man to do this, nor would he be first man to do this, nor would he be first man to do this, nor would he be the last. The office of dictator was not the last. The office of dictator was not the last. The office of dictator was not created especially for him. It was in created especially for him. It was in created especially for him. It was in fact a constitutional role that was used fact a constitutional role that was used fact a constitutional role that was used regularly in times of crisis. His story, regularly in times of crisis. His story, regularly in times of crisis. His story, of course, had a nice ring to later of course, had a nice ring to later of course, had a nice ring to later Romans who revel in his simple homespun Romans who revel in his simple homespun Romans who revel in his simple homespun virtue called from his field to save the virtue called from his field to save the virtue called from his field to save the city. In the good old days, they said, city. In the good old days, they said, city. In the good old days, they said, the greatest man of his age was found the greatest man of his age was found the greatest man of his age was found hard at work on a small farm, not eating hard at work on a small farm, not eating hard at work on a small farm, not eating figs on a sofa in some palatial estate.

figs on a sofa in some palatial estate. figs on a sofa in some palatial estate. He was the epitome of the virtuous He was the epitome of the virtuous He was the epitome of the virtuous farmer soldier, the ideal farmer soldier, the ideal farmer soldier, the ideal Roman. I think two things really Roman. I think two things really Roman. I think two things really contribute to the fame of Catis. The contribute to the fame of Catis. The contribute to the fame of Catis. The first is the incidental fact that most first is the incidental fact that most first is the incidental fact that most people, myself included before I began people, myself included before I began people, myself included before I began digging, believed Catis must have either digging, believed Catis must have either digging, believed Catis must have either been the first dictator of Rome or the been the first dictator of Rome or the been the first dictator of Rome or the only dictator of Rome to ever step down only dictator of Rome to ever step down only dictator of Rome to ever step down voluntarily or something equally voluntarily or something equally voluntarily or something equally unprecedented. But of course, there was unprecedented. But of course, there was unprecedented. But of course, there was nothing particularly unprecedented about nothing particularly unprecedented about nothing particularly unprecedented about Catis, and our veneration of him in that Catis, and our veneration of him in that Catis, and our veneration of him in that case would seem to be based upon nothing case would seem to be based upon nothing case would seem to be based upon nothing more than our own misconceptions about more than our own misconceptions about more than our own misconceptions about Roman history. But even though Catis Roman history. But even though Catis Roman history. But even though Catis wasn't the first or last of anything, he wasn't the first or last of anything, he wasn't the first or last of anything, he was unique in a profound way. The first was unique in a profound way. The first was unique in a profound way. The first two dictators who, like Catis, served two dictators who, like Catis, served two dictators who, like Catis, served and then resigned, were men of a and then resigned, were men of a and then resigned, were men of a generation that remembered the Tarkans, generation that remembered the Tarkans, generation that remembered the Tarkans, remembered the tyranny, and would not remembered the tyranny, and would not remembered the tyranny, and would not think for a moment about seizing power think for a moment about seizing power think for a moment about seizing power for themselves so soon after they had for themselves so soon after they had for themselves so soon after they had thrown out the kings. thrown out the kings. thrown out the kings. Catis, on the other hand, comes from the Catis, on the other hand, comes from the Catis, on the other hand, comes from the next generation, a generation that lived next generation, a generation that lived next generation, a generation that lived their entire lives under the republic, their entire lives under the republic, their entire lives under the republic, and was thus the first man who had no and was thus the first man who had no and was thus the first man who had no memory of monarchy to be given absolute memory of monarchy to be given absolute memory of monarchy to be given absolute power. The temptation to keep it would power. The temptation to keep it would power. The temptation to keep it would not this time be tempered by memories of not this time be tempered by memories of not this time be tempered by memories of subjugation and struggle. But the virtue subjugation and struggle. But the virtue subjugation and struggle. But the virtue of Catus returned to the people the of Catus returned to the people the of Catus returned to the people the power that was rightfully theirs. It was power that was rightfully theirs. It was power that was rightfully theirs. It was his resignation from dictatorship that his resignation from dictatorship that his resignation from dictatorship that really cemented the precedent for later really cemented the precedent for later really cemented the precedent for later Romans to relinquish dictatorial power Romans to relinquish dictatorial power Romans to relinquish dictatorial power and maintain the republic, that thing of and maintain the republic, that thing of and maintain the republic, that thing of the people. In that case, Catis really the people. In that case, Catis really the people. In that case, Catis really does deserve all the praise he is given

does deserve all the praise he is given does deserve all the praise he is given for selflessly handing the reigns of for selflessly handing the reigns of for selflessly handing the reigns of power back to the people where it would power back to the people where it would power back to the people where it would remain for hundreds of years. In any remain for hundreds of years. In any remain for hundreds of years. In any case, any man who voluntarily gives up case, any man who voluntarily gives up case, any man who voluntarily gives up absolute power is a hero whose story absolute power is a hero whose story absolute power is a hero whose story rightfully is told. rightfully is told. rightfully is told. Next week, we will learn more about the Next week, we will learn more about the Next week, we will learn more about the machinations of Mealas, a scoundrel of machinations of Mealas, a scoundrel of machinations of Mealas, a scoundrel of the highest order, as well as the events the highest order, as well as the events the highest order, as well as the events that led up to the final confrontation that led up to the final confrontation that led up to the final confrontation with Vier, a struggle that broke the with Vier, a struggle that broke the with Vier, a struggle that broke the back of Atruscan dominance, which though back of Atruscan dominance, which though back of Atruscan dominance, which though a victory for Rome, opened the door for a victory for Rome, opened the door for a victory for Rome, opened the door for the Gauls to sweep in from the north and the Gauls to sweep in from the north and the Gauls to sweep in from the north and hand the Romans their most devastated hand the Romans their most devastated hand the Romans their most devastated defeat, almost ending the empire before defeat, almost ending the empire before defeat, almost ending the empire before it had a chance to really begin. [Music] [Music] Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Rome. The years after the expulsion of Rome. The years after the expulsion of Rome. The years after the expulsion of the December were hard. Old problems the December were hard. Old problems the December were hard. Old problems remained unsolved while new ones remained unsolved while new ones remained unsolved while new ones threatened to tear the city apart.

threatened to tear the city apart. threatened to tear the city apart. Patrician and Plebe were at each other's Patrician and Plebe were at each other's Patrician and Plebe were at each other's throats over wealth, power, and land. throats over wealth, power, and land. throats over wealth, power, and land. The population of the city was growing, The population of the city was growing, The population of the city was growing, and there was not enough land to give and there was not enough land to give and there was not enough land to give them, and not enough food to feed them. them, and not enough food to feed them. them, and not enough food to feed them. Crop failures exasperated the problem, Crop failures exasperated the problem, Crop failures exasperated the problem, and famine became a persistent killer. and famine became a persistent killer. and famine became a persistent killer. Bitter tensions led to a breakdown of Bitter tensions led to a breakdown of Bitter tensions led to a breakdown of military resolve and old enemies long military resolve and old enemies long military resolve and old enemies long contained now returned a match for their contained now returned a match for their contained now returned a match for their former bettererss. The Vulian and Aquans former bettererss. The Vulian and Aquans former bettererss. The Vulian and Aquans both peeled off Roman territory to the both peeled off Roman territory to the both peeled off Roman territory to the east and south and there was little the east and south and there was little the east and south and there was little the legions could do about it. This is how legions could do about it. This is how legions could do about it. This is how the Romans limped through the second the Romans limped through the second the Romans limped through the second half of the 400s BC, hungry, tired, half of the 400s BC, hungry, tired, half of the 400s BC, hungry, tired, weak, and weak, and weak, and demoralized. The turn of the century, a demoralized. The turn of the century, a demoralized. The turn of the century, a final victory over VA would lift the final victory over VA would lift the final victory over VA would lift the hopes, albeit briefly, of the city. But hopes, albeit briefly, of the city. But hopes, albeit briefly, of the city. But for now, life was a dreary war of for now, life was a dreary war of for now, life was a dreary war of attrition. In the aftermath of the attrition. In the aftermath of the attrition. In the aftermath of the publication of the 12 tables, the plebes publication of the 12 tables, the plebes publication of the 12 tables, the plebes immediately became aware of an immediately became aware of an immediately became aware of an institutionalized bias against them. institutionalized bias against them. institutionalized bias against them. They were insensed to see a cotification They were insensed to see a cotification They were insensed to see a cotification of the ban against patrician plead of the ban against patrician plead of the ban against patrician plead marriage and immediately opened a new marriage and immediately opened a new marriage and immediately opened a new front in their war for equality. The front in their war for equality. The front in their war for equality. The issue of greatest concern was access to issue of greatest concern was access to issue of greatest concern was access to the high offices of state. This meant the high offices of state. This meant the high offices of state. This meant the consil ship in the religious offices the consil ship in the religious offices the consil ship in the religious offices of Pontifffects Maximus and its of Pontifffects Maximus and its of Pontifffects Maximus and its subordinate priesthoods. Only patricians subordinate priesthoods. Only patricians subordinate priesthoods. Only patricians by law could hold these offices. And if by law could hold these offices. And if by law could hold these offices. And if plebs could not intermar with plebs could not intermar with plebs could not intermar with patricians, then they would never gain patricians, then they would never gain patricians, then they would never gain access to the highest positions of access to the highest positions of access to the highest positions of authority or have the final say in law authority or have the final say in law authority or have the final say in law and religion. The plebes attacked this and religion. The plebes attacked this and religion. The plebes attacked this imbalance from two angles. First, they imbalance from two angles. First, they imbalance from two angles. First, they sought to legalize patrician pleb in her

sought to legalize patrician pleb in her sought to legalize patrician pleb in her marriage. And second, they demanded that marriage. And second, they demanded that marriage. And second, they demanded that the consil ship be open to plebe the consil ship be open to plebe the consil ship be open to plebe candidates. The former would be won candidates. The former would be won candidates. The former would be won quickly and as to the latter it would be quickly and as to the latter it would be quickly and as to the latter it would be just under a hundred years before the just under a hundred years before the just under a hundred years before the first plebe was finally named consul in first plebe was finally named consul in first plebe was finally named consul in 366 366 366 BC. In 445 a tribune named Canelius BC. In 445 a tribune named Canelius BC. In 445 a tribune named Canelius introduced a bill legalizing patrician introduced a bill legalizing patrician introduced a bill legalizing patrician plead marriage. The measure was fought plead marriage. The measure was fought plead marriage. The measure was fought by the patricians who fredded about the by the patricians who fredded about the by the patricians who fredded about the dilution of pure patrician blood. But dilution of pure patrician blood. But dilution of pure patrician blood. But their resistance was only half-hearted. their resistance was only half-hearted. their resistance was only half-hearted. For one thing, their arguments really For one thing, their arguments really For one thing, their arguments really had no leg to stand on. When it came to had no leg to stand on. When it came to had no leg to stand on. When it came to officiating the necessary religious officiating the necessary religious officiating the necessary religious sacrifices, the Romans, all of them, sacrifices, the Romans, all of them, sacrifices, the Romans, all of them, believed that a patrician must be the believed that a patrician must be the believed that a patrician must be the official in charge or the gods would be official in charge or the gods would be official in charge or the gods would be offended. Some patrician families offended. Some patrician families offended. Some patrician families claimed that mixing the two classes claimed that mixing the two classes claimed that mixing the two classes would inevitably offend the gods. But in would inevitably offend the gods. But in would inevitably offend the gods. But in Roman law, legal status followed the Roman law, legal status followed the Roman law, legal status followed the father's position alone without any father's position alone without any father's position alone without any concept of genetic makeup. Incest, for concept of genetic makeup. Incest, for concept of genetic makeup. Incest, for example, did not even cover relations example, did not even cover relations example, did not even cover relations between maternal cousins. They were between maternal cousins. They were between maternal cousins. They were simply not considered part of the same simply not considered part of the same simply not considered part of the same family. So claims about blood dilution family. So claims about blood dilution family. So claims about blood dilution came off as absurd. Any child born to a came off as absurd. Any child born to a came off as absurd. Any child born to a patrician father was a patrician.

patrician father was a patrician. patrician father was a patrician. Period. Flimsy racial arguments aside, Period. Flimsy racial arguments aside, Period. Flimsy racial arguments aside, the matter basically came down to not the matter basically came down to not the matter basically came down to not wanting to share with the other wanting to share with the other wanting to share with the other children, and patrician solidarity soon children, and patrician solidarity soon children, and patrician solidarity soon cracked. There were a number of noble cracked. There were a number of noble cracked. There were a number of noble families who eyed the fortunes of the families who eyed the fortunes of the families who eyed the fortunes of the wealthy plebe families, and the measure wealthy plebe families, and the measure wealthy plebe families, and the measure was soon was soon was soon passed. As to admission into the consil passed. As to admission into the consil passed. As to admission into the consil ship, the patricians fought much harder ship, the patricians fought much harder ship, the patricians fought much harder to prevent it and far dirtier. This was to prevent it and far dirtier. This was to prevent it and far dirtier. This was not a toy that they were going to share not a toy that they were going to share not a toy that they were going to share with the other children. And so in 444 with the other children. And so in 444 with the other children. And so in 444 BC, right on the hills of plebs gaining BC, right on the hills of plebs gaining BC, right on the hills of plebs gaining at least nominal access to power, the at least nominal access to power, the at least nominal access to power, the console ship was suspended and the third console ship was suspended and the third console ship was suspended and the third manifestation of executive power was manifestation of executive power was manifestation of executive power was inaugurated. Military tribunes with inaugurated. Military tribunes with inaugurated. Military tribunes with consular power. The switch was not consular power. The switch was not consular power. The switch was not permanent though and for the next 80 odd permanent though and for the next 80 odd permanent though and for the next 80 odd years the executive leadership of Rome years the executive leadership of Rome years the executive leadership of Rome alternated between the new military alternated between the new military alternated between the new military tribunes and the traditional dual consil tribunes and the traditional dual consil tribunes and the traditional dual consil ship depending on the circumstances of a ship depending on the circumstances of a ship depending on the circumstances of a given year. Initially three military given year. Initially three military given year. Initially three military tribunes would be elected by the tribunes would be elected by the tribunes would be elected by the centuriata and granted executive centuriata and granted executive centuriata and granted executive authority over the state though over the authority over the state though over the authority over the state though over the years that number rose to four and then years that number rose to four and then years that number rose to four and then to six. The introduction of the new to six. The introduction of the new to six. The introduction of the new executive form can be seen as a move by executive form can be seen as a move by executive form can be seen as a move by the patricians to protect the console the patricians to protect the console the patricians to protect the console ship from pleb taint. No pleb could be ship from pleb taint. No pleb could be ship from pleb taint. No pleb could be console if no consils were elected. The console if no consils were elected. The console if no consils were elected. The military tribunes were elected military tribunes were elected military tribunes were elected democratically by the army and plebs as democratically by the army and plebs as democratically by the army and plebs as well as patricians stood for in one well as patricians stood for in one well as patricians stood for in one election. This was fine with the election. This was fine with the election. This was fine with the patricians as long as the sanctity of patricians as long as the sanctity of patricians as long as the sanctity of the consil ship itself was guarded.

the consil ship itself was guarded. the consil ship itself was guarded. Further, by increasing the number of Further, by increasing the number of Further, by increasing the number of executives, plebe ambition was mllified, executives, plebe ambition was mllified, executives, plebe ambition was mllified, and at the same time, power was watered and at the same time, power was watered and at the same time, power was watered down so that the elected plebs were not down so that the elected plebs were not down so that the elected plebs were not as singularly powerful as they would be as singularly powerful as they would be as singularly powerful as they would be if they had been consoles. Plus, the if they had been consoles. Plus, the if they had been consoles. Plus, the entire exercise kept plebs from entire exercise kept plebs from entire exercise kept plebs from agitating too hard for admission to the agitating too hard for admission to the agitating too hard for admission to the consil ship. For the years between 444 consil ship. For the years between 444 consil ship. For the years between 444 and 367 BC, military tribunes were and 367 BC, military tribunes were and 367 BC, military tribunes were elected roughly half the time, the other elected roughly half the time, the other elected roughly half the time, the other years being governed by the traditional years being governed by the traditional years being governed by the traditional dual consoles. dual consoles. dual consoles. Much has gone into analyzing what Much has gone into analyzing what Much has gone into analyzing what factors determined whether consils or factors determined whether consils or factors determined whether consils or tribunes would be elected for a given tribunes would be elected for a given tribunes would be elected for a given year, but by cross-referencing executive year, but by cross-referencing executive year, but by cross-referencing executive form with military activity, a possible form with military activity, a possible form with military activity, a possible answer emerges. Consoles were generally answer emerges. Consoles were generally answer emerges. Consoles were generally in charge during the major conflicts of in charge during the major conflicts of in charge during the major conflicts of the era. So it would seem that military the era. So it would seem that military the era. So it would seem that military tribunes were elected when no major tribunes were elected when no major tribunes were elected when no major military action was planned, whereas military action was planned, whereas military action was planned, whereas consoles were elected when engagement consoles were elected when engagement consoles were elected when engagement was imminent. This seems was imminent. This seems was imminent. This seems counterintuitive given the name military counterintuitive given the name military counterintuitive given the name military tribune, but it makes sense. Pleads with tribune, but it makes sense. Pleads with tribune, but it makes sense. Pleads with consular power were acceptable to the consular power were acceptable to the consular power were acceptable to the patricians as long as they were destined patricians as long as they were destined patricians as long as they were destined for little more than off-year for little more than off-year for little more than off-year administrative duties. When real action administrative duties. When real action administrative duties. When real action was required, the patrician controlled was required, the patrician controlled was required, the patrician controlled consil ship was returned. The patricians consil ship was returned. The patricians consil ship was returned. The patricians wanted to make sure that they alone wanted to make sure that they alone wanted to make sure that they alone determine the course of state in times determine the course of state in times determine the course of state in times of crisis. If this is true, then the of crisis. If this is true, then the of crisis. If this is true, then the creation of military tribunes with creation of military tribunes with creation of military tribunes with consular power was little more than a consular power was little more than a consular power was little more than a stall tactic formulated by the stall tactic formulated by the stall tactic formulated by the Petricians to put off full political Petricians to put off full political Petricians to put off full political equality with the plebs, which it did equality with the plebs, which it did equality with the plebs, which it did for the better part of 80 years. A for the better part of 80 years. A for the better part of 80 years. A second action by the Petricians further

second action by the Petricians further second action by the Petricians further removed the plebs from access to real removed the plebs from access to real removed the plebs from access to real power. One of the most important duties power. One of the most important duties power. One of the most important duties of the consils was administering the of the consils was administering the of the consils was administering the census once every 5 years. The census census once every 5 years. The census census once every 5 years. The census determined citizen status as well as determined citizen status as well as determined citizen status as well as classification within the five- tiered classification within the five- tiered classification within the five- tiered system of the communist century. The system of the communist century. The system of the communist century. The consoles charged with taking the census consoles charged with taking the census consoles charged with taking the census had enormous latitude at the edges of had enormous latitude at the edges of had enormous latitude at the edges of the dividing lines to move citizens up the dividing lines to move citizens up the dividing lines to move citizens up or down granting a degree of control or down granting a degree of control or down granting a degree of control over the end voting blocks of the over the end voting blocks of the over the end voting blocks of the centuriata. More than that even it was centuriata. More than that even it was centuriata. More than that even it was during the census that citizen status during the census that citizen status during the census that citizen status was granted or revoked. Obviously, the was granted or revoked. Obviously, the was granted or revoked. Obviously, the patricians had a keen interest in patricians had a keen interest in patricians had a keen interest in maintaining control of the census. And maintaining control of the census. And maintaining control of the census. And when military tribunes were introduced, when military tribunes were introduced, when military tribunes were introduced, the administration of the census was the administration of the census was the administration of the census was peeled off from the other consular peeled off from the other consular peeled off from the other consular powers and invested into a new office powers and invested into a new office powers and invested into a new office that was destined to become one of the that was destined to become one of the that was destined to become one of the most coveted of all the magistrates, the most coveted of all the magistrates, the most coveted of all the magistrates, the sensor. In time, the sensor would sensor. In time, the sensor would sensor. In time, the sensor would acquire other duties, most famously the acquire other duties, most famously the acquire other duties, most famously the vague directive to protect public vague directive to protect public vague directive to protect public morals. But for now, the single role of morals. But for now, the single role of morals. But for now, the single role of administering the census was important administering the census was important administering the census was important enough. By senatorial decree, the sensor enough. By senatorial decree, the sensor enough. By senatorial decree, the sensor had to be a patrician, ostensibly had to be a patrician, ostensibly had to be a patrician, ostensibly because of the religious ceremonies of because of the religious ceremonies of because of the religious ceremonies of the census that needed attending to, but the census that needed attending to, but the census that needed attending to, but most likely it was to make sure that most likely it was to make sure that most likely it was to make sure that plebs could never engineer more plebs could never engineer more plebs could never engineer more favorable voting blocks for themselves favorable voting blocks for themselves favorable voting blocks for themselves in the in the in the century. These political reforms closed century. These political reforms closed century. These political reforms closed out the cycle initiated by Taran Tullis out the cycle initiated by Taran Tullis out the cycle initiated by Taran Tullis in 462 BC when he first proposed the in 462 BC when he first proposed the in 462 BC when he first proposed the creation of the 12 table. The political creation of the 12 table. The political creation of the 12 table. The political and economic structure of Rome would not and economic structure of Rome would not and economic structure of Rome would not see significant alteration until the see significant alteration until the see significant alteration until the opening of the Samite wars in the opening of the Samite wars in the opening of the Samite wars in the mid300s BC. Not for lack of plea

mid300s BC. Not for lack of plea mid300s BC. Not for lack of plea agitation, but because the patricians agitation, but because the patricians agitation, but because the patricians seem to have closed ranks and resisted seem to have closed ranks and resisted seem to have closed ranks and resisted any further any further any further reforms. As I said at the beginning, the reforms. As I said at the beginning, the reforms. As I said at the beginning, the years ahead were long and hard for Rome. years ahead were long and hard for Rome. years ahead were long and hard for Rome. Grain shortages were reported in a dozen Grain shortages were reported in a dozen Grain shortages were reported in a dozen of the next 50 years with devastating of the next 50 years with devastating of the next 50 years with devastating famines following. The lack of famines following. The lack of famines following. The lack of nourishment inevitably led to plagues nourishment inevitably led to plagues nourishment inevitably led to plagues which further decimated the population. which further decimated the population. which further decimated the population. Rome was forced to seek help from Rome was forced to seek help from Rome was forced to seek help from surrounding communities north in Aturia surrounding communities north in Aturia surrounding communities north in Aturia and south in Magna Gracia and Sicily. and south in Magna Gracia and Sicily. and south in Magna Gracia and Sicily. Their requests though were denied as Their requests though were denied as Their requests though were denied as often as they were approved and many of often as they were approved and many of often as they were approved and many of their neighbors reveled in Rome's misery their neighbors reveled in Rome's misery their neighbors reveled in Rome's misery after so many years of dominance. Just after so many years of dominance. Just after so many years of dominance. Just about every one of their enemies took about every one of their enemies took about every one of their enemies took advantage of Rome's depleted and advantage of Rome's depleted and advantage of Rome's depleted and malnourished army and Rome's sphere of malnourished army and Rome's sphere of malnourished army and Rome's sphere of influence gradually began to erode. The influence gradually began to erode. The influence gradually began to erode. The Vulian and Acquans, once easily Vulian and Acquans, once easily Vulian and Acquans, once easily dispatched, now let their flocks graze dispatched, now let their flocks graze dispatched, now let their flocks graze in Roman fields in Roman fields in Roman fields uncontested. In the midst of this uncontested. In the midst of this uncontested. In the midst of this desperation, some men allowed their desperation, some men allowed their desperation, some men allowed their scruples to take a backseat to ambition. scruples to take a backseat to ambition. scruples to take a backseat to ambition. And one man in particular would pay the And one man in particular would pay the And one man in particular would pay the ultimate price for his hubris. A wealthy ultimate price for his hubris. A wealthy ultimate price for his hubris. A wealthy merchant named Manlas, who had never merchant named Manlas, who had never merchant named Manlas, who had never served in any important office, but was served in any important office, but was served in any important office, but was of equestrian rank, began to dream of equestrian rank, began to dream of equestrian rank, began to dream bigger than his prudence should have bigger than his prudence should have bigger than his prudence should have allowed. In 439 BC, during a typical allowed. In 439 BC, during a typical allowed. In 439 BC, during a typical grain famine, official Roman envoys in grain famine, official Roman envoys in grain famine, official Roman envoys in Atroia rejected the Atruscan price for Atroia rejected the Atruscan price for Atroia rejected the Atruscan price for grain as gouging and returned to the grain as gouging and returned to the grain as gouging and returned to the city city city empty-handed. Manly then went himself empty-handed. Manly then went himself empty-handed. Manly then went himself and agreed to pay the exorbitant cost, and agreed to pay the exorbitant cost, and agreed to pay the exorbitant cost, bringing home the grain the people bringing home the grain the people bringing home the grain the people needed and handing it out for free.

needed and handing it out for free. needed and handing it out for free. Manas was an overnight sensation, a Manas was an overnight sensation, a Manas was an overnight sensation, a newly minted political rockstar. newly minted political rockstar. newly minted political rockstar. Everywhere he went, he was greeted by Everywhere he went, he was greeted by Everywhere he went, he was greeted by large ovations acclaiming his large ovations acclaiming his large ovations acclaiming his generosity. generosity. generosity. Manas looked at the adoring masses and Manas looked at the adoring masses and Manas looked at the adoring masses and at his own personal fortune and let his at his own personal fortune and let his at his own personal fortune and let his imagination get away from him. He moved imagination get away from him. He moved imagination get away from him. He moved quickly from dream to action and began quickly from dream to action and began quickly from dream to action and began to actively conspire against the state to actively conspire against the state to actively conspire against the state with the intention of making himself with the intention of making himself with the intention of making himself king. The Republican government he king. The Republican government he king. The Republican government he rationalized had failed to protect and rationalized had failed to protect and rationalized had failed to protect and feed the people where he, man, had feed the people where he, man, had feed the people where he, man, had succeeded. It was only right that he succeeded. It was only right that he succeeded. It was only right that he should rule. He began cashing weapons should rule. He began cashing weapons should rule. He began cashing weapons and bribing the plebe leadership to rise and bribing the plebe leadership to rise and bribing the plebe leadership to rise with him when he made his move against with him when he made his move against with him when he made his move against the Senate. But alas, it was not to be. the Senate. But alas, it was not to be. the Senate. But alas, it was not to be. The state controller of supplies, a man The state controller of supplies, a man The state controller of supplies, a man named Minutius, dealt daily with the named Minutius, dealt daily with the named Minutius, dealt daily with the same grain merchants who dealt with same grain merchants who dealt with same grain merchants who dealt with manliness and soon learned about the manliness and soon learned about the manliness and soon learned about the plot. He went straight away to the plot. He went straight away to the plot. He went straight away to the Senate, who flew into a panic, Senate, who flew into a panic, Senate, who flew into a panic, recognizing their own unpopularity, recognizing their own unpopularity, recognizing their own unpopularity, coupled with the people's desperate coupled with the people's desperate coupled with the people's desperate state might be enough to slip tyranny in state might be enough to slip tyranny in state might be enough to slip tyranny in the back door. The Senate needed a man the back door. The Senate needed a man the back door. The Senate needed a man whose fame and popularity outshown that whose fame and popularity outshown that whose fame and popularity outshown that of manliness, to put a stop to the of manliness, to put a stop to the of manliness, to put a stop to the conspiracy.

conspiracy. conspiracy. As I mentioned last week, they went back As I mentioned last week, they went back As I mentioned last week, they went back to Catus, now well over 80, and to Catus, now well over 80, and to Catus, now well over 80, and appointed him dictator once again. All appointed him dictator once again. All appointed him dictator once again. All of Manly's careful planning was undone of Manly's careful planning was undone of Manly's careful planning was undone in a moment. Catis sent his master of in a moment. Catis sent his master of in a moment. Catis sent his master of horse to fetch Manas and bring him horse to fetch Manas and bring him horse to fetch Manas and bring him forward for a trial. Manas, knowing that forward for a trial. Manas, knowing that forward for a trial. Manas, knowing that he was in deep trouble, attempted to he was in deep trouble, attempted to he was in deep trouble, attempted to resist the summons, and when he did, the resist the summons, and when he did, the resist the summons, and when he did, the master of horse cut him down where he master of horse cut him down where he master of horse cut him down where he stood. There was a brief popular uproar stood. There was a brief popular uproar stood. There was a brief popular uproar over the murder, but Catis legitimized over the murder, but Catis legitimized over the murder, but Catis legitimized the act, saying that Manly was being the act, saying that Manly was being the act, saying that Manly was being summoned merely for trial and that it summoned merely for trial and that it summoned merely for trial and that it was his refusal to appear, not his was his refusal to appear, not his was his refusal to appear, not his alleged criminal activity that sealed alleged criminal activity that sealed alleged criminal activity that sealed his fate. Political order was restored his fate. Political order was restored his fate. Political order was restored and Catis again and Catis again and Catis again resigned. Soon after the death of resigned. Soon after the death of resigned. Soon after the death of Manley, an external threat emerged that Manley, an external threat emerged that Manley, an external threat emerged that would eventually lead Rome into its would eventually lead Rome into its would eventually lead Rome into its final definitive clash with VA. The city final definitive clash with VA. The city final definitive clash with VA. The city of Feedne, an atruscan outpost on the of Feedne, an atruscan outpost on the of Feedne, an atruscan outpost on the Roman side of the Tyber, which had been Roman side of the Tyber, which had been Roman side of the Tyber, which had been under Roman control for some time, under Roman control for some time, under Roman control for some time, decided to revolt and called for VA's decided to revolt and called for VA's decided to revolt and called for VA's help. They figured that Rome, weak help. They figured that Rome, weak help. They figured that Rome, weak internally and caught up in the south internally and caught up in the south internally and caught up in the south with intrusive tribes, would be forced with intrusive tribes, would be forced with intrusive tribes, would be forced to let the city go. But Rome was to let the city go. But Rome was to let the city go. But Rome was determined to maintain control.

determined to maintain control. determined to maintain control. Hostilities began with Fed hoping to go Hostilities began with Fed hoping to go Hostilities began with Fed hoping to go Rome into a battle she would lose, Rome into a battle she would lose, Rome into a battle she would lose, murdered four visiting Roman envoys. murdered four visiting Roman envoys. murdered four visiting Roman envoys. This treacherous act did lead to an This treacherous act did lead to an This treacherous act did lead to an immediate Roman response, but no immediate Roman response, but no immediate Roman response, but no conclusive action was achieved on either conclusive action was achieved on either conclusive action was achieved on either side. The war with VA backed fed dragged side. The war with VA backed fed dragged side. The war with VA backed fed dragged on for years. To the Romans, victory was on for years. To the Romans, victory was on for years. To the Romans, victory was a necessity. If they lost control of a necessity. If they lost control of a necessity. If they lost control of Feda, trade up the Tyber River would be Feda, trade up the Tyber River would be Feda, trade up the Tyber River would be severely hampered. But despite the severely hampered. But despite the severely hampered. But despite the Romans best efforts, Feed held out and Romans best efforts, Feed held out and Romans best efforts, Feed held out and trade suffered accordingly. Through the trade suffered accordingly. Through the trade suffered accordingly. Through the 430s and 420s BC, Rome found itself 430s and 420s BC, Rome found itself 430s and 420s BC, Rome found itself militarily engaged on three fronts. in militarily engaged on three fronts. in militarily engaged on three fronts. in the north, east, and south, economically the north, east, and south, economically the north, east, and south, economically isolated and politically divided. It was isolated and politically divided. It was isolated and politically divided. It was not a good time to be a not a good time to be a not a good time to be a Roman. Some relief came around 425 BC Roman. Some relief came around 425 BC Roman. Some relief came around 425 BC when the Romans finally won back control when the Romans finally won back control when the Romans finally won back control over Feda. But VA itself still loomed on over Feda. But VA itself still loomed on over Feda. But VA itself still loomed on the horizon. The Romans for the moment the horizon. The Romans for the moment the horizon. The Romans for the moment dreaded a fight with their rival and did dreaded a fight with their rival and did dreaded a fight with their rival and did not follow up their recovery of fed with not follow up their recovery of fed with not follow up their recovery of fed with action into V8 territory. A action into V8 territory. A action into V8 territory. A confrontation was brewing between the confrontation was brewing between the confrontation was brewing between the two powers. Their political and economic two powers. Their political and economic two powers. Their political and economic destinies were on a collision course, destinies were on a collision course, destinies were on a collision course, but for now, a tense truce but for now, a tense truce but for now, a tense truce prevailed. VA seemed to have been prevailed. VA seemed to have been prevailed. VA seemed to have been dealing with its own internal problems dealing with its own internal problems dealing with its own internal problems at the time, and so did not strike when at the time, and so did not strike when at the time, and so did not strike when the iron was hot, immediately at the end the iron was hot, immediately at the end the iron was hot, immediately at the end of a war which had drained Rome of a war which had drained Rome of a war which had drained Rome physically and emotionally. This gave physically and emotionally. This gave physically and emotionally. This gave the Romans a chance to catch their the Romans a chance to catch their the Romans a chance to catch their breath and consolidate their power. When breath and consolidate their power. When breath and consolidate their power. When the final clash with VA finally erupted, the final clash with VA finally erupted, the final clash with VA finally erupted, the Romans were in a position to the Romans were in a position to the Romans were in a position to challenge their Atruscan rival on equal challenge their Atruscan rival on equal challenge their Atruscan rival on equal footing.

footing. footing. The years leading up to the war with VA The years leading up to the war with VA The years leading up to the war with VA were hard, but these decades would were hard, but these decades would were hard, but these decades would highlight the characteristic Roman highlight the characteristic Roman highlight the characteristic Roman obstinance that would win them an obstinance that would win them an obstinance that would win them an empire. The Romans simply did not give empire. The Romans simply did not give empire. The Romans simply did not give up. Beaten, harassed, tired, and up. Beaten, harassed, tired, and up. Beaten, harassed, tired, and divided, the Romans soldiered on. The divided, the Romans soldiered on. The divided, the Romans soldiered on. The Roman unwillingness to quit in the face Roman unwillingness to quit in the face Roman unwillingness to quit in the face of adversity bordered on the edge of of adversity bordered on the edge of of adversity bordered on the edge of insanity. They would accept catastrophic insanity. They would accept catastrophic insanity. They would accept catastrophic losses, but would never surrender. In losses, but would never surrender. In losses, but would never surrender. In the centuries that followed, Rome was the centuries that followed, Rome was the centuries that followed, Rome was many times beaten so badly that they many times beaten so badly that they many times beaten so badly that they should have relinquished their dreams of should have relinquished their dreams of should have relinquished their dreams of empire and retired to the dust bin of empire and retired to the dust bin of empire and retired to the dust bin of history. But instead, they buried the history. But instead, they buried the history. But instead, they buried the dead and raised a fresh army, never dead and raised a fresh army, never dead and raised a fresh army, never suing for peace and never suing for peace and never suing for peace and never retreating. It was this unwavering retreating. It was this unwavering retreating. It was this unwavering advance that so frightened Rome's advance that so frightened Rome's advance that so frightened Rome's enemies. In battle, legionnaires would enemies. In battle, legionnaires would enemies. In battle, legionnaires would fall, but the line would keep marching fall, but the line would keep marching fall, but the line would keep marching incessantly forward, dispassionate, incessantly forward, dispassionate, incessantly forward, dispassionate, calm, and mechanical. There was no calm, and mechanical. There was no calm, and mechanical. There was no psyching out the legions or driving them psyching out the legions or driving them psyching out the legions or driving them to flight. They just kept coming. And if to flight. They just kept coming. And if to flight. They just kept coming. And if you decisively beat one Roman army, you decisively beat one Roman army, you decisively beat one Roman army, rather than surrendering like a rather than surrendering like a rather than surrendering like a civilized nation, the Romans raised civilized nation, the Romans raised civilized nation, the Romans raised another and set it against you until another and set it against you until another and set it against you until more from exhaustion than anything else more from exhaustion than anything else more from exhaustion than anything else you were beaten and inexplicably found you were beaten and inexplicably found you were beaten and inexplicably found yourself under the yoke of a foe you yourself under the yoke of a foe you yourself under the yoke of a foe you thought you had beaten. This was the thought you had beaten. This was the thought you had beaten. This was the Roman way, and during these hard years Roman way, and during these hard years Roman way, and during these hard years it was on full it was on full it was on full display. It has often been said that of display. It has often been said that of display. It has often been said that of some generations much is asked, and of some generations much is asked, and of some generations much is asked, and of others, much is given. Of this others, much is given. Of this others, much is given. Of this generation, much was asked, and without generation, much was asked, and without generation, much was asked, and without even the promise of glory to soothe even the promise of glory to soothe even the promise of glory to soothe them. Their fights were not the great them. Their fights were not the great them. Their fights were not the great wars that made men famous, they were wars that made men famous, they were wars that made men famous, they were forced to deal with persistent

forced to deal with persistent forced to deal with persistent skirmishes of attrition, which cost skirmishes of attrition, which cost skirmishes of attrition, which cost lives and profited no one. The Romans of lives and profited no one. The Romans of lives and profited no one. The Romans of the Middle Imperium, which Gibbon the Middle Imperium, which Gibbon the Middle Imperium, which Gibbon famously called the safest, most famously called the safest, most famously called the safest, most civilized, and most comfortable civilized, and most comfortable civilized, and most comfortable generation in history, bears no generation in history, bears no generation in history, bears no resemblance to the thin, desperate resemblance to the thin, desperate resemblance to the thin, desperate Romans of the late 400s BC. But that Romans of the late 400s BC. But that Romans of the late 400s BC. But that future was secured by the sacrifice of future was secured by the sacrifice of future was secured by the sacrifice of these early suffering generations of these early suffering generations of these early suffering generations of whom much was asked and nothing was whom much was asked and nothing was whom much was asked and nothing was given. I'll close tonight with a rare given. I'll close tonight with a rare given. I'll close tonight with a rare programming note. I am going on programming note. I am going on programming note. I am going on vacation, so there will be no new vacation, so there will be no new vacation, so there will be no new episode next week. But fear not, we will episode next week. But fear not, we will episode next week. But fear not, we will return in two weeks and trace the final return in two weeks and trace the final return in two weeks and trace the final conflict with VA, Rome's very own Trojan conflict with VA, Rome's very own Trojan conflict with VA, Rome's very own Trojan War, complete with victory secured by War, complete with victory secured by War, complete with victory secured by sneak attack, and introduce a giant of sneak attack, and introduce a giant of sneak attack, and introduce a giant of the early republic, Marcus Furious the early republic, Marcus Furious the early republic, Marcus Furious Camilis, known as the second founder of Camilis, known as the second founder of Camilis, known as the second founder of Rome. Rome. Rome. Until then, I want to thank all of you Until then, I want to thank all of you Until then, I want to thank all of you who have subscribed and supported the who have subscribed and supported the who have subscribed and supported the history of Realm since it began. It has history of Realm since it began. It has history of Realm since it began. It has been an immensely gratifying experience, been an immensely gratifying experience, been an immensely gratifying experience, and all of you out there listening have and all of you out there listening have and all of you out there listening have made it possible. Thank you, and I will made it possible. Thank you, and I will made it possible. Thank you, and I will see you in 2 weeks.

Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Rome. Last time we left Rome on an Rome. Last time we left Rome on an Rome. Last time we left Rome on an upbeat. Feedday recovered and their upbeat. Feedday recovered and their upbeat. Feedday recovered and their position in the region stabilized. The position in the region stabilized. The position in the region stabilized. The Vulian were still a persistent menace to Vulian were still a persistent menace to Vulian were still a persistent menace to the south, but by this time they were the south, but by this time they were the south, but by this time they were clearly on the decline militarily. In clearly on the decline militarily. In clearly on the decline militarily. In another few decades, Rome would finally another few decades, Rome would finally another few decades, Rome would finally put an end to the Vulian threat and put an end to the Vulian threat and put an end to the Vulian threat and conquer them once and for all. But for conquer them once and for all. But for conquer them once and for all. But for now, periodic clashes continued to be a now, periodic clashes continued to be a now, periodic clashes continued to be a mainstay of Legion mainstay of Legion mainstay of Legion activity. The main threat to Rome, activity. The main threat to Rome, activity. The main threat to Rome, though, lay north with the citystate of though, lay north with the citystate of though, lay north with the citystate of VA, long an economic, political, and VA, long an economic, political, and VA, long an economic, political, and military rival. When not clashing with military rival. When not clashing with military rival. When not clashing with VA directly, the Atruscan city had VA directly, the Atruscan city had VA directly, the Atruscan city had bankrolled Rome's enemies and fought by bankrolled Rome's enemies and fought by bankrolled Rome's enemies and fought by proxy. After years of avoiding conflict proxy. After years of avoiding conflict proxy. After years of avoiding conflict because they were stretched too thin, because they were stretched too thin, because they were stretched too thin, the Romans finally felt secure enough to the Romans finally felt secure enough to the Romans finally felt secure enough to challenge their northern rival openly challenge their northern rival openly challenge their northern rival openly and committed themselves to a war that and committed themselves to a war that and committed themselves to a war that would determine who controlled central would determine who controlled central would determine who controlled central Italy. As I mentioned earlier, VA was Italy. As I mentioned earlier, VA was Italy. As I mentioned earlier, VA was the southernmost member of the Atruscan the southernmost member of the Atruscan the southernmost member of the Atruscan League, a loose confederation of 12 League, a loose confederation of 12 League, a loose confederation of 12 citystates that controlled Italy from citystates that controlled Italy from citystates that controlled Italy from the Tyber north to the Po Valley. Other the Tyber north to the Po Valley. Other the Tyber north to the Po Valley. Other members of the League included Tarquiny, members of the League included Tarquiny, members of the League included Tarquiny, birthplace of Tarquinius Prriscus, the birthplace of Tarquinius Prriscus, the birthplace of Tarquinius Prriscus, the fifth king of Rome, and Colossium, home fifth king of Rome, and Colossium, home fifth king of Rome, and Colossium, home of Lars Porcenna, who either did or did of Lars Porcenna, who either did or did of Lars Porcenna, who either did or did not conquer Rome. Had there been any not conquer Rome. Had there been any not conquer Rome. Had there been any solidarity between the cities, it is solidarity between the cities, it is solidarity between the cities, it is doubtful Rome would have emerged doubtful Rome would have emerged doubtful Rome would have emerged triumphant from its war with VA. But the triumphant from its war with VA. But the triumphant from its war with VA. But the League served an economic and cultural League served an economic and cultural League served an economic and cultural function rather than a political and function rather than a political and function rather than a political and military one. This failure to unite military one. This failure to unite military one. This failure to unite would ultimately spell the end for the would ultimately spell the end for the would ultimately spell the end for the Atruscans who in addition to pressure Atruscans who in addition to pressure Atruscans who in addition to pressure from Rome in the south suddenly faced

from Rome in the south suddenly faced from Rome in the south suddenly faced the threat of migrating Gauls who were the threat of migrating Gauls who were the threat of migrating Gauls who were passing through the Alps into the Po passing through the Alps into the Po passing through the Alps into the Po Valley and squeezing the Atruscans out Valley and squeezing the Atruscans out Valley and squeezing the Atruscans out of land in the north. The third prong of of land in the north. The third prong of of land in the north. The third prong of the assault that would mark the end of the assault that would mark the end of the assault that would mark the end of Atruscan power was the ascendancy of Atruscan power was the ascendancy of Atruscan power was the ascendancy of Syracuse, the powerful Greek city in Syracuse, the powerful Greek city in Syracuse, the powerful Greek city in Sicily, who bottled up the Sicily, who bottled up the Sicily, who bottled up the Carthaginians, long an atruscan economic Carthaginians, long an atruscan economic Carthaginians, long an atruscan economic and military ally, preventing any and military ally, preventing any and military ally, preventing any outside aid from reaching the besieged outside aid from reaching the besieged outside aid from reaching the besieged at Truscan cities. Syracuse had just put at Truscan cities. Syracuse had just put at Truscan cities. Syracuse had just put itself on the map by defeating an itself on the map by defeating an itself on the map by defeating an Athenian invasion force in 413 BC and Athenian invasion force in 413 BC and Athenian invasion force in 413 BC and now ambitiously sought to control all now ambitiously sought to control all now ambitiously sought to control all mainland Italy. mainland Italy. mainland Italy. But getting back to the topic at hand, But getting back to the topic at hand, But getting back to the topic at hand, the war between Rome and VA was the war between Rome and VA was the war between Rome and VA was inevitable. VA lay a mere 12 mi north of inevitable. VA lay a mere 12 mi north of inevitable. VA lay a mere 12 mi north of Rome, far too close for the two powers Rome, far too close for the two powers Rome, far too close for the two powers to coexist peacefully forever. to coexist peacefully forever. to coexist peacefully forever. Eventually, economic necessity drove Eventually, economic necessity drove Eventually, economic necessity drove them both to the conclusion that the them both to the conclusion that the them both to the conclusion that the other had to be eliminated. The region other had to be eliminated. The region other had to be eliminated. The region was simply not big enough for the both was simply not big enough for the both was simply not big enough for the both of them. There were three basic points of them. There were three basic points of them. There were three basic points of economic conflict that could not be of economic conflict that could not be of economic conflict that could not be resolved peacefully. The first was resolved peacefully. The first was resolved peacefully. The first was control of the lucrative salt beds at control of the lucrative salt beds at control of the lucrative salt beds at the mouth of the Tyber. Almost all the the mouth of the Tyber. Almost all the the mouth of the Tyber. Almost all the inland communities relied on the Tyber inland communities relied on the Tyber inland communities relied on the Tyber beds as their source of salt and whoever beds as their source of salt and whoever beds as their source of salt and whoever controlled the source controlled a controlled the source controlled a controlled the source controlled a reliable cash cow. But the beds lay reliable cash cow. But the beds lay reliable cash cow. But the beds lay mostly on the north bank of the river mostly on the north bank of the river mostly on the north bank of the river and so were controlled by VA. The Romans and so were controlled by VA. The Romans and so were controlled by VA. The Romans looked on with envy and for years sought looked on with envy and for years sought looked on with envy and for years sought to dislodge the Vites but were never in to dislodge the Vites but were never in to dislodge the Vites but were never in a position to do so. Now it seemed the a position to do so. Now it seemed the a position to do so. Now it seemed the time was ripe to make their move. The time was ripe to make their move. The time was ripe to make their move. The Romans wanted to control the beds, but Romans wanted to control the beds, but Romans wanted to control the beds, but VA was not going to give them up without

VA was not going to give them up without VA was not going to give them up without a fight. The salt trade was so important a fight. The salt trade was so important a fight. The salt trade was so important because of the economic conditions at because of the economic conditions at because of the economic conditions at the time. Economic conditions that made the time. Economic conditions that made the time. Economic conditions that made the world too small for both powers. the world too small for both powers. the world too small for both powers. After the Atruscans had lost their After the Atruscans had lost their After the Atruscans had lost their foothold south of Rome to the Vulian, foothold south of Rome to the Vulian, foothold south of Rome to the Vulian, their direct connection to trade with their direct connection to trade with their direct connection to trade with Magnaia was severed. The archaeological Magnaia was severed. The archaeological Magnaia was severed. The archaeological record shows that the flood of trade VA record shows that the flood of trade VA record shows that the flood of trade VA had once enjoyed as the gateway to had once enjoyed as the gateway to had once enjoyed as the gateway to Aturia now slowed to a trickle. Their Aturia now slowed to a trickle. Their Aturia now slowed to a trickle. Their overland trade routes closed. The VHS overland trade routes closed. The VHS overland trade routes closed. The VHS were forced to rely on seafaring were forced to rely on seafaring were forced to rely on seafaring traders, most importantly their traders, most importantly their traders, most importantly their Carthaginian allies. But after the rise Carthaginian allies. But after the rise Carthaginian allies. But after the rise of Syracuse, those Carthaginian traders of Syracuse, those Carthaginian traders of Syracuse, those Carthaginian traders began to be squeezed out and VA's began to be squeezed out and VA's began to be squeezed out and VA's economy suffered as a result. In better economy suffered as a result. In better economy suffered as a result. In better days, northbound trade was ample enough days, northbound trade was ample enough days, northbound trade was ample enough to be split between VA and Rome. But now to be split between VA and Rome. But now to be split between VA and Rome. But now the limited supply was not enough to the limited supply was not enough to the limited supply was not enough to supply two economic centers. One had to supply two economic centers. One had to supply two economic centers. One had to be eliminated or both would die. be eliminated or both would die. be eliminated or both would die. Finally, there was the basic issue of Finally, there was the basic issue of Finally, there was the basic issue of territory. Rome's population was territory. Rome's population was territory. Rome's population was expanding, but its territory was not.

expanding, but its territory was not. expanding, but its territory was not. Via controlled huge tracks of fertile Via controlled huge tracks of fertile Via controlled huge tracks of fertile land that all levels of Roman society land that all levels of Roman society land that all levels of Roman society coveted. The richest patrician and the coveted. The richest patrician and the coveted. The richest patrician and the poorest plebeian both saw the land north poorest plebeian both saw the land north poorest plebeian both saw the land north of the Tyber as the answer to their of the Tyber as the answer to their of the Tyber as the answer to their overpopulation crisis. The patricians overpopulation crisis. The patricians overpopulation crisis. The patricians wanted the land to relocate the landless wanted the land to relocate the landless wanted the land to relocate the landless plebes, who were agitating with plebes, who were agitating with plebes, who were agitating with escalating fervor to redistribute escalating fervor to redistribute escalating fervor to redistribute patrician land in a more equitable patrician land in a more equitable patrician land in a more equitable manner. and the plebes just wanted land manner. and the plebes just wanted land manner. and the plebes just wanted land whatever the whatever the whatever the source. The need to control the salt source. The need to control the salt source. The need to control the salt markets, the need to control the sparse markets, the need to control the sparse markets, the need to control the sparse overland trade with Magnaia and the need overland trade with Magnaia and the need overland trade with Magnaia and the need to control the land north of the Tyber to control the land north of the Tyber to control the land north of the Tyber finally drove the Romans to action and finally drove the Romans to action and finally drove the Romans to action and around 400 BC it was decided to take Vi around 400 BC it was decided to take Vi around 400 BC it was decided to take Vi out once and for all. The Vites equally out once and for all. The Vites equally out once and for all. The Vites equally in a bind were more than willing to take in a bind were more than willing to take in a bind were more than willing to take up the fight and the final conflict was up the fight and the final conflict was up the fight and the final conflict was joined. joined. joined. The war with VA was unlike any the The war with VA was unlike any the The war with VA was unlike any the Romans had undertaken thus far, and the Romans had undertaken thus far, and the Romans had undertaken thus far, and the battle would change the nature and battle would change the nature and battle would change the nature and character of the Romans forever. Libby character of the Romans forever. Libby character of the Romans forever. Libby dates the conflict as taking place dates the conflict as taking place dates the conflict as taking place between 402 and 392 BC, and the between 402 and 392 BC, and the between 402 and 392 BC, and the archaeological record tends to back up archaeological record tends to back up archaeological record tends to back up this chronology, though not completely.

this chronology, though not completely. this chronology, though not completely. The traditional length given for the war The traditional length given for the war The traditional length given for the war is 10 years, but most historians agree is 10 years, but most historians agree is 10 years, but most historians agree that this number was lifted from the that this number was lifted from the that this number was lifted from the mythical Trojan War and that the actual mythical Trojan War and that the actual mythical Trojan War and that the actual conflict more likely lasted 6 or seven conflict more likely lasted 6 or seven conflict more likely lasted 6 or seven years. years. years. Battles in the field were intermittent Battles in the field were intermittent Battles in the field were intermittent and inconclusive, leading the Romans to and inconclusive, leading the Romans to and inconclusive, leading the Romans to change tactics and besiege VA itself change tactics and besiege VA itself change tactics and besiege VA itself rather than try and beat its army in the rather than try and beat its army in the rather than try and beat its army in the field. This forced the Romans to do field. This forced the Romans to do field. This forced the Romans to do something they had never before even something they had never before even something they had never before even contemplated, keeping an army in the contemplated, keeping an army in the contemplated, keeping an army in the field year round. Traditionally, the field year round. Traditionally, the field year round. Traditionally, the campaign season lasted between April and campaign season lasted between April and campaign season lasted between April and October with soldiers returning home for October with soldiers returning home for October with soldiers returning home for the winter. It was completely the winter. It was completely the winter. It was completely unprecedented to keep an army enrolled unprecedented to keep an army enrolled unprecedented to keep an army enrolled past October. But after the decision was past October. But after the decision was past October. But after the decision was made to lay siege to VA, this is exactly made to lay siege to VA, this is exactly made to lay siege to VA, this is exactly what happened. The soldiers suffered what happened. The soldiers suffered what happened. The soldiers suffered this outrage only because the Senate this outrage only because the Senate this outrage only because the Senate introduced an innovation that would mark introduced an innovation that would mark introduced an innovation that would mark a turning point in Roman history, a turning point in Roman history, a turning point in Roman history, soldier pay. It was not a great sum, nor soldier pay. It was not a great sum, nor soldier pay. It was not a great sum, nor was it a permanent policy, but it set a was it a permanent policy, but it set a was it a permanent policy, but it set a precedent and marked the first step on precedent and marked the first step on precedent and marked the first step on the long road toward the establishment the long road toward the establishment the long road toward the establishment of a fully professional army, a road of a fully professional army, a road of a fully professional army, a road that led directly to the death of the that led directly to the death of the that led directly to the death of the Republic.

Republic. Republic. For now though, it was an expedient to For now though, it was an expedient to For now though, it was an expedient to keep an army in the field at a time when keep an army in the field at a time when keep an army in the field at a time when the soldiers had to return home to look the soldiers had to return home to look the soldiers had to return home to look after their farms. The pay alleviated after their farms. The pay alleviated after their farms. The pay alleviated the economic burden the soldiers faced the economic burden the soldiers faced the economic burden the soldiers faced and kept them and kept them and kept them fighting. The siege soon turned into a fighting. The siege soon turned into a fighting. The siege soon turned into a prolonged siege. The Romans wanted prolonged siege. The Romans wanted prolonged siege. The Romans wanted nothing more than a quick decisive nothing more than a quick decisive nothing more than a quick decisive victory, but VA was situated in a nearly victory, but VA was situated in a nearly victory, but VA was situated in a nearly impregnable position. Bounded on three impregnable position. Bounded on three impregnable position. Bounded on three sides by cliffs, only a narrow strip of sides by cliffs, only a narrow strip of sides by cliffs, only a narrow strip of land north of the city offered a level land north of the city offered a level land north of the city offered a level entrance. The Romans managed to gain entrance. The Romans managed to gain entrance. The Romans managed to gain control of that strip and cut VA off control of that strip and cut VA off control of that strip and cut VA off from the rest of the world, but they from the rest of the world, but they from the rest of the world, but they were never able to do much more than were never able to do much more than were never able to do much more than that. The Viet were able to concentrate that. The Viet were able to concentrate that. The Viet were able to concentrate their total defensive capabilities on their total defensive capabilities on their total defensive capabilities on that one accessible point, and so the that one accessible point, and so the that one accessible point, and so the Romans were unable to make any headway. Romans were unable to make any headway. Romans were unable to make any headway. Though not far from home, again, VA was Though not far from home, again, VA was Though not far from home, again, VA was only 12 mi from Rome, the soldiers were only 12 mi from Rome, the soldiers were only 12 mi from Rome, the soldiers were forced to remain in camp through the forced to remain in camp through the forced to remain in camp through the winter and began to grumble at the winter and began to grumble at the winter and began to grumble at the injustice of remaining in arms. The injustice of remaining in arms. The injustice of remaining in arms. The tribunes railed against the policy, tribunes railed against the policy, tribunes railed against the policy, claiming that the siege was a patrician claiming that the siege was a patrician claiming that the siege was a patrician policy dedicated more to getting policy dedicated more to getting policy dedicated more to getting influential plebes out of the city than influential plebes out of the city than influential plebes out of the city than actually winning the war. Look at VA, actually winning the war. Look at VA, actually winning the war. Look at VA, they said. What army could possibly take they said. What army could possibly take they said. What army could possibly take it by force? It was absurd. Soldiers it by force? It was absurd. Soldiers it by force? It was absurd. Soldiers were kept on year after year, their were kept on year after year, their were kept on year after year, their farms falling into disrepair and their farms falling into disrepair and their farms falling into disrepair and their families falling into poverty despite families falling into poverty despite families falling into poverty despite whatever pay was coming from the whatever pay was coming from the whatever pay was coming from the treasury. All in the name of a siege treasury. All in the name of a siege treasury. All in the name of a siege that showed no promise of being brought that showed no promise of being brought that showed no promise of being brought to a successful conclusion. A great many to a successful conclusion. A great many to a successful conclusion. A great many were sympathetic to this view and the were sympathetic to this view and the were sympathetic to this view and the will of the army began to will of the army began to will of the army began to waver. Into this depressed state came

waver. Into this depressed state came waver. Into this depressed state came one of the great heroes of Roman one of the great heroes of Roman one of the great heroes of Roman history, Marcus Furious history, Marcus Furious history, Marcus Furious Camilis. Of patrician descent, Camilis Camilis. Of patrician descent, Camilis Camilis. Of patrician descent, Camilis had been elected military tribune three had been elected military tribune three had been elected military tribune three times over the course of the war, times over the course of the war, times over the course of the war, distinguishing himself on the distinguishing himself on the distinguishing himself on the battlefield and running a notoriously battlefield and running a notoriously battlefield and running a notoriously disciplined ship. The Senate and the disciplined ship. The Senate and the disciplined ship. The Senate and the people were both increasingly people were both increasingly people were both increasingly dissatisfied with the military dissatisfied with the military dissatisfied with the military leadership, who seemed more willing to leadership, who seemed more willing to leadership, who seemed more willing to fight amongst themselves than unite fight amongst themselves than unite fight amongst themselves than unite behind a winning strategy. So, sick of behind a winning strategy. So, sick of behind a winning strategy. So, sick of the inconclusive bickering, they turned the inconclusive bickering, they turned the inconclusive bickering, they turned to Camilis, whose record spoke for to Camilis, whose record spoke for to Camilis, whose record spoke for itself and elected him to the first of itself and elected him to the first of itself and elected him to the first of his unprecedented five his unprecedented five his unprecedented five dictatorships. Later crises would keep dictatorships. Later crises would keep dictatorships. Later crises would keep the Romans coming back to him again and the Romans coming back to him again and the Romans coming back to him again and again, and it was the reputation he again, and it was the reputation he again, and it was the reputation he established for himself at Vie that kept established for himself at Vie that kept established for himself at Vie that kept them coming back. what looked like a them coming back. what looked like a them coming back. what looked like a never-ending siege would be brought to never-ending siege would be brought to never-ending siege would be brought to completion within his six-month term of completion within his six-month term of completion within his six-month term of office. Camilis knew as well as anyone office. Camilis knew as well as anyone office. Camilis knew as well as anyone that a direct assault on the city was that a direct assault on the city was that a direct assault on the city was doomed to failure. So, he set his mind doomed to failure. So, he set his mind doomed to failure. So, he set his mind on devising some other way to gain on devising some other way to gain on devising some other way to gain access. It did not take long for him to access. It did not take long for him to access. It did not take long for him to notice the Vit's extensive sewer system notice the Vit's extensive sewer system notice the Vit's extensive sewer system and how easy it would be to breach the and how easy it would be to breach the and how easy it would be to breach the city from underneath. He set his army city from underneath. He set his army city from underneath. He set his army digging in shifts around the clock, digging in shifts around the clock, digging in shifts around the clock, making a tunnel from the Roman camp to making a tunnel from the Roman camp to making a tunnel from the Roman camp to one of the drainage pipes that ran under one of the drainage pipes that ran under one of the drainage pipes that ran under the city. He periodically ordered the city. He periodically ordered the city. He periodically ordered attacks on the walls to keep the Viet attacks on the walls to keep the Viet attacks on the walls to keep the Viet busy, and they never caught on to the busy, and they never caught on to the busy, and they never caught on to the plan. It was now only a matter of time plan. It was now only a matter of time plan. It was now only a matter of time before the legions would come pouring before the legions would come pouring before the legions would come pouring in. Finally, the Romans reached the in. Finally, the Romans reached the in. Finally, the Romans reached the underground sewer system and followed it underground sewer system and followed it underground sewer system and followed it to the middle of the city. A raiding

to the middle of the city. A raiding to the middle of the city. A raiding party was sent above, emerging from a party was sent above, emerging from a party was sent above, emerging from a temple and making straight away for the temple and making straight away for the temple and making straight away for the gates. Camila ordered the bulk of his gates. Camila ordered the bulk of his gates. Camila ordered the bulk of his army in a frontal attack which must have army in a frontal attack which must have army in a frontal attack which must have seemed like madness to the Vites until seemed like madness to the Vites until seemed like madness to the Vites until the company of Romans appeared in their the company of Romans appeared in their the company of Romans appeared in their midst and opened the gates from within. midst and opened the gates from within. midst and opened the gates from within. The Romans did indeed come pouring in The Romans did indeed come pouring in The Romans did indeed come pouring in and it was the end for VA. Camilis and and it was the end for VA. Camilis and and it was the end for VA. Camilis and the Romans were not interested in terms the Romans were not interested in terms the Romans were not interested in terms of surrender or indemnities. They wanted of surrender or indemnities. They wanted of surrender or indemnities. They wanted to destroy VA completely. The men were to destroy VA completely. The men were to destroy VA completely. The men were slaughtered and the women and children slaughtered and the women and children slaughtered and the women and children sold into slavery. The city was sacked sold into slavery. The city was sacked sold into slavery. The city was sacked and pillaged with all its movable wealth and pillaged with all its movable wealth and pillaged with all its movable wealth finding a new home in the rucks sack of finding a new home in the rucks sack of finding a new home in the rucks sack of some legionnaire. Prior to final some legionnaire. Prior to final some legionnaire. Prior to final victory, Camilis had made a fateful victory, Camilis had made a fateful victory, Camilis had made a fateful promise that one/tenth of the spoils of promise that one/tenth of the spoils of promise that one/tenth of the spoils of war would be dedicated to Apollo. But in war would be dedicated to Apollo. But in war would be dedicated to Apollo. But in the commotion of victory, his promise the commotion of victory, his promise the commotion of victory, his promise was forgotten and everything was piled was forgotten and everything was piled was forgotten and everything was piled into the baggage train undivided. The into the baggage train undivided. The into the baggage train undivided. The great Atruscan city of VA had fallen, great Atruscan city of VA had fallen, great Atruscan city of VA had fallen, never to rise never to rise never to rise again. Upon returning to Rome, the again. Upon returning to Rome, the again. Upon returning to Rome, the victorious Camilis was awarded a well- victorious Camilis was awarded a well- victorious Camilis was awarded a well- earned triumph. Though the procession earned triumph. Though the procession earned triumph. Though the procession would mark the beginning of his famous would mark the beginning of his famous would mark the beginning of his famous undoing, and would soon find him exiled undoing, and would soon find him exiled undoing, and would soon find him exiled from the city he had just led to from the city he had just led to from the city he had just led to victory. Riding at the head of his army, victory. Riding at the head of his army, victory. Riding at the head of his army, Camilis was pulled on his chariot by Camilis was pulled on his chariot by Camilis was pulled on his chariot by four white horses, traditionally an four white horses, traditionally an four white horses, traditionally an honor reserved only for kings. The honor reserved only for kings. The honor reserved only for kings. The inhabitants of the city whispered to one inhabitants of the city whispered to one inhabitants of the city whispered to one another that Camilis fancied himself a another that Camilis fancied himself a another that Camilis fancied himself a monarch, and began to look at him not as monarch, and began to look at him not as monarch, and began to look at him not as a conquering hero, but as a potential a conquering hero, but as a potential a conquering hero, but as a potential tyrant. His fate was sealed when after tyrant. His fate was sealed when after tyrant. His fate was sealed when after the soldiers had returned home with the soldiers had returned home with the soldiers had returned home with their booty, Camilis began to worry their booty, Camilis began to worry their booty, Camilis began to worry about his unfulfilled promise to

about his unfulfilled promise to about his unfulfilled promise to Apollo. Finally, he issued an order that Apollo. Finally, he issued an order that Apollo. Finally, he issued an order that all soldiers had to produce onetenth of all soldiers had to produce onetenth of all soldiers had to produce onetenth of their treasure and hand it over to the their treasure and hand it over to the their treasure and hand it over to the state in order to appease the gods. The state in order to appease the gods. The state in order to appease the gods. The citizens were outraged but complied out citizens were outraged but complied out citizens were outraged but complied out of their well-ingrained sense of of their well-ingrained sense of of their well-ingrained sense of religious obligation. They were further religious obligation. They were further religious obligation. They were further incensed when Camilis and the Senate incensed when Camilis and the Senate incensed when Camilis and the Senate announced that one/tenth of VA's land announced that one/tenth of VA's land announced that one/tenth of VA's land would also be set aside for Apollo. The would also be set aside for Apollo. The would also be set aside for Apollo. The Landstar masses could not believe their Landstar masses could not believe their Landstar masses could not believe their ears, and it was really only a matter of ears, and it was really only a matter of ears, and it was really only a matter of time before they lashed out at their time before they lashed out at their time before they lashed out at their earthw. A year or two passed and a earthw. A year or two passed and a earthw. A year or two passed and a tribune finally brought charges against tribune finally brought charges against tribune finally brought charges against Camilis for mishandling the wealth taken Camilis for mishandling the wealth taken Camilis for mishandling the wealth taken from VA. Rather than face a hostile and from VA. Rather than face a hostile and from VA. Rather than face a hostile and humiliating trial, Camilis decided to humiliating trial, Camilis decided to humiliating trial, Camilis decided to leave the ungrateful Romans to their leave the ungrateful Romans to their leave the ungrateful Romans to their fate and went into voluntary exile. fate and went into voluntary exile. fate and went into voluntary exile. Legend has it that as he left, he Legend has it that as he left, he Legend has it that as he left, he offered a prayer that if he was offered a prayer that if he was offered a prayer that if he was innocent, that the gods should cause his innocent, that the gods should cause his innocent, that the gods should cause his former countrymen to regret his former countrymen to regret his former countrymen to regret his departure. A pure fabrication, but to departure. A pure fabrication, but to departure. A pure fabrication, but to the Romans, the sight of a massive the Romans, the sight of a massive the Romans, the sight of a massive barbarian invasion did indeed make them barbarian invasion did indeed make them barbarian invasion did indeed make them soon regret the absence of their best soon regret the absence of their best soon regret the absence of their best military military military commander. The victory over VA marked a commander. The victory over VA marked a commander. The victory over VA marked a turning point for Roman history, as well turning point for Roman history, as well turning point for Roman history, as well as Italian history as a whole. VA was as Italian history as a whole. VA was as Italian history as a whole. VA was one of the richest cities of Aturia and one of the richest cities of Aturia and one of the richest cities of Aturia and its sack marked the beginning of the end its sack marked the beginning of the end its sack marked the beginning of the end of Atruscan dominance in northern Italy.

of Atruscan dominance in northern Italy. of Atruscan dominance in northern Italy. In the north, Gauls from central Europe In the north, Gauls from central Europe In the north, Gauls from central Europe began to cross and mass into the Po began to cross and mass into the Po began to cross and mass into the Po Valley, sweeping through Atruscan Valley, sweeping through Atruscan Valley, sweeping through Atruscan defenses and settling in Atruscan lands. defenses and settling in Atruscan lands. defenses and settling in Atruscan lands. The Atruscans thus found themselves The Atruscans thus found themselves The Atruscans thus found themselves squeezed between the GIC migration and squeezed between the GIC migration and squeezed between the GIC migration and the Roman expansion. As I said earlier, the Roman expansion. As I said earlier, the Roman expansion. As I said earlier, military and political solidarity might military and political solidarity might military and political solidarity might have helped them beat off the attacks, have helped them beat off the attacks, have helped them beat off the attacks, but the independent-minded Atruscans but the independent-minded Atruscans but the independent-minded Atruscans kept to themselves and so saw their kept to themselves and so saw their kept to themselves and so saw their cities fall one by one. It would not be cities fall one by one. It would not be cities fall one by one. It would not be a quick decline. Indeed, we will find a quick decline. Indeed, we will find a quick decline. Indeed, we will find them continuing to fight Rome throughout them continuing to fight Rome throughout them continuing to fight Rome throughout the Samite Wars, but they would never the Samite Wars, but they would never the Samite Wars, but they would never again have the power or prestige they again have the power or prestige they again have the power or prestige they had so recently had so recently had so recently enjoyed. In the end, they would all fall enjoyed. In the end, they would all fall enjoyed. In the end, they would all fall under Rome's yoke and find themselves under Rome's yoke and find themselves under Rome's yoke and find themselves servants where they had once been servants where they had once been servants where they had once been masters. Although the push from the masters. Although the push from the masters. Although the push from the Gauls helped precipitate Atruscan Gauls helped precipitate Atruscan Gauls helped precipitate Atruscan decline, it also prevented the end from decline, it also prevented the end from decline, it also prevented the end from coming too quickly. The Romans flushed coming too quickly. The Romans flushed coming too quickly. The Romans flushed with victory may well have continued to with victory may well have continued to with victory may well have continued to push north and defeat all the Atruscan push north and defeat all the Atruscan push north and defeat all the Atruscan cities one by one. However, a force of cities one by one. However, a force of cities one by one. However, a force of Gauls moved south through Aturia all the Gauls moved south through Aturia all the Gauls moved south through Aturia all the way to the gates of Rome, where they way to the gates of Rome, where they way to the gates of Rome, where they would decisively beat the Romans, would decisively beat the Romans, would decisively beat the Romans, handing them a defeat that would leave handing them a defeat that would leave handing them a defeat that would leave the city burned to the ground and its the city burned to the ground and its the city burned to the ground and its citizens debating not which Atruscan citizens debating not which Atruscan citizens debating not which Atruscan city they should attack next, but city they should attack next, but city they should attack next, but whether or not to abandon their ruined whether or not to abandon their ruined whether or not to abandon their ruined city city city completely. Next week, we will cover the completely. Next week, we will cover the completely. Next week, we will cover the sack of Rome and the return of Camilis, sack of Rome and the return of Camilis, sack of Rome and the return of Camilis, an event that would close a historical an event that would close a historical an event that would close a historical epoch, marking the end of the beginning epoch, marking the end of the beginning epoch, marking the end of the beginning for Rome.

Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Rome. Rome. Rome. I would like to start this week with a I would like to start this week with a I would like to start this week with a correction. In the episode Decades of correction. In the episode Decades of correction. In the episode Decades of Gloom, I told the story of a wealthy Gloom, I told the story of a wealthy Gloom, I told the story of a wealthy grain merchant who attempted to usurp grain merchant who attempted to usurp grain merchant who attempted to usurp Republican control and install himself Republican control and install himself Republican control and install himself as king. The grain merchant in question as king. The grain merchant in question as king. The grain merchant in question was not named Manlas, as I mistakenly was not named Manlas, as I mistakenly was not named Manlas, as I mistakenly said, but rather Malas. We are about to said, but rather Malas. We are about to said, but rather Malas. We are about to meet a patrician named Manlas, who will meet a patrician named Manlas, who will meet a patrician named Manlas, who will soon find himself embroiled in a soon find himself embroiled in a soon find himself embroiled in a conspiracy to overthrow the government. conspiracy to overthrow the government. conspiracy to overthrow the government. but he bears no relation to the mealas but he bears no relation to the mealas but he bears no relation to the mealas who tried to use a grain famine to his who tried to use a grain famine to his who tried to use a grain famine to his personal advantage in 439 BC. I regret personal advantage in 439 BC. I regret personal advantage in 439 BC. I regret the error. I would also like to say that the error. I would also like to say that the error. I would also like to say that those of you who are noticing an those of you who are noticing an those of you who are noticing an improvement in audio quality are not improvement in audio quality are not improvement in audio quality are not hallucinating. I have recently upgraded hallucinating. I have recently upgraded hallucinating. I have recently upgraded my recording equipment. My only concern my recording equipment. My only concern my recording equipment. My only concern about the switch is that my previous about the switch is that my previous about the switch is that my previous efforts will now seem poor cousins in efforts will now seem poor cousins in efforts will now seem poor cousins in comparison to these new episodes. Please comparison to these new episodes. Please comparison to these new episodes. Please do not hold it against those episodes. do not hold it against those episodes. do not hold it against those episodes. It is not their fault. They were merely It is not their fault. They were merely It is not their fault. They were merely the victims of inferior equipment. the victims of inferior equipment. the victims of inferior equipment. The Romans were riding high after their The Romans were riding high after their The Romans were riding high after their decisive triumph over VA. The defeat of decisive triumph over VA. The defeat of decisive triumph over VA. The defeat of their longtime Atruscan rival had left their longtime Atruscan rival had left their longtime Atruscan rival had left the Romans an economic powerhouse. They the Romans an economic powerhouse. They the Romans an economic powerhouse. They now controlled the lands north of the now controlled the lands north of the now controlled the lands north of the Tyber and began resettlement almost Tyber and began resettlement almost Tyber and began resettlement almost immediately. The crops from the rich immediately. The crops from the rich immediately. The crops from the rich Atruscan soil promised an end to the Atruscan soil promised an end to the Atruscan soil promised an end to the cycle of grain famines that had plagued cycle of grain famines that had plagued cycle of grain famines that had plagued Rome for the last 50 years. They also Rome for the last 50 years. They also Rome for the last 50 years. They also became the hub of commerce in central became the hub of commerce in central became the hub of commerce in central Italy and took sole possession of the Italy and took sole possession of the Italy and took sole possession of the all-important salt trade, exponentially all-important salt trade, exponentially all-important salt trade, exponentially increasing Roman wealth. Things were increasing Roman wealth. Things were increasing Roman wealth. Things were looking good for the Romans, but fate

looking good for the Romans, but fate looking good for the Romans, but fate was about to deal them a cruel blow. In was about to deal them a cruel blow. In was about to deal them a cruel blow. In an instant, they would crash down from an instant, they would crash down from an instant, they would crash down from the highest high to the lowest low and the highest high to the lowest low and the highest high to the lowest low and find themselves wandering aimlessly find themselves wandering aimlessly find themselves wandering aimlessly amidst the burnedout rubble of their amidst the burnedout rubble of their amidst the burnedout rubble of their city, wondering how the gods could have city, wondering how the gods could have city, wondering how the gods could have forsaken them so quickly and so forsaken them so quickly and so forsaken them so quickly and so completely. completely. completely. The barbarian sack of Rome would be one The barbarian sack of Rome would be one The barbarian sack of Rome would be one of the most traumatizing events in Roman of the most traumatizing events in Roman of the most traumatizing events in Roman history and leave the Romans in fearful history and leave the Romans in fearful history and leave the Romans in fearful awe of the Gauls until Julius Caesar awe of the Gauls until Julius Caesar awe of the Gauls until Julius Caesar finally exercised their psychological finally exercised their psychological finally exercised their psychological demons 350 years demons 350 years demons 350 years later. Rome would survive but just later. Rome would survive but just later. Rome would survive but just barely and not without lasting barely and not without lasting barely and not without lasting damage. Now I say that the Gauls sacked damage. Now I say that the Gauls sacked damage. Now I say that the Gauls sacked Rome but that is too broad a Rome but that is too broad a Rome but that is too broad a description. The label Gaul was a description. The label Gaul was a description. The label Gaul was a catch-all used by the Romans to describe catch-all used by the Romans to describe catch-all used by the Romans to describe numerous independent tribes who lived in numerous independent tribes who lived in numerous independent tribes who lived in and around the Alps. There was no sense and around the Alps. There was no sense and around the Alps. There was no sense of union between the GIC tribes of union between the GIC tribes of union between the GIC tribes themselves apart from occasional themselves apart from occasional themselves apart from occasional alliances. And for the most part, they alliances. And for the most part, they alliances. And for the most part, they fought as much amongst themselves as fought as much amongst themselves as fought as much amongst themselves as they did against any foreign race. The they did against any foreign race. The they did against any foreign race. The particular tribe that sacked Rome was particular tribe that sacked Rome was particular tribe that sacked Rome was called the son, and they were led by a called the son, and they were led by a called the son, and they were led by a strong warrior chieftain named Brenis.

strong warrior chieftain named Brenis. strong warrior chieftain named Brenis. They'd come over the Alps into the Poe They'd come over the Alps into the Poe They'd come over the Alps into the Poe Valley in the previous century and Valley in the previous century and Valley in the previous century and settled along the Adriatic coast. This settled along the Adriatic coast. This settled along the Adriatic coast. This brought them into conflict with the brought them into conflict with the brought them into conflict with the Atruscans who had previously controlled Atruscans who had previously controlled Atruscans who had previously controlled the land. And it was this conflict that the land. And it was this conflict that the land. And it was this conflict that brought the son into conflict with brought the son into conflict with brought the son into conflict with Rome. There is an official legend that Rome. There is an official legend that Rome. There is an official legend that explains Brenis' decision to leave the explains Brenis' decision to leave the explains Brenis' decision to leave the Adriatic and move south to attack Rome Adriatic and move south to attack Rome Adriatic and move south to attack Rome as well as a modern interpretation that as well as a modern interpretation that as well as a modern interpretation that puts the attack in a wider geopolitical puts the attack in a wider geopolitical puts the attack in a wider geopolitical context of Italian real politique. context of Italian real politique. context of Italian real politique. The official legend is that Brannis The official legend is that Brannis The official legend is that Brannis attacked the Atruscan city of Clusium, attacked the Atruscan city of Clusium, attacked the Atruscan city of Clusium, who sent envoys to Rome desperately who sent envoys to Rome desperately who sent envoys to Rome desperately seeking assistance. The Romans were no seeking assistance. The Romans were no seeking assistance. The Romans were no great friend to Clusium, who had backed great friend to Clusium, who had backed great friend to Clusium, who had backed the hated King Tarwin in his bid to the hated King Tarwin in his bid to the hated King Tarwin in his bid to regain the throne 100 years before. But regain the throne 100 years before. But regain the throne 100 years before. But the Romans knew the Gauls were an enemy the Romans knew the Gauls were an enemy the Romans knew the Gauls were an enemy to be wary of, and so sent envoys to to be wary of, and so sent envoys to to be wary of, and so sent envoys to Clusium to take stock of the situation Clusium to take stock of the situation Clusium to take stock of the situation and report back how deeply Rome should and report back how deeply Rome should and report back how deeply Rome should involve itself. When they arrived, involve itself. When they arrived, involve itself. When they arrived, however, the Roman envoys immediately however, the Roman envoys immediately however, the Roman envoys immediately recognized the horde of barbarians as a recognized the horde of barbarians as a recognized the horde of barbarians as a real threat to all Italy and agreed to real threat to all Italy and agreed to real threat to all Italy and agreed to help Clusium right then and there. These help Clusium right then and there. These help Clusium right then and there. These envoys wound up leading Clusium's army envoys wound up leading Clusium's army envoys wound up leading Clusium's army against the Gauls, and in the fighting, against the Gauls, and in the fighting, against the Gauls, and in the fighting, a GAC chieftain was killed. Brenis took a GAC chieftain was killed. Brenis took a GAC chieftain was killed. Brenis took offense to this. He felt that the offense to this. He felt that the offense to this. He felt that the diplomatic nature of their mission diplomatic nature of their mission diplomatic nature of their mission precluded the envoys from taking part in precluded the envoys from taking part in precluded the envoys from taking part in hostilities. He sent his own envoys to hostilities. He sent his own envoys to hostilities. He sent his own envoys to Rome to demand retribution. But the Rome to demand retribution. But the Rome to demand retribution. But the Romans in their infinite wisdom decided Romans in their infinite wisdom decided Romans in their infinite wisdom decided that rather than handing the envoys over that rather than handing the envoys over that rather than handing the envoys over to Brenis would elect them military to Brenis would elect them military to Brenis would elect them military tribunes for that year tribunes for that year tribunes for that year instead. At this further insult, Brenis

instead. At this further insult, Brenis instead. At this further insult, Brenis ordered his people to march south, where ordered his people to march south, where ordered his people to march south, where he would teach the ill-mannered Romans a he would teach the ill-mannered Romans a he would teach the ill-mannered Romans a lesson. Modern historians doubt that lesson. Modern historians doubt that lesson. Modern historians doubt that such a minor incident would lead Brenis such a minor incident would lead Brenis such a minor incident would lead Brenis to suddenly move his tribe south and to suddenly move his tribe south and to suddenly move his tribe south and attack one of the most heavily fortified attack one of the most heavily fortified attack one of the most heavily fortified cities in Italy. They postulate, and cities in Italy. They postulate, and cities in Italy. They postulate, and there's some evidence to back it up, there's some evidence to back it up, there's some evidence to back it up, that Brenis had come to an agreement that Brenis had come to an agreement that Brenis had come to an agreement with Dionius of Syracuse to tie the with Dionius of Syracuse to tie the with Dionius of Syracuse to tie the Romans up while Syracuse made their move Romans up while Syracuse made their move Romans up while Syracuse made their move to dominate Sicily. The Romans had to dominate Sicily. The Romans had to dominate Sicily. The Romans had historically been the allies of a historically been the allies of a historically been the allies of a Sicilian city called Masana, and Dionius Sicilian city called Masana, and Dionius Sicilian city called Masana, and Dionius would have been eager to prevent Rome would have been eager to prevent Rome would have been eager to prevent Rome from sending troops in support of a city from sending troops in support of a city from sending troops in support of a city that he was trying to that he was trying to that he was trying to capture. Thus, an arrangement was made capture. Thus, an arrangement was made capture. Thus, an arrangement was made between Syracuse and the Gauls to attack between Syracuse and the Gauls to attack between Syracuse and the Gauls to attack Rome and keep them occupied while Rome and keep them occupied while Rome and keep them occupied while Dionius made his move. Dionius made his move. Dionius made his move. This seems plausible, but we will never This seems plausible, but we will never This seems plausible, but we will never know for sure exactly why Brena suddenly know for sure exactly why Brena suddenly know for sure exactly why Brena suddenly decided to march on decided to march on decided to march on Rome. We are not only unsure of why the Rome. We are not only unsure of why the Rome. We are not only unsure of why the Gauls attacked, but also when the attack Gauls attacked, but also when the attack Gauls attacked, but also when the attack actually took actually took actually took place. The confusion again is caused by place. The confusion again is caused by place. The confusion again is caused by the scarcity of accurate records prior the scarcity of accurate records prior the scarcity of accurate records prior to the event. Traditional Roman history to the event. Traditional Roman history to the event. Traditional Roman history records that the sack took place in 390 records that the sack took place in 390 records that the sack took place in 390 BC, though that date is derived from the BC, though that date is derived from the BC, though that date is derived from the often incomplete magisterial election often incomplete magisterial election often incomplete magisterial election roles that later Romans used to roles that later Romans used to roles that later Romans used to calculate dates of past events. We will calculate dates of past events. We will calculate dates of past events. We will encounter this problem again when Libby encounter this problem again when Libby encounter this problem again when Libby makes the implausible claim that between makes the implausible claim that between makes the implausible claim that between 375 and 370 BC, no magistrates of any 375 and 370 BC, no magistrates of any 375 and 370 BC, no magistrates of any kind were elected. Libby explains this kind were elected. Libby explains this kind were elected. Libby explains this as being the result of a patrician pleb as being the result of a patrician pleb as being the result of a patrician pleb political deadlock, but most likely he political deadlock, but most likely he political deadlock, but most likely he was just trying to reconcile what the

was just trying to reconcile what the was just trying to reconcile what the electoral role said with what his own electoral role said with what his own electoral role said with what his own backwards chronology was telling him. backwards chronology was telling him. backwards chronology was telling him. Modern historians cross referencing with Modern historians cross referencing with Modern historians cross referencing with the more accurate Greek records place the more accurate Greek records place the more accurate Greek records place the sack of Rome in 387 or 386 the sack of Rome in 387 or 386 the sack of Rome in 387 or 386 BC. So we are not entirely sure why the BC. So we are not entirely sure why the BC. So we are not entirely sure why the Gauls marched on Rome nor entirely sure Gauls marched on Rome nor entirely sure Gauls marched on Rome nor entirely sure when they did so. But we do know who when they did so. But we do know who when they did so. But we do know who marched, the sons. And we know where marched, the sons. And we know where marched, the sons. And we know where they marched from the Adriatic coast to they marched from the Adriatic coast to they marched from the Adriatic coast to Rome. And we know how they got there. Rome. And we know how they got there. Rome. And we know how they got there. They walked. And we know what happened They walked. And we know what happened They walked. And we know what happened when they got there. They sacked Rome. when they got there. They sacked Rome. when they got there. They sacked Rome. And four out of six is not bad when And four out of six is not bad when And four out of six is not bad when you're talking about things that you're talking about things that you're talking about things that happened 2500 years ago. happened 2500 years ago. happened 2500 years ago. The Romans were aware of the GIC advance The Romans were aware of the GIC advance The Romans were aware of the GIC advance and enlisted one of the largest armies and enlisted one of the largest armies and enlisted one of the largest armies they had ever assembled to battle a they had ever assembled to battle a they had ever assembled to battle a single enemy with plausible estimates single enemy with plausible estimates single enemy with plausible estimates ranging from anywhere from 12 to 25,000 ranging from anywhere from 12 to 25,000 ranging from anywhere from 12 to 25,000 men. They gathered at the Aaliyah River, men. They gathered at the Aaliyah River, men. They gathered at the Aaliyah River, actually more of a brook than a river, actually more of a brook than a river, actually more of a brook than a river, and waited for the barbarians to appear and waited for the barbarians to appear and waited for the barbarians to appear on the horizon. When they did, the on the horizon. When they did, the on the horizon. When they did, the Romans were immediately on the fearful Romans were immediately on the fearful Romans were immediately on the fearful defensive. The Gauls were like nothing defensive. The Gauls were like nothing defensive. The Gauls were like nothing they had ever seen before. Huge and they had ever seen before. Huge and they had ever seen before. Huge and painted, bearded, with long hair, painted, bearded, with long hair, painted, bearded, with long hair, roaring all manner of crazy battlecries, roaring all manner of crazy battlecries, roaring all manner of crazy battlecries, the Gauls were a fearsome sight, and the Gauls were a fearsome sight, and the Gauls were a fearsome sight, and when they charged full speed directly at when they charged full speed directly at when they charged full speed directly at the Roman line, it did not take long the Roman line, it did not take long the Roman line, it did not take long before the Romans broke. The wings of before the Romans broke. The wings of before the Romans broke. The wings of the Roman army composed of the lightly the Roman army composed of the lightly the Roman army composed of the lightly armed lowerass soldiers were easily armed lowerass soldiers were easily armed lowerass soldiers were easily routed and fled for home, leaving the routed and fled for home, leaving the routed and fled for home, leaving the heavily armed center failins to be heavily armed center failins to be heavily armed center failins to be surrounded and surrounded and surrounded and massacred. It was the worst defeat the

massacred. It was the worst defeat the massacred. It was the worst defeat the Romans had suffered to this point in Romans had suffered to this point in Romans had suffered to this point in their history. But their nightmare was their history. But their nightmare was their history. But their nightmare was only just only just only just beginning. In their haste to save beginning. In their haste to save beginning. In their haste to save themselves, the fleeing soldiers made themselves, the fleeing soldiers made themselves, the fleeing soldiers made directly for the fortified Capitol Hill directly for the fortified Capitol Hill directly for the fortified Capitol Hill Citadel, leaving the walls of the city Citadel, leaving the walls of the city Citadel, leaving the walls of the city unguarded and the gates wide open. The unguarded and the gates wide open. The unguarded and the gates wide open. The remaining inhabitants of the city either remaining inhabitants of the city either remaining inhabitants of the city either fled outright or followed the soldiers fled outright or followed the soldiers fled outright or followed the soldiers into the citadel, giving free range of into the citadel, giving free range of into the citadel, giving free range of the city to the pursuing Gauls, who the city to the pursuing Gauls, who the city to the pursuing Gauls, who incredulous at the lack of resistance incredulous at the lack of resistance incredulous at the lack of resistance and believing it to be some sort of and believing it to be some sort of and believing it to be some sort of trap, actually waited a full day before trap, actually waited a full day before trap, actually waited a full day before they were satisfied it was no trick and they were satisfied it was no trick and they were satisfied it was no trick and entered the city. entered the city. entered the city. An initial attempt to take the capital An initial attempt to take the capital An initial attempt to take the capital failed, so Brenis, rather than waste his failed, so Brenis, rather than waste his failed, so Brenis, rather than waste his manpower in pointless fighting, decided manpower in pointless fighting, decided manpower in pointless fighting, decided to settle in and starve the Romans out. to settle in and starve the Romans out. to settle in and starve the Romans out. Meanwhile, stripping the city of all its Meanwhile, stripping the city of all its Meanwhile, stripping the city of all its movable movable movable wealth. The siege of the capital began wealth. The siege of the capital began wealth. The siege of the capital began to be measured not in days or weeks, but to be measured not in days or weeks, but to be measured not in days or weeks, but in months, without any sign of the in months, without any sign of the in months, without any sign of the deadlock breaking. The besieged Romans deadlock breaking. The besieged Romans deadlock breaking. The besieged Romans grew more and more desperate as their grew more and more desperate as their grew more and more desperate as their supplies and morale ran out. The Gauls supplies and morale ran out. The Gauls supplies and morale ran out. The Gauls were fairing no better. The hot Italian were fairing no better. The hot Italian were fairing no better. The hot Italian summer was not what the northern summer was not what the northern summer was not what the northern tribesmen were used to, and they began tribesmen were used to, and they began tribesmen were used to, and they began to drop like flies. Disease ran rampant, to drop like flies. Disease ran rampant, to drop like flies. Disease ran rampant, and Brenis saw his force dwindle daily and Brenis saw his force dwindle daily and Brenis saw his force dwindle daily in the foreign climate. It was a race to in the foreign climate. It was a race to in the foreign climate. It was a race to the bottom, as both sides hoped to hold the bottom, as both sides hoped to hold the bottom, as both sides hoped to hold out one day longer than their equally out one day longer than their equally out one day longer than their equally belleaguered belleaguered belleaguered foe. At one point, the Romans were foe. At one point, the Romans were foe. At one point, the Romans were nearly defeated, but were saved at the nearly defeated, but were saved at the nearly defeated, but were saved at the last minute in dramatic fashion. A last minute in dramatic fashion. A last minute in dramatic fashion. A messenger had been sent from the capital messenger had been sent from the capital messenger had been sent from the capital to make contact with Camilis, their to make contact with Camilis, their to make contact with Camilis, their exiled hero, to plead with him to bring

exiled hero, to plead with him to bring exiled hero, to plead with him to bring a force to lift the siege and save his a force to lift the siege and save his a force to lift the siege and save his former countrymen. The messenger scaled former countrymen. The messenger scaled former countrymen. The messenger scaled down an unguarded cliff, but the Gauls down an unguarded cliff, but the Gauls down an unguarded cliff, but the Gauls noticed the route and themselves noticed the route and themselves noticed the route and themselves attempted to scale the same cliff and attempted to scale the same cliff and attempted to scale the same cliff and break into the citadel. But famously, as break into the citadel. But famously, as break into the citadel. But famously, as they climbed, the sacred capital line they climbed, the sacred capital line they climbed, the sacred capital line geese who the Romans had brought with geese who the Romans had brought with geese who the Romans had brought with them into the citadel were roused and them into the citadel were roused and them into the citadel were roused and began to make a racket. The Romans, led began to make a racket. The Romans, led began to make a racket. The Romans, led by a patrician soldier named Manlas, by a patrician soldier named Manlas, by a patrician soldier named Manlas, were tipped off to the danger and drove were tipped off to the danger and drove were tipped off to the danger and drove the barbarians off the wall, preventing the barbarians off the wall, preventing the barbarians off the wall, preventing the only real attempt to take the Romans the only real attempt to take the Romans the only real attempt to take the Romans by force. Manly, for his quick action by force. Manly, for his quick action by force. Manly, for his quick action and bravery, was lauded as a hero. But and bravery, was lauded as a hero. But and bravery, was lauded as a hero. But in a few years, he would be executed for in a few years, he would be executed for in a few years, he would be executed for treason not far from the sight of these treason not far from the sight of these treason not far from the sight of these heroics, a tragic victim of his own heroics, a tragic victim of his own heroics, a tragic victim of his own vanity. The siege stretched to 7 months, vanity. The siege stretched to 7 months, vanity. The siege stretched to 7 months, and both sides were at the breaking and both sides were at the breaking and both sides were at the breaking point. In their respective desperate point. In their respective desperate point. In their respective desperate straits, they both agreed to something straits, they both agreed to something straits, they both agreed to something neither would have considered at the neither would have considered at the neither would have considered at the start. The Romans would pay the Gauls to start. The Romans would pay the Gauls to start. The Romans would pay the Gauls to leave the city. Both considered this a leave the city. Both considered this a leave the city. Both considered this a dishonorable end of the fight. But the dishonorable end of the fight. But the dishonorable end of the fight. But the Romans had to get off the Capitol Hill Romans had to get off the Capitol Hill Romans had to get off the Capitol Hill or they would all die. And Brennis, who or they would all die. And Brennis, who or they would all die. And Brennis, who wanted nothing more than to get out of wanted nothing more than to get out of wanted nothing more than to get out of the hot, diseased city, was now able to the hot, diseased city, was now able to the hot, diseased city, was now able to do so and still claim victory. The do so and still claim victory. The do so and still claim victory. The Romans agreed to pay the Gauls 1,000 of Romans agreed to pay the Gauls 1,000 of Romans agreed to pay the Gauls 1,000 of gold, and scales were brought in to gold, and scales were brought in to gold, and scales were brought in to measure the amount. As the gold was measure the amount. As the gold was measure the amount. As the gold was being weighed, however, the Romans being weighed, however, the Romans being weighed, however, the Romans noticed that the scales had been noticed that the scales had been noticed that the scales had been tampered with, and the pounds were much tampered with, and the pounds were much tampered with, and the pounds were much heavier than they should have been. They heavier than they should have been. They heavier than they should have been. They complained, and in response, Brenis complained, and in response, Brenis complained, and in response, Brenis threw his sword onto the scales, further

threw his sword onto the scales, further threw his sword onto the scales, further increasing the imbalance and stating increasing the imbalance and stating increasing the imbalance and stating famously, "Woe to the famously, "Woe to the famously, "Woe to the conquered." The Romans stifled their conquered." The Romans stifled their conquered." The Romans stifled their objections and measured out the objections and measured out the objections and measured out the remaining gold, fuming, but unable to do remaining gold, fuming, but unable to do remaining gold, fuming, but unable to do anything. anything. anything. The story of the sack of Rome in reality The story of the sack of Rome in reality The story of the sack of Rome in reality probably ended here with the Gauls probably ended here with the Gauls probably ended here with the Gauls withdrawing north after being paid off. withdrawing north after being paid off. withdrawing north after being paid off. However, later Romans spread a thick However, later Romans spread a thick However, later Romans spread a thick coat of triumphant propaganda over the coat of triumphant propaganda over the coat of triumphant propaganda over the end of the story to save themselves the end of the story to save themselves the end of the story to save themselves the embarrassment of admitting to such a embarrassment of admitting to such a embarrassment of admitting to such a dishonorable conclusion just as they dishonorable conclusion just as they dishonorable conclusion just as they added the story of Mucus Scavola to the added the story of Mucus Scavola to the added the story of Mucus Scavola to the end of the war with Clusium to avoid end of the war with Clusium to avoid end of the war with Clusium to avoid admitting that they had been beaten by admitting that they had been beaten by admitting that they had been beaten by large large large persona. In the Roman Hollywood ending, persona. In the Roman Hollywood ending, persona. In the Roman Hollywood ending, Camilis is reached and raises a force Camilis is reached and raises a force Camilis is reached and raises a force from the neighboring Latin tribes and from the neighboring Latin tribes and from the neighboring Latin tribes and marches on the city. He arrives just marches on the city. He arrives just marches on the city. He arrives just after the Gauls have been paid and after the Gauls have been paid and after the Gauls have been paid and finding them sleeping off their triumph, finding them sleeping off their triumph, finding them sleeping off their triumph, attacks and beats the formerly attacks and beats the formerly attacks and beats the formerly invincible barbarian army, driving them invincible barbarian army, driving them invincible barbarian army, driving them out of Latium for good and recovering out of Latium for good and recovering out of Latium for good and recovering the Roman gold. Camilis then basks in the Roman gold. Camilis then basks in the Roman gold. Camilis then basks in the glow of Roman algulation as the the glow of Roman algulation as the the glow of Roman algulation as the screen fades to black and the credits screen fades to black and the credits screen fades to black and the credits roll. A nice story, but complete roll. A nice story, but complete roll. A nice story, but complete fiction.

fiction. fiction. Regardless of whether Roman honor was Regardless of whether Roman honor was Regardless of whether Roman honor was saved at the last moment by miraculous saved at the last moment by miraculous saved at the last moment by miraculous intervention or not, the fact remained intervention or not, the fact remained intervention or not, the fact remained that the city was in ruins. At some that the city was in ruins. At some that the city was in ruins. At some point during the siege, a fire had point during the siege, a fire had point during the siege, a fire had started and the city was gutted by an started and the city was gutted by an started and the city was gutted by an uncontrolled blaze. The surviving uncontrolled blaze. The surviving uncontrolled blaze. The surviving Romans, penniless and faced with the Romans, penniless and faced with the Romans, penniless and faced with the prospect of completely rebuilding their prospect of completely rebuilding their prospect of completely rebuilding their city, despared that it was even possible city, despared that it was even possible city, despared that it was even possible and began to speak of abandoning the and began to speak of abandoning the and began to speak of abandoning the seven hills altogether and moving end seven hills altogether and moving end seven hills altogether and moving end mass to VA where they could start a mass to VA where they could start a mass to VA where they could start a fresh. Camila strongly opposed this idea fresh. Camila strongly opposed this idea fresh. Camila strongly opposed this idea and gave an impassion speech for the and gave an impassion speech for the and gave an impassion speech for the people to rebuild Rome and not flee in people to rebuild Rome and not flee in people to rebuild Rome and not flee in the face of the face of the face of adversity. To leave would be an adversity. To leave would be an adversity. To leave would be an admission of weakness and a moral admission of weakness and a moral admission of weakness and a moral failing. to stay would prove that Rome failing. to stay would prove that Rome failing. to stay would prove that Rome could never be defeated. The people could never be defeated. The people could never be defeated. The people facing a choice between practical facing a choice between practical facing a choice between practical logistics and theoretical duty remained logistics and theoretical duty remained logistics and theoretical duty remained unconvinced. But as the Senate was unconvinced. But as the Senate was unconvinced. But as the Senate was proceeding with the debate, a company of proceeding with the debate, a company of proceeding with the debate, a company of soldiers returning from guard duty soldiers returning from guard duty soldiers returning from guard duty stopped in the forum and their commander stopped in the forum and their commander stopped in the forum and their commander ordered a halt, saying, "Well, we may as ordered a halt, saying, "Well, we may as ordered a halt, saying, "Well, we may as well stop here."

well stop here." well stop here." The senators overheard this and never The senators overheard this and never The senators overheard this and never once to ignore a clear omen immediately once to ignore a clear omen immediately once to ignore a clear omen immediately closed the debate and rejected all closed the debate and rejected all closed the debate and rejected all further proposals to abandon the city. further proposals to abandon the city. further proposals to abandon the city. Rebuilding would begin at once, no Rebuilding would begin at once, no Rebuilding would begin at once, no matter the cost or difficulty. Rome was matter the cost or difficulty. Rome was matter the cost or difficulty. Rome was here to here to here to stay. The history of Rome is bookended stay. The history of Rome is bookended stay. The history of Rome is bookended by barbarian sachs. It would be 850 by barbarian sachs. It would be 850 by barbarian sachs. It would be 850 years before another foreign invader years before another foreign invader years before another foreign invader stepped foot in the city. By then, Rome stepped foot in the city. By then, Rome stepped foot in the city. By then, Rome had risen, crested, declined, and was in had risen, crested, declined, and was in had risen, crested, declined, and was in the process of failing. Branis' sack of the process of failing. Branis' sack of the process of failing. Branis' sack of Rome, on the other end, ushered in Rome, on the other end, ushered in Rome, on the other end, ushered in Rome's era of dominance. Until the sack, Rome's era of dominance. Until the sack, Rome's era of dominance. Until the sack, Rome was merely one among many in Rome was merely one among many in Rome was merely one among many in Italian politics, fighting and winning, Italian politics, fighting and winning, Italian politics, fighting and winning, but also dealing with setbacks and but also dealing with setbacks and but also dealing with setbacks and defeats. After the destruction of Rome, defeats. After the destruction of Rome, defeats. After the destruction of Rome, the Romans were reborn along with the the Romans were reborn along with the the Romans were reborn along with the physical city they lived in. It would be physical city they lived in. It would be physical city they lived in. It would be a more determined, more consciously a more determined, more consciously a more determined, more consciously imperial citizen body that would emerge imperial citizen body that would emerge imperial citizen body that would emerge in the 300s BC. The Romans would never in the 300s BC. The Romans would never in the 300s BC. The Romans would never again find themselves under the yoke of again find themselves under the yoke of again find themselves under the yoke of a foreign power, nor their walls a foreign power, nor their walls a foreign power, nor their walls breached by an invading force. When in breached by an invading force. When in breached by an invading force. When in the 400s AD, the Visigoths and then the the 400s AD, the Visigoths and then the the 400s AD, the Visigoths and then the Vandals finally sacked the city, the Vandals finally sacked the city, the Vandals finally sacked the city, the level of despair was grossly inflated level of despair was grossly inflated level of despair was grossly inflated because the inviability of the city had because the inviability of the city had because the inviability of the city had been taken for granted. Other cities been taken for granted. Other cities been taken for granted. Other cities changed hands, were occupied, or changed hands, were occupied, or changed hands, were occupied, or expelled occupiers. This was the natural expelled occupiers. This was the natural expelled occupiers. This was the natural eb and flow of ancient politics. But eb and flow of ancient politics. But eb and flow of ancient politics. But Rome itself would be eternally free, Rome itself would be eternally free, Rome itself would be eternally free, granted special status by the gods. The granted special status by the gods. The granted special status by the gods. The Vandal sack, for all the physical damage Vandal sack, for all the physical damage Vandal sack, for all the physical damage it did, destroyed Rome psychologically,

it did, destroyed Rome psychologically, it did, destroyed Rome psychologically, a blow from which it never recovered. a blow from which it never recovered. a blow from which it never recovered. And this sense of invincibility was born And this sense of invincibility was born And this sense of invincibility was born in the aftermath of the last barbarian in the aftermath of the last barbarian in the aftermath of the last barbarian sack 850 years earlier. The GIC victory sack 850 years earlier. The GIC victory sack 850 years earlier. The GIC victory humiliated, offended, and horrified the humiliated, offended, and horrified the humiliated, offended, and horrified the Romans who endured it. And they vowed to Romans who endured it. And they vowed to Romans who endured it. And they vowed to never let it happen again. They never let it happen again. They never let it happen again. They successfully kept their word for almost successfully kept their word for almost successfully kept their word for almost a thousand years. A remarkable feat in a thousand years. A remarkable feat in a thousand years. A remarkable feat in the perilous and violent world of the perilous and violent world of the perilous and violent world of antiquity. Roman obstinency, steadfast antiquity. Roman obstinency, steadfast antiquity. Roman obstinency, steadfast endurance, and unflinching resolve, a endurance, and unflinching resolve, a endurance, and unflinching resolve, a commitment to existence born out of near commitment to existence born out of near commitment to existence born out of near total destruction. total destruction. total destruction. From a practical standpoint, the sack From a practical standpoint, the sack From a practical standpoint, the sack also brings to an end the period of also brings to an end the period of also brings to an end the period of early Roman history about which we have early Roman history about which we have early Roman history about which we have no clear records or primary sources. no clear records or primary sources. no clear records or primary sources. Though all the previous records were Though all the previous records were Though all the previous records were lost in the fire, the Romans simply lost in the fire, the Romans simply lost in the fire, the Romans simply started again, leaving us a wealth of started again, leaving us a wealth of started again, leaving us a wealth of documentation that puts our documentation that puts our documentation that puts our understanding of their history on much understanding of their history on much understanding of their history on much firmer footing from this point on. I'm firmer footing from this point on. I'm firmer footing from this point on. I'm thankful to say that the legend of Rome thankful to say that the legend of Rome thankful to say that the legend of Rome has finally ended and the history of has finally ended and the history of has finally ended and the history of Rome has begun.

Rome has begun. Rome has begun. Next week, the Romans begin the slow Next week, the Romans begin the slow Next week, the Romans begin the slow process of rebuilding. Their task was process of rebuilding. Their task was process of rebuilding. Their task was complicated by the fact that all their complicated by the fact that all their complicated by the fact that all their enemies, past and present, would attempt enemies, past and present, would attempt enemies, past and present, would attempt to take advantage of their weakened to take advantage of their weakened to take advantage of their weakened state. The Vulian and Aquans, of course, state. The Vulian and Aquans, of course, state. The Vulian and Aquans, of course, attacked as always, but Latin allies attacked as always, but Latin allies attacked as always, but Latin allies revolted as well, and even some of revolted as well, and even some of revolted as well, and even some of Rome's own colonies decided the time was Rome's own colonies decided the time was Rome's own colonies decided the time was ripe to throw off the yoke of their ripe to throw off the yoke of their ripe to throw off the yoke of their mother city. But Camilis, not called the mother city. But Camilis, not called the mother city. But Camilis, not called the second founder of Rome for nothing, second founder of Rome for nothing, second founder of Rome for nothing, would lead the Romans to triumph and would lead the Romans to triumph and would lead the Romans to triumph and restore them on their inevitable path to restore them on their inevitable path to restore them on their inevitable path to glory. Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Rome. At the opening of the sixth book Rome. At the opening of the sixth book Rome. At the opening of the sixth book of his monumental history of Rome since of his monumental history of Rome since of his monumental history of Rome since its foundation, Libby wrote the history its foundation, Libby wrote the history its foundation, Libby wrote the history of the Romans from the foundation of the of the Romans from the foundation of the of the Romans from the foundation of the city to its capture. first under kings, city to its capture. first under kings, city to its capture. first under kings, then under consils and dictators, dece then under consils and dictators, dece then under consils and dictators, dece and consular or tribune, wars abroad, and consular or tribune, wars abroad, and consular or tribune, wars abroad, and dissensions at home. I have set out and dissensions at home. I have set out and dissensions at home. I have set out in five books, covering matters which in five books, covering matters which in five books, covering matters which were obscure, both through their great were obscure, both through their great were obscure, both through their great antiquity, like objects dimly perceived antiquity, like objects dimly perceived antiquity, like objects dimly perceived in the far distance, and because in in the far distance, and because in in the far distance, and because in those days there were few written those days there were few written those days there were few written records, the only reliable means of

records, the only reliable means of records, the only reliable means of preserving a memory of past events. A preserving a memory of past events. A preserving a memory of past events. A further reason was the loss of most of further reason was the loss of most of further reason was the loss of most of such accounts as were preserved in the such accounts as were preserved in the such accounts as were preserved in the commentaries of the pontiffs and other commentaries of the pontiffs and other commentaries of the pontiffs and other public and private records when the city public and private records when the city public and private records when the city was destroyed by fire. From now on, a was destroyed by fire. From now on, a was destroyed by fire. From now on, a clearer and more reliable account can be clearer and more reliable account can be clearer and more reliable account can be given of the city's civil and military given of the city's civil and military given of the city's civil and military history after it made a second start, history after it made a second start, history after it made a second start, reborn, as it were from its old roots reborn, as it were from its old roots reborn, as it were from its old roots with increased vigor and with increased vigor and with increased vigor and productivity. That seems like a good productivity. That seems like a good productivity. That seems like a good place to start this week. Rome was place to start this week. Rome was place to start this week. Rome was devastated. The city was in ruins, and devastated. The city was in ruins, and devastated. The city was in ruins, and the population, what remained of it the population, what remained of it the population, what remained of it anyway, despared. Officially, the anyway, despared. Officially, the anyway, despared. Officially, the subject of abandoning Rome had been subject of abandoning Rome had been subject of abandoning Rome had been closed. But unofficially, the ideal was closed. But unofficially, the ideal was closed. But unofficially, the ideal was still a potent force. Why rebuild when still a potent force. Why rebuild when still a potent force. Why rebuild when perfectly good homes sat vacant in a perfectly good homes sat vacant in a perfectly good homes sat vacant in a wellposition, defensible city? The wellposition, defensible city? The wellposition, defensible city? The Romans had been merciless in their Romans had been merciless in their Romans had been merciless in their annihilation of the Veyites, and the annihilation of the Veyites, and the annihilation of the Veyites, and the Entrusan city was practically a ghost Entrusan city was practically a ghost Entrusan city was practically a ghost town. But the Senate's mind was made up, town. But the Senate's mind was made up, town. But the Senate's mind was made up, and the Romans were ordered to rebuild, and the Romans were ordered to rebuild, and the Romans were ordered to rebuild, each according to their means. Camilis, each according to their means. Camilis, each according to their means. Camilis, whom the people now looked upon as twice whom the people now looked upon as twice whom the people now looked upon as twice their savior, if we believe the legends, their savior, if we believe the legends, their savior, if we believe the legends, stood firm behind staying in Rome, and stood firm behind staying in Rome, and stood firm behind staying in Rome, and the population, some reluctantly, the population, some reluctantly, the population, some reluctantly, followed their hero's followed their hero's followed their hero's lead. The new Rome that would grow out lead. The new Rome that would grow out lead. The new Rome that would grow out of the ashes of the galax sack would be of the ashes of the galax sack would be of the ashes of the galax sack would be recognizable today, with its haphazard recognizable today, with its haphazard recognizable today, with its haphazard streets and deep, tangled neighborhoods streets and deep, tangled neighborhoods streets and deep, tangled neighborhoods clearly devoid of any central planning.

clearly devoid of any central planning. clearly devoid of any central planning. There was, in fact, no planning There was, in fact, no planning There was, in fact, no planning whatsoever. The Romans simply picked up whatsoever. The Romans simply picked up whatsoever. The Romans simply picked up what material they could salvage and what material they could salvage and what material they could salvage and began rebuilding wherever the whims of began rebuilding wherever the whims of began rebuilding wherever the whims of each individual directed. Rome, and I each individual directed. Rome, and I each individual directed. Rome, and I say this with love, is and has been say this with love, is and has been say this with love, is and has been since the 380s BC, a convoluted mess since the 380s BC, a convoluted mess since the 380s BC, a convoluted mess that defies logic. The irony being that that defies logic. The irony being that that defies logic. The irony being that in almost every other town, city, or in almost every other town, city, or in almost every other town, city, or camp built by the Romans, rational right camp built by the Romans, rational right camp built by the Romans, rational right angles was the norm. A model was angles was the norm. A model was angles was the norm. A model was developed for the fortified military developed for the fortified military developed for the fortified military camp that centered around bisecting camp that centered around bisecting camp that centered around bisecting perpendicular roads that was copied in perpendicular roads that was copied in perpendicular roads that was copied in almost every other settlement the Romans almost every other settlement the Romans almost every other settlement the Romans established. A centurion encamped in established. A centurion encamped in established. A centurion encamped in Britain would have been able to easily Britain would have been able to easily Britain would have been able to easily navigate his way around a camp in Syria. navigate his way around a camp in Syria. navigate his way around a camp in Syria. Everywhere the Romans went, they took Everywhere the Romans went, they took Everywhere the Romans went, they took their standard grid city layout with their standard grid city layout with their standard grid city layout with them. But the eternal city itself was them. But the eternal city itself was them. But the eternal city itself was the dark city of this Roman type A OCD. the dark city of this Roman type A OCD. the dark city of this Roman type A OCD. And the roots of that chaos lay in the And the roots of that chaos lay in the And the roots of that chaos lay in the years after the galaxy sack when the years after the galaxy sack when the years after the galaxy sack when the Romans rebuilt quickly but without any Romans rebuilt quickly but without any Romans rebuilt quickly but without any kind of master kind of master kind of master plan. Not that this is necessarily the plan. Not that this is necessarily the plan. Not that this is necessarily the Romans fault. As they were attempting to Romans fault. As they were attempting to Romans fault. As they were attempting to rebuild their shattered city, nearly rebuild their shattered city, nearly rebuild their shattered city, nearly every one of their formerly subdued every one of their formerly subdued every one of their formerly subdued enemies took their shot at setting enemies took their shot at setting enemies took their shot at setting themselves free of the Roman themselves free of the Roman themselves free of the Roman hijgemy. As I mentioned at the end of hijgemy. As I mentioned at the end of hijgemy. As I mentioned at the end of last week, the usual suspects, last week, the usual suspects, last week, the usual suspects, particularly the Vulian, reappeared. But particularly the Vulian, reappeared. But particularly the Vulian, reappeared. But longtime allies, now rose up as well.

longtime allies, now rose up as well. longtime allies, now rose up as well. piling it on Rome became the fad dour piling it on Rome became the fad dour piling it on Rome became the fad dour among long disgruntled Latin communities among long disgruntled Latin communities among long disgruntled Latin communities who never got over Rome's breaking up of who never got over Rome's breaking up of who never got over Rome's breaking up of the Latin League a 100 years earlier at the Latin League a 100 years earlier at the Latin League a 100 years earlier at the battle of Lake the battle of Lake the battle of Lake Regillis. Even colonies set up by Rome Regillis. Even colonies set up by Rome Regillis. Even colonies set up by Rome with strong ties to the city joined in with strong ties to the city joined in with strong ties to the city joined in the rebellions and kick their mother's the rebellions and kick their mother's the rebellions and kick their mother's city while she was down. While trying to city while she was down. While trying to city while she was down. While trying to put their lives back together, the put their lives back together, the put their lives back together, the Romans kept being recalled to arms. Now Romans kept being recalled to arms. Now Romans kept being recalled to arms. Now to fight on this front, now to fight to fight on this front, now to fight to fight on this front, now to fight that enemy. Now to fight this former that enemy. Now to fight this former that enemy. Now to fight this former friend. It is no wonder the city grew so friend. It is no wonder the city grew so friend. It is no wonder the city grew so haphazardly. There was barely enough haphazardly. There was barely enough haphazardly. There was barely enough time to nail down the roof before it was time to nail down the roof before it was time to nail down the roof before it was time to go and fight time to go and fight time to go and fight again. Throughout these years, Camilis again. Throughout these years, Camilis again. Throughout these years, Camilis was the rock behind which the insecure was the rock behind which the insecure was the rock behind which the insecure Romans hid. In times of danger, they Romans hid. In times of danger, they Romans hid. In times of danger, they turned to him again and again to lead turned to him again and again to lead turned to him again and again to lead them to victory. Whether he was them to victory. Whether he was them to victory. Whether he was appointed official dictator, as he was appointed official dictator, as he was appointed official dictator, as he was in 389, 368, and for the fifth and final in 389, 368, and for the fifth and final in 389, 368, and for the fifth and final time, 367 BC, or whether he was elected time, 367 BC, or whether he was elected time, 367 BC, or whether he was elected as one of the military tribunes for that as one of the military tribunes for that as one of the military tribunes for that year, Camilis was unquestionably the year, Camilis was unquestionably the year, Camilis was unquestionably the leader of Rome. leader of Rome. leader of Rome. Everyone relied upon his strategic and Everyone relied upon his strategic and Everyone relied upon his strategic and tactical brilliance to see them through tactical brilliance to see them through tactical brilliance to see them through these dark times. His enemies, and he these dark times. His enemies, and he these dark times. His enemies, and he did have a few, accused him of did have a few, accused him of did have a few, accused him of arrogance, of treating his fellow arrogance, of treating his fellow arrogance, of treating his fellow tribunes as if they were his vassels, tribunes as if they were his vassels, tribunes as if they were his vassels, not his equals. But the people were not his equals. But the people were not his equals. But the people were indifferent to these accusations.

indifferent to these accusations. indifferent to these accusations. Camilis was their man. Plus, the other Camilis was their man. Plus, the other Camilis was their man. Plus, the other commanders did little to inspire the commanders did little to inspire the commanders did little to inspire the people's confidence. At one point, a people's confidence. At one point, a people's confidence. At one point, a tribune leading a legion against an tribune leading a legion against an tribune leading a legion against an Allied army of Latins and Vulian saw his Allied army of Latins and Vulian saw his Allied army of Latins and Vulian saw his army flee in terror and hide behind army flee in terror and hide behind army flee in terror and hide behind their camp walls. Camilis was ordered to their camp walls. Camilis was ordered to their camp walls. Camilis was ordered to take command and by his very presence take command and by his very presence take command and by his very presence instilled the soldiers with enough instilled the soldiers with enough instilled the soldiers with enough confidence to march back out and defeat confidence to march back out and defeat confidence to march back out and defeat the enemy they thought so powerful. the enemy they thought so powerful. the enemy they thought so powerful. Camilis dominated his time and it would Camilis dominated his time and it would Camilis dominated his time and it would be another 150 years until anyone be another 150 years until anyone be another 150 years until anyone emerged to equal him in the pantheon of emerged to equal him in the pantheon of emerged to equal him in the pantheon of Roman heroes. That man Scipio Africanis Roman heroes. That man Scipio Africanis Roman heroes. That man Scipio Africanis who delivered the Romans from the who delivered the Romans from the who delivered the Romans from the scourge of Hannibal is often mentioned scourge of Hannibal is often mentioned scourge of Hannibal is often mentioned in the same breath as Camilis and indeed in the same breath as Camilis and indeed in the same breath as Camilis and indeed the consensus opinion is that later the consensus opinion is that later the consensus opinion is that later historians Plutarch and Libby especially historians Plutarch and Libby especially historians Plutarch and Libby especially colored their descriptions of Camilis to colored their descriptions of Camilis to colored their descriptions of Camilis to make him seem a prelude to the great make him seem a prelude to the great make him seem a prelude to the great Scipio of Scipio of Scipio of Africa. But as Camilis remained in the Africa. But as Camilis remained in the Africa. But as Camilis remained in the people's high esteem, another hero fell people's high esteem, another hero fell people's high esteem, another hero fell from grace. Marcus Manley's capital from grace. Marcus Manley's capital from grace. Marcus Manley's capital honest, the last name attached in honor honest, the last name attached in honor honest, the last name attached in honor of his bravery during the galaxy siege, of his bravery during the galaxy siege, of his bravery during the galaxy siege, would soon find himself etched into would soon find himself etched into would soon find himself etched into Roman history, not as a great hero, but Roman history, not as a great hero, but Roman history, not as a great hero, but as a villain. After the withdrawal of as a villain. After the withdrawal of as a villain. After the withdrawal of the Gauls, Manius's ego was severely the Gauls, Manius's ego was severely the Gauls, Manius's ego was severely bruised by the honors heaped upon bruised by the honors heaped upon bruised by the honors heaped upon Camilis, and he took them as a personal Camilis, and he took them as a personal Camilis, and he took them as a personal insult. Had he and the others not held insult. Had he and the others not held insult. Had he and the others not held out against the Gauls, Camilis never out against the Gauls, Camilis never out against the Gauls, Camilis never would have had the opportunity to save would have had the opportunity to save would have had the opportunity to save them. Surely that deserves some glory, them. Surely that deserves some glory, them. Surely that deserves some glory, but Camilis hogged it all.

but Camilis hogged it all. but Camilis hogged it all. Manly was one of the few amongst the Manly was one of the few amongst the Manly was one of the few amongst the citizen body who could not stand the citizen body who could not stand the citizen body who could not stand the sight of Camilis who he considered to be sight of Camilis who he considered to be sight of Camilis who he considered to be a pompous fraud. This aggravation led a pompous fraud. This aggravation led a pompous fraud. This aggravation led Manlas to break ranks with his fellow Manlas to break ranks with his fellow Manlas to break ranks with his fellow patricians and take up the cause of the patricians and take up the cause of the patricians and take up the cause of the plebs by making himself their champion. plebs by making himself their champion. plebs by making himself their champion. Manley hoped to do an endun around Manley hoped to do an endun around Manley hoped to do an endun around Camilis and earn the acclaim he felt he Camilis and earn the acclaim he felt he Camilis and earn the acclaim he felt he deserved. The most pressing issue of the deserved. The most pressing issue of the deserved. The most pressing issue of the day was debt relief. Obviously, as the day was debt relief. Obviously, as the day was debt relief. Obviously, as the Romans rebuilt, there was a hefty amount Romans rebuilt, there was a hefty amount Romans rebuilt, there was a hefty amount of borrowing going on, and the interest of borrowing going on, and the interest of borrowing going on, and the interest payments began to bankrupt the payments began to bankrupt the payments began to bankrupt the population. Every day saw men hauled off population. Every day saw men hauled off population. Every day saw men hauled off to prison for defaulting on loans. Men to prison for defaulting on loans. Men to prison for defaulting on loans. Men who had fought at VA and stood firm who had fought at VA and stood firm who had fought at VA and stood firm against the Gauls were daily being made against the Gauls were daily being made against the Gauls were daily being made slaves by money lenders who showed no slaves by money lenders who showed no slaves by money lenders who showed no mercy or compassion. Manley spoke out mercy or compassion. Manley spoke out mercy or compassion. Manley spoke out publicly in favor of relief and often publicly in favor of relief and often publicly in favor of relief and often paid the debts of former soldiers out of paid the debts of former soldiers out of paid the debts of former soldiers out of his own pocket and offered interest-free his own pocket and offered interest-free his own pocket and offered interest-free loans to any who asked. The Petricians loans to any who asked. The Petricians loans to any who asked. The Petricians were disturbed by Manlius's new image as were disturbed by Manlius's new image as were disturbed by Manlius's new image as the savior of the people. Not only the savior of the people. Not only the savior of the people. Not only because they saw him as letting because they saw him as letting because they saw him as letting irresponsible debtors off the hook, but irresponsible debtors off the hook, but irresponsible debtors off the hook, but also because he constantly slipped in also because he constantly slipped in also because he constantly slipped in references to the great untapped references to the great untapped references to the great untapped strength of the populace and how their strength of the populace and how their strength of the populace and how their numerical superiority ought for numerical superiority ought for numerical superiority ought for something in the formation of policy.

something in the formation of policy. something in the formation of policy. The patricians saw these as veiled and The patricians saw these as veiled and The patricians saw these as veiled and not so veiled threats against the not so veiled threats against the not so veiled threats against the established order and began to see Manly established order and began to see Manly established order and began to see Manly as a revolutionary figure. Manley was as a revolutionary figure. Manley was as a revolutionary figure. Manley was arrested once on charges of bringing arrested once on charges of bringing arrested once on charges of bringing false claims of theft against the money false claims of theft against the money false claims of theft against the money lenders. But public outcry was so great lenders. But public outcry was so great lenders. But public outcry was so great that they were forced to release him that they were forced to release him that they were forced to release him with peace abroad to allow for real with peace abroad to allow for real with peace abroad to allow for real public unrest. Riots began to break out public unrest. Riots began to break out public unrest. Riots began to break out between patrician and pleb factions. between patrician and pleb factions. between patrician and pleb factions. Manly offering daily heranges against Manly offering daily heranges against Manly offering daily heranges against the tyranny of the nobles and offering the tyranny of the nobles and offering the tyranny of the nobles and offering himself as the only patrician who cared himself as the only patrician who cared himself as the only patrician who cared about his fellow citizens. The about his fellow citizens. The about his fellow citizens. The implication was clear. throw out the implication was clear. throw out the implication was clear. throw out the Senate and elect a new democratic Senate and elect a new democratic Senate and elect a new democratic government with me as your leader. government with me as your leader. government with me as your leader. Finally, unable to take it anymore, the Finally, unable to take it anymore, the Finally, unable to take it anymore, the Petricians again arrested Manlyas, this Petricians again arrested Manlyas, this Petricians again arrested Manlyas, this time on charges of sedition and treason. time on charges of sedition and treason. time on charges of sedition and treason. The trial of Manly would become famous The trial of Manly would become famous The trial of Manly would become famous for the way it would play out. The trial for the way it would play out. The trial for the way it would play out. The trial was originally held on the campus was originally held on the campus was originally held on the campus marshes which lay in the shadow of the marshes which lay in the shadow of the marshes which lay in the shadow of the capital line hill. During his defense, capital line hill. During his defense, capital line hill. During his defense, Manley was able to stretch his hand up Manley was able to stretch his hand up Manley was able to stretch his hand up to the hill and remind the people of his to the hill and remind the people of his to the hill and remind the people of his great service to the city, asking how great service to the city, asking how great service to the city, asking how anyone could possibly believe he was now anyone could possibly believe he was now anyone could possibly believe he was now engaged in engaged in engaged in treason. The argument was having its treason. The argument was having its treason. The argument was having its effect. So, the savvy patricians effect. So, the savvy patricians effect. So, the savvy patricians adjourned the trial to a different adjourned the trial to a different adjourned the trial to a different location. Now, without the capital line location. Now, without the capital line location. Now, without the capital line as a backdrop, the charges and evidence as a backdrop, the charges and evidence as a backdrop, the charges and evidence against Manly stood on their own merits.

against Manly stood on their own merits. against Manly stood on their own merits. Public opinion turned against Manlas, Public opinion turned against Manlas, Public opinion turned against Manlas, who it became obvious was engaged in an who it became obvious was engaged in an who it became obvious was engaged in an active conspiracy to overthrow the active conspiracy to overthrow the active conspiracy to overthrow the Senate. The verdict was swift and harsh. Senate. The verdict was swift and harsh. Senate. The verdict was swift and harsh. He was to be thrown from the Tarpian He was to be thrown from the Tarpian He was to be thrown from the Tarpian Rock, a steep cliff on the capital line Rock, a steep cliff on the capital line Rock, a steep cliff on the capital line hill used for executions. Ironically, hill used for executions. Ironically, hill used for executions. Ironically, dying in disgrace a few feet from where dying in disgrace a few feet from where dying in disgrace a few feet from where he had achieved his greatest he had achieved his greatest he had achieved his greatest glory. The death of Manus did nothing to glory. The death of Manus did nothing to glory. The death of Manus did nothing to end plebeian unrest. However, Manly saw end plebeian unrest. However, Manly saw end plebeian unrest. However, Manly saw an opportunity and exploited it. He did an opportunity and exploited it. He did an opportunity and exploited it. He did not create the conditions for that not create the conditions for that not create the conditions for that opportunity. The pleb's overriding opportunity. The pleb's overriding opportunity. The pleb's overriding concern at this point were, as we have concern at this point were, as we have concern at this point were, as we have seen, debt relief. But the old standbys seen, debt relief. But the old standbys seen, debt relief. But the old standbys of land redistribution and access to of land redistribution and access to of land redistribution and access to political power rose again. The former political power rose again. The former political power rose again. The former problem was wrapped up in the latter problem was wrapped up in the latter problem was wrapped up in the latter two, and the plebes began to focus their two, and the plebes began to focus their two, and the plebes began to focus their energy on the land and power questions. energy on the land and power questions. energy on the land and power questions. Both the land taken from VA in the north Both the land taken from VA in the north Both the land taken from VA in the north and the land taken from the Vulans in and the land taken from the Vulans in and the land taken from the Vulans in the south conspicuously wound up in the the south conspicuously wound up in the the south conspicuously wound up in the hands of a few patrician land owners hands of a few patrician land owners hands of a few patrician land owners rather than being divided up amongst the rather than being divided up amongst the rather than being divided up amongst the masses. How were the people supposed to masses. How were the people supposed to masses. How were the people supposed to pay off their debts when they were pay off their debts when they were pay off their debts when they were denied the income land provided?

denied the income land provided? denied the income land provided? Further, how was it that state policy Further, how was it that state policy Further, how was it that state policy had granted so much to so few? had granted so much to so few? had granted so much to so few? Obviously, whatever concessions had been Obviously, whatever concessions had been Obviously, whatever concessions had been made to the plebes in the past had lost made to the plebes in the past had lost made to the plebes in the past had lost their potency. The plebes finally saw their potency. The plebes finally saw their potency. The plebes finally saw the office of military tribune with the office of military tribune with the office of military tribune with consular power for what it was, an consular power for what it was, an consular power for what it was, an attempt to water down plebe authority attempt to water down plebe authority attempt to water down plebe authority and deny them access to the consil ship, and deny them access to the consil ship, and deny them access to the consil ship, the ultimate office of state. One man in the ultimate office of state. One man in the ultimate office of state. One man in particular, a patrician with two particular, a patrician with two particular, a patrician with two daughters, took it upon himself to end daughters, took it upon himself to end daughters, took it upon himself to end once and for all this unbalance. once and for all this unbalance. once and for all this unbalance. Marcus Fabius Ambustus, a patrician who Marcus Fabius Ambustus, a patrician who Marcus Fabius Ambustus, a patrician who enjoyed pleb support, had married his enjoyed pleb support, had married his enjoyed pleb support, had married his eldest daughter to an influential eldest daughter to an influential eldest daughter to an influential patrician and his youngest to a wealthy patrician and his youngest to a wealthy patrician and his youngest to a wealthy plead named Gas Lysinius Polo. The plead named Gas Lysinius Polo. The plead named Gas Lysinius Polo. The younger daughter complained that she younger daughter complained that she younger daughter complained that she would never receive the honors her elder would never receive the honors her elder would never receive the honors her elder sister received on account of her sister received on account of her sister received on account of her husband's plead status. Fabius, the husband's plead status. Fabius, the husband's plead status. Fabius, the story goes, promised his daughter she story goes, promised his daughter she story goes, promised his daughter she would have everything her sister had and would have everything her sister had and would have everything her sister had and began working with his son-in-law began working with his son-in-law began working with his son-in-law Lysinius to break the patrician strangle Lysinius to break the patrician strangle Lysinius to break the patrician strangle hold on the consil ship. They began by hold on the consil ship. They began by hold on the consil ship. They began by pointing out to people that despite plea pointing out to people that despite plea pointing out to people that despite plea access to the office of military access to the office of military access to the office of military tribune, no plea had been elected to set tribune, no plea had been elected to set tribune, no plea had been elected to set office for the last decade, which was office for the last decade, which was office for the last decade, which was true. They then demanded a permanent true. They then demanded a permanent true. They then demanded a permanent return to the dual consil ship with the return to the dual consil ship with the return to the dual consil ship with the stipulation that one of the consils had stipulation that one of the consils had stipulation that one of the consils had to be a plea. Lysinius got himself to be a plea. Lysinius got himself to be a plea. Lysinius got himself elected tribune of the plebes, an office elected tribune of the plebes, an office elected tribune of the plebes, an office that had fallen into some disrepute, and that had fallen into some disrepute, and that had fallen into some disrepute, and used his veto power to bring government used his veto power to bring government used his veto power to bring government business to a standstill. He promised to business to a standstill. He promised to business to a standstill. He promised to veto everything in sight, including the veto everything in sight, including the veto everything in sight, including the yearly elections until his demands were

yearly elections until his demands were yearly elections until his demands were met. In addition to access to the consil met. In addition to access to the consil met. In addition to access to the consil ship, Lysinius also demanded that a cap ship, Lysinius also demanded that a cap ship, Lysinius also demanded that a cap be put on the total amount of land a man be put on the total amount of land a man be put on the total amount of land a man could own, as well as regulations on could own, as well as regulations on could own, as well as regulations on interest rates. It was this shutdown interest rates. It was this shutdown interest rates. It was this shutdown engineered by Fabius and Lysinius that engineered by Fabius and Lysinius that engineered by Fabius and Lysinius that Libby uses to explain his chronological Libby uses to explain his chronological Libby uses to explain his chronological gap, stating that between 375 and 370 gap, stating that between 375 and 370 gap, stating that between 375 and 370 BC, no magisterial elections were held. BC, no magisterial elections were held. BC, no magisterial elections were held. Though the duration and excess of the Though the duration and excess of the Though the duration and excess of the standoff is no doubt exaggerated, the standoff is no doubt exaggerated, the standoff is no doubt exaggerated, the outcome is not. The plebes finally outcome is not. The plebes finally outcome is not. The plebes finally gained access to the console gained access to the console gained access to the console ship. The moment would not come without ship. The moment would not come without ship. The moment would not come without a final appearance of the great Camilis. a final appearance of the great Camilis. a final appearance of the great Camilis. However, the civil unrest and power However, the civil unrest and power However, the civil unrest and power vacuum led to calls for a dictator and vacuum led to calls for a dictator and vacuum led to calls for a dictator and the Senate named Camilis, who enjoyed the Senate named Camilis, who enjoyed the Senate named Camilis, who enjoyed the support of everyone, patrician and the support of everyone, patrician and the support of everyone, patrician and plebe alike. They were hoping Camilis plebe alike. They were hoping Camilis plebe alike. They were hoping Camilis would see things their way, but much to would see things their way, but much to would see things their way, but much to their discomfort, he did not. Now, due their discomfort, he did not. Now, due their discomfort, he did not. Now, due to a flaw in the appointment ceremony, a to a flaw in the appointment ceremony, a to a flaw in the appointment ceremony, a religious event stuffed full with every religious event stuffed full with every religious event stuffed full with every kind of Roman superstition, Camilis was kind of Roman superstition, Camilis was kind of Roman superstition, Camilis was forced to resign for that year, granting forced to resign for that year, granting forced to resign for that year, granting a reprieve of sorts to the clearly a reprieve of sorts to the clearly a reprieve of sorts to the clearly defensive patricians. The next year, defensive patricians. The next year, defensive patricians. The next year, though, 367 BC, Camilis was again named though, 367 BC, Camilis was again named though, 367 BC, Camilis was again named dictator for the fifth and final time.

dictator for the fifth and final time. dictator for the fifth and final time. He used his power to broker the deal He used his power to broker the deal He used his power to broker the deal Lysinius and his colleagues demanded, Lysinius and his colleagues demanded, Lysinius and his colleagues demanded, and for the first time, a plea would be and for the first time, a plea would be and for the first time, a plea would be elected console. The crisis settled. elected console. The crisis settled. elected console. The crisis settled. Camilis resigned. The old Roman leader Camilis resigned. The old Roman leader Camilis resigned. The old Roman leader died soon after. The victim of a plague died soon after. The victim of a plague died soon after. The victim of a plague that decimated the Romans in the 360s that decimated the Romans in the 360s that decimated the Romans in the 360s BC. With his death, a new era dawned. BC. With his death, a new era dawned. BC. With his death, a new era dawned. The Romans had survived their brush with The Romans had survived their brush with The Romans had survived their brush with death and emerged a strong, more death and emerged a strong, more death and emerged a strong, more democratic democratic democratic place. The honor of first plead consil place. The honor of first plead consil place. The honor of first plead consil historically goes to Lucius Sexius, one historically goes to Lucius Sexius, one historically goes to Lucius Sexius, one of Lysinius's colleagues who had helped of Lysinius's colleagues who had helped of Lysinius's colleagues who had helped engineer the shutdown. The land engineer the shutdown. The land engineer the shutdown. The land ownership ceiling and regulation of debt ownership ceiling and regulation of debt ownership ceiling and regulation of debt were granted at the same time. And were granted at the same time. And were granted at the same time. And ironically, Lysinius himself would be ironically, Lysinius himself would be ironically, Lysinius himself would be prosecuted years later for violating his prosecuted years later for violating his prosecuted years later for violating his own laws after he sought to accumulate own laws after he sought to accumulate own laws after he sought to accumulate large tracks of land for himself and his large tracks of land for himself and his large tracks of land for himself and his family. At this point, the law stated family. At this point, the law stated family. At this point, the law stated merely that one of the consoles could be merely that one of the consoles could be merely that one of the consoles could be a pleb. Later, around 342 BC, a law a pleb. Later, around 342 BC, a law a pleb. Later, around 342 BC, a law would be passed stating that one of the would be passed stating that one of the would be passed stating that one of the consoles had to be a pleb. For now consoles had to be a pleb. For now consoles had to be a pleb. For now though, the plebes accepted the obvious though, the plebes accepted the obvious though, the plebes accepted the obvious victory and passed to the next victory and passed to the next victory and passed to the next generation the task of not simply generation the task of not simply generation the task of not simply allowing equal access to power, but allowing equal access to power, but allowing equal access to power, but guaranteeing guaranteeing guaranteeing it. The veracity of this patrician pleb it. The veracity of this patrician pleb it. The veracity of this patrician pleb showdown and the election of a first showdown and the election of a first showdown and the election of a first plebeian console in 367 BC has been plebeian console in 367 BC has been plebeian console in 367 BC has been called into question by modern called into question by modern called into question by modern historians. In the first place, they historians. In the first place, they historians. In the first place, they point out that Roman historians of the point out that Roman historians of the point out that Roman historians of the late republic and early imperial period late republic and early imperial period late republic and early imperial period were obviously drawing their narrative

were obviously drawing their narrative were obviously drawing their narrative from more recent events. specifically from more recent events. specifically from more recent events. specifically the conflicts that centered around the the conflicts that centered around the the conflicts that centered around the Graei brothers who used their veto power Graei brothers who used their veto power Graei brothers who used their veto power to try and force through land to try and force through land to try and force through land redistribution in the 130s and 120s BC. redistribution in the 130s and 120s BC. redistribution in the 130s and 120s BC. Second, modern analysis has determined Second, modern analysis has determined Second, modern analysis has determined that as many as a third of the consoles that as many as a third of the consoles that as many as a third of the consoles prior to 367 were in fact of plebeian prior to 367 were in fact of plebeian prior to 367 were in fact of plebeian origin. As is so often the case, a clear origin. As is so often the case, a clear origin. As is so often the case, a clear dramatic delineation in history is less dramatic delineation in history is less dramatic delineation in history is less plausible than a gradual shift in policy plausible than a gradual shift in policy plausible than a gradual shift in policy over the years. There's no doubt that over the years. There's no doubt that over the years. There's no doubt that the vast majority of early consils were the vast majority of early consils were the vast majority of early consils were patricians, but it is suspected that patricians, but it is suspected that patricians, but it is suspected that this was not the result of overt this was not the result of overt this was not the result of overt discrimination, but rather because of discrimination, but rather because of discrimination, but rather because of the greater wealth and fame of patrician the greater wealth and fame of patrician the greater wealth and fame of patrician candidates. The 367 BC date is candidates. The 367 BC date is candidates. The 367 BC date is important, though, because from that important, though, because from that important, though, because from that point on there is a marked increase in point on there is a marked increase in point on there is a marked increase in pleb consoles, demonstrating some sort pleb consoles, demonstrating some sort pleb consoles, demonstrating some sort of conscious decision to grant plebeians of conscious decision to grant plebeians of conscious decision to grant plebeians more power. And of course, the existence more power. And of course, the existence more power. And of course, the existence of a 342 BC law stipulating that one of of a 342 BC law stipulating that one of of a 342 BC law stipulating that one of the consoles had to be a pleb is not the consoles had to be a pleb is not the consoles had to be a pleb is not disputed. And it seems likely that this disputed. And it seems likely that this disputed. And it seems likely that this was the culmination of a decadesl long was the culmination of a decadesl long was the culmination of a decadesl long shift rather than a bolt out of the shift rather than a bolt out of the shift rather than a bolt out of the blue. In general, what can be stated is blue. In general, what can be stated is blue. In general, what can be stated is that after the sack of Rome, the plebes that after the sack of Rome, the plebes that after the sack of Rome, the plebes demanded and received far greater power demanded and received far greater power demanded and received far greater power than they had enjoyed prior to the than they had enjoyed prior to the than they had enjoyed prior to the arrival of the Gauls.

arrival of the Gauls. arrival of the Gauls. The Romans struggled in the years after The Romans struggled in the years after The Romans struggled in the years after the GS left them for dead, but managed the GS left them for dead, but managed the GS left them for dead, but managed to hold on in the face of massive to hold on in the face of massive to hold on in the face of massive external pressure and internal external pressure and internal external pressure and internal dissension. The new infranchisement of dissension. The new infranchisement of dissension. The new infranchisement of the plebes made the Romans a more the plebes made the Romans a more the plebes made the Romans a more cohesive and less divisive society. This cohesive and less divisive society. This cohesive and less divisive society. This cohesion would be tested by a cohesion would be tested by a cohesion would be tested by a confrontation that loomed on the confrontation that loomed on the confrontation that loomed on the horizon. Though the Romans did not know horizon. Though the Romans did not know horizon. Though the Romans did not know it yet, they were about to begin a it yet, they were about to begin a it yet, they were about to begin a series of war that would leave them the series of war that would leave them the series of war that would leave them the dominant force not just in Latadium or dominant force not just in Latadium or dominant force not just in Latadium or central Italy, but in the entire central Italy, but in the entire central Italy, but in the entire peninsula. Next week, we will introduce peninsula. Next week, we will introduce peninsula. Next week, we will introduce the Samites, the fiercest of all the the Samites, the fiercest of all the the Samites, the fiercest of all the hill tribes, who would not only prove hill tribes, who would not only prove hill tribes, who would not only prove more than a match for Rome, but also more than a match for Rome, but also more than a match for Rome, but also force the Romans to rethink everything force the Romans to rethink everything force the Romans to rethink everything they knew about warfare. The Romans they knew about warfare. The Romans they knew about warfare. The Romans would fight a single great war with would fight a single great war with would fight a single great war with three distinct phases against the three distinct phases against the three distinct phases against the Samites between 343 and 295 BC. The Samites between 343 and 295 BC. The Samites between 343 and 295 BC. The Samite Wars would pull all the major Samite Wars would pull all the major Samite Wars would pull all the major powers of Italy onto one side or the powers of Italy onto one side or the powers of Italy onto one side or the other and culminate with the largest other and culminate with the largest other and culminate with the largest battle ever fought on Italian soil. When battle ever fought on Italian soil. When battle ever fought on Italian soil. When it was over, the Roman victory was so it was over, the Roman victory was so it was over, the Roman victory was so complete that it would be 200 years complete that it would be 200 years complete that it would be 200 years before an Italian people again mounted a before an Italian people again mounted a before an Italian people again mounted a serious threat to Roman rule. And by serious threat to Roman rule. And by serious threat to Roman rule. And by that time, Rome had grown into a global that time, Rome had grown into a global that time, Rome had grown into a global empire. The Italians were not trying to empire. The Italians were not trying to empire. The Italians were not trying to topple, but rather gain full legal topple, but rather gain full legal topple, but rather gain full legal citizenship within.