Roman History 29 - Constantius To Julian 337-361 AD

Hello, Hello, and welcome to the history of Rome. and welcome to the history of Rome. and welcome to the history of Rome. Episode 141, Blood and Water. When Constantine died in 337 AD, he left When Constantine died in 337 AD, he left the empire saddled with an unwieldy the empire saddled with an unwieldy the empire saddled with an unwieldy five-way power sharing system that it five-way power sharing system that it five-way power sharing system that it appears he just sort of hoped would appears he just sort of hoped would appears he just sort of hoped would somehow find a way to work. somehow find a way to work. somehow find a way to work. Well, by 340, it had found a way to Well, by 340, it had found a way to Well, by 340, it had found a way to work. work. work. It found a way to work by killing off It found a way to work by killing off It found a way to work by killing off three-fifths of its members. three-fifths of its members. three-fifths of its members. With the number of living Augusti now With the number of living Augusti now With the number of living Augusti now down to a manageable two, Constantius II down to a manageable two, Constantius II down to a manageable two, Constantius II and Constans were able to share control and Constans were able to share control and Constans were able to share control of the Roman Empire for a decade without of the Roman Empire for a decade without of the Roman Empire for a decade without butting heads with each other too much. butting heads with each other too much. butting heads with each other too much. That did not mean they were mutually That did not mean they were mutually That did not mean they were mutually supportive best friends by any stretch supportive best friends by any stretch supportive best friends by any stretch of the imagination, of the imagination, of the imagination, but it did mean that they mostly but it did mean that they mostly but it did mean that they mostly respected the legitimacy of the other, respected the legitimacy of the other, respected the legitimacy of the other, and as each had more than enough to deal and as each had more than enough to deal and as each had more than enough to deal with in their own half of the empire, it with in their own half of the empire, it with in their own half of the empire, it meant that they were not constantly at meant that they were not constantly at meant that they were not constantly at each other's throats.

each other's throats. each other's throats. In other words, the saber rattling was In other words, the saber rattling was In other words, the saber rattling was kept to a minimum, and civil war was kept to a minimum, and civil war was kept to a minimum, and civil war was avoided. avoided. avoided. Indeed, when Constantius finally did Indeed, when Constantius finally did Indeed, when Constantius finally did march west to fight a civil war, it was march west to fight a civil war, it was march west to fight a civil war, it was not to take his brother out, but to not to take his brother out, but to not to take his brother out, but to avenge his death. avenge his death. avenge his death. Of course, this was not vengeance in the Of course, this was not vengeance in the Of course, this was not vengeance in the you killed my brother prepare to die you killed my brother prepare to die you killed my brother prepare to die sense, so much as the allowing an sense, so much as the allowing an sense, so much as the allowing an illegal usurpation would set an illegal usurpation would set an illegal usurpation would set an unacceptable precedent sense, but still, unacceptable precedent sense, but still, unacceptable precedent sense, but still, the death of his brother did spur the death of his brother did spur the death of his brother did spur Constantius to some kind of action, Constantius to some kind of action, Constantius to some kind of action, which is about as nice a thing as you which is about as nice a thing as you which is about as nice a thing as you can say about these guys at this point can say about these guys at this point can say about these guys at this point in history. But before we can get into all that, we But before we can get into all that, we need to zip through the 340s AD, which need to zip through the 340s AD, which need to zip through the 340s AD, which are something of a lost decade are something of a lost decade are something of a lost decade source-wise. source-wise. source-wise. We know a few things, but until Ammianus We know a few things, but until Ammianus We know a few things, but until Ammianus Marcellinus comes along and starts to Marcellinus comes along and starts to Marcellinus comes along and starts to fill in the gaps, we are unfortunately fill in the gaps, we are unfortunately fill in the gaps, we are unfortunately left with a rather broad brush to help left with a rather broad brush to help left with a rather broad brush to help us paint the years of Constantius and us paint the years of Constantius and us paint the years of Constantius and Constans' joint rule.

Constans' joint rule. Constans' joint rule. But like I said, we do know a few But like I said, we do know a few But like I said, we do know a few things. Both of the emperors began their newly Both of the emperors began their newly established joint rule by doing what established joint rule by doing what established joint rule by doing what emperors usually do when they want to emperors usually do when they want to emperors usually do when they want to cement their legitimacy. cement their legitimacy. cement their legitimacy. They made war on the enemies of Rome. They made war on the enemies of Rome. They made war on the enemies of Rome. In the West, Constans spent most of 341 In the West, Constans spent most of 341 In the West, Constans spent most of 341 and 342 battling uncooperative Franks and 342 battling uncooperative Franks and 342 battling uncooperative Franks and appears to have been mostly and appears to have been mostly and appears to have been mostly successful on those campaigns. successful on those campaigns. successful on those campaigns. In early 343, he abruptly abandoned the In early 343, he abruptly abandoned the In early 343, he abruptly abandoned the Rhine and headed north to Britannia Rhine and headed north to Britannia Rhine and headed north to Britannia where he made a rare winter crossing where he made a rare winter crossing where he made a rare winter crossing over to the island leading scholars to over to the island leading scholars to over to the island leading scholars to surmise that some sort of revolt had surmise that some sort of revolt had surmise that some sort of revolt had broken out that required immediate broken out that required immediate broken out that required immediate imperial attention. imperial attention. imperial attention. The revolt cannot have been too big a The revolt cannot have been too big a The revolt cannot have been too big a concern though, because by the spring concern though, because by the spring concern though, because by the spring Constans was back in Trier keeping an Constans was back in Trier keeping an Constans was back in Trier keeping an eye on the Rhine. During this same period, Constantius During this same period, Constantius operated almost exclusively out of operated almost exclusively out of operated almost exclusively out of Antioch and spent most of his time Antioch and spent most of his time Antioch and spent most of his time fighting the Sassinid King Shapur II.

fighting the Sassinid King Shapur II. fighting the Sassinid King Shapur II. As I mentioned last week, this new war As I mentioned last week, this new war As I mentioned last week, this new war between Rome and Persia had technically between Rome and Persia had technically between Rome and Persia had technically been initiated by Shapur following the been initiated by Shapur following the been initiated by Shapur following the death of Constantine in 337. death of Constantine in 337. death of Constantine in 337. But we should not forget that it was But we should not forget that it was But we should not forget that it was likely the now dead emperor's likely the now dead emperor's likely the now dead emperor's threatening rhetoric that laid the threatening rhetoric that laid the threatening rhetoric that laid the groundwork for this latest round of groundwork for this latest round of groundwork for this latest round of hostilities. hostilities. hostilities. The two great empires fought mostly in The two great empires fought mostly in The two great empires fought mostly in Mesopotamia and their armies were Mesopotamia and their armies were Mesopotamia and their armies were apparently well matched because over the apparently well matched because over the apparently well matched because over the course of what would eventually be 13 course of what would eventually be 13 course of what would eventually be 13 uninterrupted years of war, Constantius uninterrupted years of war, Constantius uninterrupted years of war, Constantius and Shapur fought at least nine major and Shapur fought at least nine major and Shapur fought at least nine major battles and none of them were battles and none of them were battles and none of them were conclusive. conclusive. conclusive. Though I should mention that none of Though I should mention that none of Though I should mention that none of them are particularly well documented them are particularly well documented them are particularly well documented either. either. either. Despite all the ambiguity though, there Despite all the ambiguity though, there Despite all the ambiguity though, there is one great accomplishment that is one great accomplishment that is one great accomplishment that Constantius can point to. Constantius can point to. Constantius can point to. On three separate occasions over the On three separate occasions over the On three separate occasions over the course of the long war, Shapur laid course of the long war, Shapur laid course of the long war, Shapur laid siege to the key fortress city of siege to the key fortress city of siege to the key fortress city of Nisibis, and on all three occasions he Nisibis, and on all three occasions he Nisibis, and on all three occasions he was repelled and forced to withdraw. was repelled and forced to withdraw. was repelled and forced to withdraw. But as notable an accomplishment as this But as notable an accomplishment as this But as notable an accomplishment as this was though, it sort of leaves us asking was though, it sort of leaves us asking was though, it sort of leaves us asking the question of what this whole war was the question of what this whole war was the question of what this whole war was about if preventing the fall of a city about if preventing the fall of a city about if preventing the fall of a city turns out to be the big upshot of it turns out to be the big upshot of it turns out to be the big upshot of it all.

all. all. To put it another way, for 13 years To put it another way, for 13 years To put it another way, for 13 years blood and treasure was expended in blood and treasure was expended in blood and treasure was expended in massive quantities on both sides, and in massive quantities on both sides, and in massive quantities on both sides, and in the end nothing changed, nothing was the end nothing changed, nothing was the end nothing changed, nothing was resolved, and no one benefited. resolved, and no one benefited. resolved, and no one benefited. Good work, everyone. Beyond the standard imperial war making, Beyond the standard imperial war making, the two emperors were also kept busy the two emperors were also kept busy the two emperors were also kept busy through the 340s by what was fast through the 340s by what was fast through the 340s by what was fast becoming one of the defining features of becoming one of the defining features of becoming one of the defining features of imperial rule. imperial rule. imperial rule. Christian church politics. Christian church politics. Christian church politics. Constantius, as I mentioned last week, Constantius, as I mentioned last week, Constantius, as I mentioned last week, sympathized with the Arians and promoted sympathized with the Arians and promoted sympathized with the Arians and promoted their candidates for bishoprics whenever their candidates for bishoprics whenever their candidates for bishoprics whenever he could. he could. he could. This theological leaning was on display, This theological leaning was on display, This theological leaning was on display, for example, when the emperor pushed for for example, when the emperor pushed for for example, when the emperor pushed for the Arian Eusebius of Nicomedia, who had the Arian Eusebius of Nicomedia, who had the Arian Eusebius of Nicomedia, who had been the one to baptize Constantine the been the one to baptize Constantine the been the one to baptize Constantine the Great, by the way, Great, by the way, Great, by the way, to take over as the bishop of to take over as the bishop of to take over as the bishop of Constantinople in 338. Constantinople in 338. Constantinople in 338. But it was perhaps nowhere more on But it was perhaps nowhere more on But it was perhaps nowhere more on display than in his dealings with display than in his dealings with display than in his dealings with Athanasius. Athanasius. Athanasius. I didn't get into this week, but about 5 I didn't get into this week, but about 5 I didn't get into this week, but about 5 minutes after the anti-Arian bishop was minutes after the anti-Arian bishop was minutes after the anti-Arian bishop was returned home to Alexandria by returned home to Alexandria by returned home to Alexandria by Constantine II, Constantius found cause Constantine II, Constantius found cause Constantine II, Constantius found cause to return him to exile.

to return him to exile. to return him to exile. There was basically no way the emperor There was basically no way the emperor There was basically no way the emperor was going to let a man with that much was going to let a man with that much was going to let a man with that much power and that much charisma roam free power and that much charisma roam free power and that much charisma roam free in his territory stirring up trouble. in his territory stirring up trouble. in his territory stirring up trouble. So, it was back to the west for So, it was back to the west for So, it was back to the west for Athanasius. This would have probably been all well This would have probably been all well and good from an imperial point of view. and good from an imperial point of view. and good from an imperial point of view. Except for the fact that Constans had Except for the fact that Constans had Except for the fact that Constans had developed into something of a pro-Nicene developed into something of a pro-Nicene developed into something of a pro-Nicene partisan. partisan. partisan. As with Constantine II, Constans' As with Constantine II, Constans' As with Constantine II, Constans' religious affinities probably had as religious affinities probably had as religious affinities probably had as much to do with the general pro-Nicene much to do with the general pro-Nicene much to do with the general pro-Nicene orthodoxy of the Western Church as orthodoxy of the Western Church as orthodoxy of the Western Church as anything else. anything else. anything else. But on two separate occasions in the But on two separate occasions in the But on two separate occasions in the early 340s, early 340s, early 340s, Constans met with Athanasius and found Constans met with Athanasius and found Constans met with Athanasius and found him to be a man of admirable virtue who him to be a man of admirable virtue who him to be a man of admirable virtue who was getting the short end of it from his was getting the short end of it from his was getting the short end of it from his brother. brother. brother. Constans as soon came to the decision Constans as soon came to the decision Constans as soon came to the decision that Athanasius was the lawful bishop of that Athanasius was the lawful bishop of that Athanasius was the lawful bishop of Alexandria and that he ought to be Alexandria and that he ought to be Alexandria and that he ought to be allowed to return home and serve as allowed to return home and serve as allowed to return home and serve as such. But as Constans was hardening his But as Constans was hardening his pro-Nicene position, Constantius was pro-Nicene position, Constantius was pro-Nicene position, Constantius was hardening his pro-Arian position.

hardening his pro-Arian position. hardening his pro-Arian position. In 341, while the emperor was in In 341, while the emperor was in In 341, while the emperor was in Antioch, a bishop Eusebius died and Antioch, a bishop Eusebius died and Antioch, a bishop Eusebius died and before Constantius could react one way before Constantius could react one way before Constantius could react one way or the other, or the other, or the other, the clergy in Constantinople elevated the clergy in Constantinople elevated the clergy in Constantinople elevated the anti-Arian Paul of Constantinople to the anti-Arian Paul of Constantinople to the anti-Arian Paul of Constantinople to the bishopric of the capital city. the bishopric of the capital city. the bishopric of the capital city. When Constantius found out what had When Constantius found out what had When Constantius found out what had happened, he was livid. happened, he was livid. happened, he was livid. Not just because he hadn't been Not just because he hadn't been Not just because he hadn't been consulted, but because he had already consulted, but because he had already consulted, but because he had already deposed and exiled Paul once before in deposed and exiled Paul once before in deposed and exiled Paul once before in order to clear the way for Eusebius. order to clear the way for Eusebius. order to clear the way for Eusebius. Fuming over the appointment, Constantius Fuming over the appointment, Constantius Fuming over the appointment, Constantius ordered his master of the horse to go to ordered his master of the horse to go to ordered his master of the horse to go to Constantinople and personally oversee Constantinople and personally oversee Constantinople and personally oversee the re-banishment of Paul. the re-banishment of Paul. the re-banishment of Paul. But when the commander arrived, he found But when the commander arrived, he found But when the commander arrived, he found the people of Constantinople ready to the people of Constantinople ready to the people of Constantinople ready to defend Paul's right to the office. defend Paul's right to the office. defend Paul's right to the office. So much so that in the heat of the So much so that in the heat of the So much so that in the heat of the moment, they barricaded him inside his moment, they barricaded him inside his moment, they barricaded him inside his house and then set it on fire. house and then set it on fire. house and then set it on fire. The master of the horse, one of the most The master of the horse, one of the most The master of the horse, one of the most senior military officials in the empire, senior military officials in the empire, senior military officials in the empire, was killed in the blaze.

was killed in the blaze. was killed in the blaze. And then, to top things off, his body And then, to top things off, his body And then, to top things off, his body was dragged through the streets in was dragged through the streets in was dragged through the streets in triumph. triumph. triumph. I wonder what Constantius is going to I wonder what Constantius is going to I wonder what Constantius is going to think about all this. think about all this. think about all this. Constantius, surprisingly, took the news Constantius, surprisingly, took the news Constantius, surprisingly, took the news of his top lieutenant's murder in stride of his top lieutenant's murder in stride of his top lieutenant's murder in stride and decided to allow the people to have and decided to allow the people to have and decided to allow the people to have their bishop. their bishop. their bishop. Just kidding. Just kidding. Just kidding. When word of what happened reached When word of what happened reached When word of what happened reached Antioch, Constantius flew into a rage, Antioch, Constantius flew into a rage, Antioch, Constantius flew into a rage, saddled up his horse, and double-timed saddled up his horse, and double-timed saddled up his horse, and double-timed to Constantinople, where he planned to to Constantinople, where he planned to to Constantinople, where he planned to separate as many heads from as many separate as many heads from as many separate as many heads from as many bodies as he could find. bodies as he could find. bodies as he could find. When he arrived in the capital, though, When he arrived in the capital, though, When he arrived in the capital, though, he was greeted by a population that he was greeted by a population that he was greeted by a population that seemed so genuinely remorseful, who seemed so genuinely remorseful, who seemed so genuinely remorseful, who supplicated themselves so completely supplicated themselves so completely supplicated themselves so completely that Constantius' anger was tempered. that Constantius' anger was tempered. that Constantius' anger was tempered. Instead of massacring the whole lot of Instead of massacring the whole lot of Instead of massacring the whole lot of them then, the emperor settled on them then, the emperor settled on them then, the emperor settled on cutting their free grain allotment by cutting their free grain allotment by cutting their free grain allotment by 50%. 50%. 50%. It goes without saying that Paul was It goes without saying that Paul was It goes without saying that Paul was once again exiled from the city. once again exiled from the city. once again exiled from the city. Satisfied that things had been set Satisfied that things had been set Satisfied that things had been set right, the emperor returned to Antioch right, the emperor returned to Antioch right, the emperor returned to Antioch to continue the war against Persia.

But that would not be the end of it. But that would not be the end of it. Constantius' willingness to exile Constantius' willingness to exile Constantius' willingness to exile anti-Arian bishops from his provinces anti-Arian bishops from his provinces anti-Arian bishops from his provinces eventually came to affect relations with eventually came to affect relations with eventually came to affect relations with his brother and, in time, lead to the his brother and, in time, lead to the his brother and, in time, lead to the closest brush with civil war the two closest brush with civil war the two closest brush with civil war the two emperors faced during their decade in emperors faced during their decade in emperors faced during their decade in office together. The various Eastern exiles, including The various Eastern exiles, including Athanasius and Paul, took up residence Athanasius and Paul, took up residence Athanasius and Paul, took up residence in Rome, where they were sheltered and in Rome, where they were sheltered and in Rome, where they were sheltered and defended by the bishop Julius. defended by the bishop Julius. defended by the bishop Julius. Pretty soon, Constans was being hit up Pretty soon, Constans was being hit up Pretty soon, Constans was being hit up from all sides to do something about from all sides to do something about from all sides to do something about Constantius' mistreatment of all these Constantius' mistreatment of all these Constantius' mistreatment of all these good and decent men of God. good and decent men of God. good and decent men of God. So, in 343, Constans called for an So, in 343, Constans called for an So, in 343, Constans called for an ecumenical council to meet in Sardica to ecumenical council to meet in Sardica to ecumenical council to meet in Sardica to rehabilitate Athanasius and his fellow rehabilitate Athanasius and his fellow rehabilitate Athanasius and his fellow expatriates. expatriates. expatriates. But when the outnumbered Eastern bishops But when the outnumbered Eastern bishops But when the outnumbered Eastern bishops determined that the whole thing was determined that the whole thing was determined that the whole thing was rigged against them. They walked out en rigged against them. They walked out en rigged against them. They walked out en masse, and as a result, the Council of masse, and as a result, the Council of masse, and as a result, the Council of Sardica not only failed in its stated Sardica not only failed in its stated Sardica not only failed in its stated goal to reunite the church, but it also goal to reunite the church, but it also goal to reunite the church, but it also failed to even make the list of official failed to even make the list of official failed to even make the list of official ecumenical councils.

By 346, tensions between East and West By 346, tensions between East and West came to a head, and after getting the came to a head, and after getting the came to a head, and after getting the brush-off time and again, Constans brush-off time and again, Constans brush-off time and again, Constans finally decided that the only way to get finally decided that the only way to get finally decided that the only way to get his older brother's attention was to his older brother's attention was to his older brother's attention was to threaten war. threaten war. threaten war. Allow Athanasius and his compatriots Allow Athanasius and his compatriots Allow Athanasius and his compatriots return to the East, or I'm going to return to the East, or I'm going to return to the East, or I'm going to invade your territory and force you to invade your territory and force you to invade your territory and force you to do it. do it. do it. This threat did indeed get Constantius' This threat did indeed get Constantius' This threat did indeed get Constantius' attention and set off a flurry of attention and set off a flurry of attention and set off a flurry of diplomatic correspondence between diplomatic correspondence between diplomatic correspondence between Antioch and Sirmium, where Constans had Antioch and Sirmium, where Constans had Antioch and Sirmium, where Constans had taken a provocative residence. taken a provocative residence. taken a provocative residence. Tied down by his protracted war with the Tied down by his protracted war with the Tied down by his protracted war with the Sassinids, Constantius could not afford Sassinids, Constantius could not afford Sassinids, Constantius could not afford to waste political or military capital to waste political or military capital to waste political or military capital on theological argument. on theological argument. on theological argument. And though the thought of allowing And though the thought of allowing And though the thought of allowing Athanasius to return to Alexandria Athanasius to return to Alexandria Athanasius to return to Alexandria rankled him, rankled him, rankled him, Constantius basically backed down and Constantius basically backed down and Constantius basically backed down and gave in to his brother's demand. gave in to his brother's demand. gave in to his brother's demand. When Athanasius returned to Alexandria, When Athanasius returned to Alexandria, When Athanasius returned to Alexandria, he was greeted by the population like a he was greeted by the population like a he was greeted by the population like a conquering hero and immediately conquering hero and immediately conquering hero and immediately reclaimed the bishopric of the city.

For the next four years, an uneasy truce For the next four years, an uneasy truce would stand between emperor and bishop would stand between emperor and bishop would stand between emperor and bishop until the death of Constans in 350 until the death of Constans in 350 until the death of Constans in 350 removed Constantius' impediment to removed Constantius' impediment to removed Constantius' impediment to action, and Athanasius was banished once action, and Athanasius was banished once action, and Athanasius was banished once again. But despite the return of so many But despite the return of so many controversial bishops to their home controversial bishops to their home controversial bishops to their home provinces, the late 340s were pretty provinces, the late 340s were pretty provinces, the late 340s were pretty much the same as the early 340s as far much the same as the early 340s as far much the same as the early 340s as far as the Eastern Empire was concerned. as the Eastern Empire was concerned. as the Eastern Empire was concerned. Constantius waged war against Shapur, Constantius waged war against Shapur, Constantius waged war against Shapur, and Shapur waged war against and Shapur waged war against and Shapur waged war against Constantius. Constantius. Constantius. Exactly the same thing that had been Exactly the same thing that had been Exactly the same thing that had been going on for the last decade. going on for the last decade. going on for the last decade. But in the West, Constans began to slip But in the West, Constans began to slip But in the West, Constans began to slip up. up. up. Though he had begun his reign with a Though he had begun his reign with a Though he had begun his reign with a great deal of promise, of late he had great deal of promise, of late he had great deal of promise, of late he had begun to fall into the same trap that begun to fall into the same trap that begun to fall into the same trap that had ensnared previous young rulers. had ensnared previous young rulers. had ensnared previous young rulers. Surrounded by sycophants, the Surrounded by sycophants, the Surrounded by sycophants, the 20-something Augustus of the West was 20-something Augustus of the West was 20-something Augustus of the West was losing touch with reality. losing touch with reality. losing touch with reality. The common complaint was that he was The common complaint was that he was The common complaint was that he was giving himself over too much to hunting giving himself over too much to hunting giving himself over too much to hunting and banqueting, another extracurricular and banqueting, another extracurricular and banqueting, another extracurricular activities activities activities while neglecting the real business of while neglecting the real business of while neglecting the real business of ruling half the empire.

ruling half the empire. ruling half the empire. Compounding this problem were charges Compounding this problem were charges Compounding this problem were charges that he was treating his court and his that he was treating his court and his that he was treating his court and his subjects with unnecessary cruelty. subjects with unnecessary cruelty. subjects with unnecessary cruelty. Now, this didn't have to become a Now, this didn't have to become a Now, this didn't have to become a problem so large that it would problem so large that it would problem so large that it would eventually destroy him, eventually destroy him, eventually destroy him, but Constans forgot the most basic rule but Constans forgot the most basic rule but Constans forgot the most basic rule of imperial rule. of imperial rule. of imperial rule. Make sure the army is taken care of. Make sure the army is taken care of. Make sure the army is taken care of. He was not taking care of the army, He was not taking care of the army, He was not taking care of the army, and so the army took care of him. and so the army took care of him. and so the army took care of him. If anyone is surprised by what's about If anyone is surprised by what's about If anyone is surprised by what's about to happen, just go and listen to the to happen, just go and listen to the to happen, just go and listen to the back episodes again, because it's not back episodes again, because it's not back episodes again, because it's not like these things haven't happened like these things haven't happened like these things haven't happened before. Constans' main problem is that he had Constans' main problem is that he had become enamored with an elite archery become enamored with an elite archery become enamored with an elite archery corps who acted as his personal corps who acted as his personal corps who acted as his personal bodyguard. And while he lavished gifts bodyguard. And while he lavished gifts bodyguard. And while he lavished gifts and attention on them, he neglected the and attention on them, he neglected the and attention on them, he neglected the officers and soldiers out on the officers and soldiers out on the officers and soldiers out on the frontiers. frontiers. frontiers. They, of course, began to talk amongst They, of course, began to talk amongst They, of course, began to talk amongst themselves about how annoying it was themselves about how annoying it was themselves about how annoying it was that these pretty boy archers were that these pretty boy archers were that these pretty boy archers were getting all the love. getting all the love. getting all the love. After a few years of enduring what they After a few years of enduring what they After a few years of enduring what they felt was supreme disrespect, this felt was supreme disrespect, this felt was supreme disrespect, this talking amongst themselves became more talking amongst themselves became more talking amongst themselves became more of a clamor.

of a clamor. of a clamor. And the leading officers of the Rhine And the leading officers of the Rhine And the leading officers of the Rhine legions began to think seriously about legions began to think seriously about legions began to think seriously about finding a replacement emperor. By 349, a conspiracy had solidified By 349, a conspiracy had solidified around Magnentius, a popular general who around Magnentius, a popular general who around Magnentius, a popular general who was serving as the commander of the was serving as the commander of the was serving as the commander of the official Imperial Guard units, as official Imperial Guard units, as official Imperial Guard units, as opposed to Constans' unofficial archery opposed to Constans' unofficial archery opposed to Constans' unofficial archery guard. guard. guard. According to the legend, Magnentius and According to the legend, Magnentius and According to the legend, Magnentius and some of his fellow officers were some of his fellow officers were some of his fellow officers were gathered for dinner in January of 350 at gathered for dinner in January of 350 at gathered for dinner in January of 350 at Augustodunum, modern Autun in France, Augustodunum, modern Autun in France, Augustodunum, modern Autun in France, when Magnentius excused himself from the when Magnentius excused himself from the when Magnentius excused himself from the table. table. table. Upon the general's return, the other Upon the general's return, the other Upon the general's return, the other officers noticed that he was draped in a officers noticed that he was draped in a officers noticed that he was draped in a purple cloak. purple cloak. purple cloak. They cheered and hailed him as emperor. They cheered and hailed him as emperor. They cheered and hailed him as emperor. And just like that, the west was in And just like that, the west was in And just like that, the west was in revolt. Constans, enjoying himself at some Constans, enjoying himself at some unspecified spot near Augustodunum, unspecified spot near Augustodunum, unspecified spot near Augustodunum, heard of the revolt and began making heard of the revolt and began making heard of the revolt and began making plans to resist, until he discovered plans to resist, until he discovered plans to resist, until he discovered just how out of touch he had become.

just how out of touch he had become. just how out of touch he had become. Apart from his personal guard and a few Apart from his personal guard and a few Apart from his personal guard and a few members of the court, absolutely no one members of the court, absolutely no one members of the court, absolutely no one lined up to defend him. lined up to defend him. lined up to defend him. I don't know how popular he thought he I don't know how popular he thought he I don't know how popular he thought he was, or even if he cared how popular he was, or even if he cared how popular he was, or even if he cared how popular he was, was, was, but it had to have come as a surprise to but it had to have come as a surprise to but it had to have come as a surprise to find out just how unpopular he was. find out just how unpopular he was. find out just how unpopular he was. The legions up and down the Rhine The legions up and down the Rhine The legions up and down the Rhine immediately joined Magnentius' banner. immediately joined Magnentius' banner. immediately joined Magnentius' banner. Constans was all alone. Fearing capture if he tried to pass Fearing capture if he tried to pass directly through the Alps, the fugitive directly through the Alps, the fugitive directly through the Alps, the fugitive emperor made instead for Spain, where he emperor made instead for Spain, where he emperor made instead for Spain, where he planned to hop a ship to Italy and planned to hop a ship to Italy and planned to hop a ship to Italy and hopefully regroup. hopefully regroup. hopefully regroup. But Magnentius' agents caught up with But Magnentius' agents caught up with But Magnentius' agents caught up with him in the foothills of the Pyrenees, him in the foothills of the Pyrenees, him in the foothills of the Pyrenees, and Constans was executed. and Constans was executed. and Constans was executed. He was somewhere between 27 and 30 years He was somewhere between 27 and 30 years He was somewhere between 27 and 30 years old and had been an Augustus for almost old and had been an Augustus for almost old and had been an Augustus for almost 13 years. The usurpation of Magnentius and the The usurpation of Magnentius and the murder of Constans kicked off a frenzy murder of Constans kicked off a frenzy murder of Constans kicked off a frenzy of activity across the empire.

of activity across the empire. of activity across the empire. In the far east, Constantius received In the far east, Constantius received In the far east, Constantius received word that his brother had been killed, word that his brother had been killed, word that his brother had been killed, and immediately he began working on a and immediately he began working on a and immediately he began working on a plan to extract himself from his war plan to extract himself from his war plan to extract himself from his war with Persia, so he could personally go with Persia, so he could personally go with Persia, so he could personally go put the revolt down. put the revolt down. put the revolt down. Magnentius was trying to head all this Magnentius was trying to head all this Magnentius was trying to head all this off by asking Constantius to just go off by asking Constantius to just go off by asking Constantius to just go ahead and recognize him. ahead and recognize him. ahead and recognize him. After all, the empire needed a strong After all, the empire needed a strong After all, the empire needed a strong hand in the west. The eastern legions hand in the west. The eastern legions hand in the west. The eastern legions were bogged down with a war, so why not were bogged down with a war, so why not were bogged down with a war, so why not just do the sensible thing and let me, a just do the sensible thing and let me, a just do the sensible thing and let me, a strong and popular general, run things strong and popular general, run things strong and popular general, run things for you out here. for you out here. for you out here. But Constantius wasn't having it. But Constantius wasn't having it. But Constantius wasn't having it. You don't get to overthrow a member of You don't get to overthrow a member of You don't get to overthrow a member of the family and just get away with it. the family and just get away with it. the family and just get away with it. Magnentius was right about one thing Magnentius was right about one thing Magnentius was right about one thing though. The eastern legions were bogged though. The eastern legions were bogged though. The eastern legions were bogged down in a war. down in a war. down in a war. So, as much as he wanted to, Constantius So, as much as he wanted to, Constantius So, as much as he wanted to, Constantius couldn't immediately pick up and march couldn't immediately pick up and march couldn't immediately pick up and march west. west. west. As the emperor worked up a plan to put As the emperor worked up a plan to put As the emperor worked up a plan to put the war with Persia on hold, however, the war with Persia on hold, however, the war with Persia on hold, however, his sister Constantina, the widow of his sister Constantina, the widow of his sister Constantina, the widow of Hannibalianus, Hannibalianus, Hannibalianus, apparently took matters into her own apparently took matters into her own apparently took matters into her own hands and wrote to a general closely hands and wrote to a general closely hands and wrote to a general closely allied with the Constantinian family allied with the Constantinian family allied with the Constantinian family named Vetranio, asking him to take named Vetranio, asking him to take named Vetranio, asking him to take matters into his own hands.

matters into his own hands. matters into his own hands. As one of the senior commanders of the As one of the senior commanders of the As one of the senior commanders of the Danube region, Vetranio was well Danube region, Vetranio was well Danube region, Vetranio was well positioned with a large army to oppose positioned with a large army to oppose positioned with a large army to oppose the rising power of Magnentius. the rising power of Magnentius. the rising power of Magnentius. Spurred on by the emperor's sister, Spurred on by the emperor's sister, Spurred on by the emperor's sister, Vetranio declared himself Augustus in Vetranio declared himself Augustus in Vetranio declared himself Augustus in March of 350. Now, Constantius cannot have been too Now, Constantius cannot have been too happy about this declaration. But he happy about this declaration. But he happy about this declaration. But he recognized his own weak position and the recognized his own weak position and the recognized his own weak position and the need for a powerful ally. need for a powerful ally. need for a powerful ally. And Vetranio, backed by Constantia, was And Vetranio, backed by Constantia, was And Vetranio, backed by Constantia, was promising to be a powerful ally. promising to be a powerful ally. promising to be a powerful ally. So, the eastern Augustus went ahead and So, the eastern Augustus went ahead and So, the eastern Augustus went ahead and accepted the general's self-elevation as accepted the general's self-elevation as accepted the general's self-elevation as legitimate. legitimate. legitimate. For now. The rise of Vetranio had the intended The rise of Vetranio had the intended effect and finally put a stop to effect and finally put a stop to effect and finally put a stop to Magnentius' unchecked expansion. Magnentius' unchecked expansion. Magnentius' unchecked expansion. Since being declared Augustus in Since being declared Augustus in Since being declared Augustus in January, the general had gotten all the January, the general had gotten all the January, the general had gotten all the provinces in Gaul, Britannia, Hispania, provinces in Gaul, Britannia, Hispania, provinces in Gaul, Britannia, Hispania, and Italy lined up behind him. And he and Italy lined up behind him. And he and Italy lined up behind him. And he was looking to press on into Constance's was looking to press on into Constance's was looking to press on into Constance's Illyrian territory.

Illyrian territory. Illyrian territory. If he could nail down Illyria, then it If he could nail down Illyria, then it If he could nail down Illyria, then it was just a hop, skip over to was just a hop, skip over to was just a hop, skip over to Constantinople. Constantinople. Constantinople. Whether he was actually looking to Whether he was actually looking to Whether he was actually looking to capture the capital is anyone's guess. capture the capital is anyone's guess. capture the capital is anyone's guess. But at the very least, the threat would But at the very least, the threat would But at the very least, the threat would have made his bargaining position that have made his bargaining position that have made his bargaining position that much stronger. much stronger. much stronger. But with Vetranio now standing firm But with Vetranio now standing firm But with Vetranio now standing firm against him with the Danube legions at against him with the Danube legions at against him with the Danube legions at his back, his back, his back, Magnentius was forced to settle for what Magnentius was forced to settle for what Magnentius was forced to settle for what he had already acquired. he had already acquired. he had already acquired. There would be no directly threatening There would be no directly threatening There would be no directly threatening Constantinople. Magnentius would have to Constantinople. Magnentius would have to Constantinople. Magnentius would have to figure out a different way to convince figure out a different way to convince figure out a different way to convince Constantius to legitimize him. Through the rest of the spring, a Through the rest of the spring, a stalemate ensued with Magnentius stalemate ensued with Magnentius stalemate ensued with Magnentius commanding the west, Vetranio holding commanding the west, Vetranio holding commanding the west, Vetranio holding down the center, and Constantius down the center, and Constantius down the center, and Constantius desperately trying to get out of Syria. Into this mix, a fourth player emerged Into this mix, a fourth player emerged onto the stage in June of 350. onto the stage in June of 350. onto the stage in June of 350. Nepotianus, the lost nephew of Nepotianus, the lost nephew of Nepotianus, the lost nephew of Constantine, suddenly appeared at the Constantine, suddenly appeared at the Constantine, suddenly appeared at the gates of Rome backed by a small army of gates of Rome backed by a small army of gates of Rome backed by a small army of gladiators.

gladiators. gladiators. Since the eternal city was by this point Since the eternal city was by this point Since the eternal city was by this point a strategic backwater, Magnentius had a strategic backwater, Magnentius had a strategic backwater, Magnentius had not garrisoned the city. And his not garrisoned the city. And his not garrisoned the city. And his supporters there had to rely on a supporters there had to rely on a supporters there had to rely on a citizen militia for protection. citizen militia for protection. citizen militia for protection. This citizen militia was no match for This citizen militia was no match for This citizen militia was no match for Nepotianus's gladiators, and the Nepotianus's gladiators, and the Nepotianus's gladiators, and the forgotten prince was basically able to forgotten prince was basically able to forgotten prince was basically able to stride right through the gates and stride right through the gates and stride right through the gates and declare himself master of Rome. declare himself master of Rome. declare himself master of Rome. For the next 28 days, it looked like For the next 28 days, it looked like For the next 28 days, it looked like Magnentius might be in real trouble. Magnentius might be in real trouble. Magnentius might be in real trouble. Not only had he stopped acquiring new Not only had he stopped acquiring new Not only had he stopped acquiring new territory, but he was already losing territory, but he was already losing territory, but he was already losing territory. And to a random Constantinian territory. And to a random Constantinian territory. And to a random Constantinian cousin and a couple of gladiators, no cousin and a couple of gladiators, no cousin and a couple of gladiators, no less. less. less. But fortunately for Magnentius, the But fortunately for Magnentius, the But fortunately for Magnentius, the seizure of Rome only occurred because seizure of Rome only occurred because seizure of Rome only occurred because the general had put the eternal city the general had put the eternal city the general had put the eternal city pretty far down on his list of pretty far down on his list of pretty far down on his list of priorities. priorities. priorities. I mean, come on. Since when has Rome I mean, come on. Since when has Rome I mean, come on. Since when has Rome been the key to anything? been the key to anything? been the key to anything? So, Nepotianus held Rome for exactly the So, Nepotianus held Rome for exactly the So, Nepotianus held Rome for exactly the amount of time it took for Magnentius to amount of time it took for Magnentius to amount of time it took for Magnentius to find out what happened, organize an find out what happened, organize an find out what happened, organize an appropriate response force, and then appropriate response force, and then appropriate response force, and then send it back down the peninsula.

send it back down the peninsula. send it back down the peninsula. Now that he had Magnentius' attention, Now that he had Magnentius' attention, Now that he had Magnentius' attention, Nepotianus didn't stand a chance. Nepotianus didn't stand a chance. Nepotianus didn't stand a chance. The professional soldiers of the legions The professional soldiers of the legions The professional soldiers of the legions easily bested his gladiators, and easily bested his gladiators, and easily bested his gladiators, and Nepotianus himself died in the fighting. This small blip aside, the stalemate This small blip aside, the stalemate between Magnentius, Vetranio, and between Magnentius, Vetranio, and between Magnentius, Vetranio, and Constantius continued for most of the Constantius continued for most of the Constantius continued for most of the rest of the year. rest of the year. rest of the year. Until finally the Eastern Augustus hit Until finally the Eastern Augustus hit Until finally the Eastern Augustus hit upon some luck in his dealing with the upon some luck in his dealing with the upon some luck in his dealing with the Persians. Persians. Persians. It seems that right around this same It seems that right around this same It seems that right around this same time, Shapur began having problems of time, Shapur began having problems of time, Shapur began having problems of his own. his own. his own. With the bulk of the Sassinid army With the bulk of the Sassinid army With the bulk of the Sassinid army locked down fighting Rome, unruly locked down fighting Rome, unruly locked down fighting Rome, unruly Scythians had begun raiding his northern Scythians had begun raiding his northern Scythians had begun raiding his northern frontier. frontier. frontier. So, just as Constantius was looking for So, just as Constantius was looking for So, just as Constantius was looking for a way out of the war to go deal with a way out of the war to go deal with a way out of the war to go deal with Magnentius, Shapur was looking for a way Magnentius, Shapur was looking for a way Magnentius, Shapur was looking for a way out so he could go deal with the out so he could go deal with the out so he could go deal with the Scythians. Scythians. Scythians. As the winter of 350 approached, the two As the winter of 350 approached, the two As the winter of 350 approached, the two rival leaders agreed to a temporary rival leaders agreed to a temporary rival leaders agreed to a temporary ceasefire that would allow them each to ceasefire that would allow them each to ceasefire that would allow them each to pull back from Mesopotamia and go handle pull back from Mesopotamia and go handle pull back from Mesopotamia and go handle business on other fronts.

business on other fronts. business on other fronts. The truce would wind up holding for the The truce would wind up holding for the The truce would wind up holding for the next 8 years, until after finally next 8 years, until after finally next 8 years, until after finally pacifying his northern borders, Shapur pacifying his northern borders, Shapur pacifying his northern borders, Shapur decided to take another crack at Rome. decided to take another crack at Rome. decided to take another crack at Rome. For those of you who are reading ahead, For those of you who are reading ahead, For those of you who are reading ahead, that next round of fighting will be the that next round of fighting will be the that next round of fighting will be the one that eventually kills Julian the one that eventually kills Julian the one that eventually kills Julian the Apostate, and leads to Jovian's infamous Apostate, and leads to Jovian's infamous Apostate, and leads to Jovian's infamous peace agreement of 363. Truce in hand, Constantius was now ready Truce in hand, Constantius was now ready to march west and crush Magnentius. to march west and crush Magnentius. to march west and crush Magnentius. But as much as he trusted the Persian But as much as he trusted the Persian But as much as he trusted the Persian king to abide by the agreement, he did king to abide by the agreement, he did king to abide by the agreement, he did not really trust the Persian king to not really trust the Persian king to not really trust the Persian king to abide by the agreement. abide by the agreement. abide by the agreement. The emperor, already inclined towards The emperor, already inclined towards The emperor, already inclined towards paranoia, was worried that the minute he paranoia, was worried that the minute he paranoia, was worried that the minute he turned his back, Shapur would jump him turned his back, Shapur would jump him turned his back, Shapur would jump him from behind. from behind. from behind. Fearing that the lack of a strong Fearing that the lack of a strong Fearing that the lack of a strong imperial presence would incline the imperial presence would incline the imperial presence would incline the Persian toward just this sort of trick, Persian toward just this sort of trick, Persian toward just this sort of trick, Constantius decided that he needed a Constantius decided that he needed a Constantius decided that he needed a stand-in emperor. stand-in emperor. stand-in emperor. Someone who would keep the Persians from Someone who would keep the Persians from Someone who would keep the Persians from breaking the peace, breaking the peace, breaking the peace, provide the backbone the legions needed provide the backbone the legions needed provide the backbone the legions needed to maintain their vigil, to maintain their vigil, to maintain their vigil, and perhaps most importantly, protect and perhaps most importantly, protect and perhaps most importantly, protect Constantius' interests in the East.

But with most of his male relatives But with most of his male relatives having been killed off at one point or having been killed off at one point or having been killed off at one point or another, another, another, the list of acceptable candidates, read the list of acceptable candidates, read the list of acceptable candidates, read blood-related candidates, blood-related candidates, blood-related candidates, was now down to two. was now down to two. was now down to two. The boys who had survived the massacre The boys who had survived the massacre The boys who had survived the massacre of the princes, of the princes, of the princes, now 25-year-old Constantius Gallus and now 25-year-old Constantius Gallus and now 25-year-old Constantius Gallus and his younger brother, 18-year-old Julian. his younger brother, 18-year-old Julian. his younger brother, 18-year-old Julian. Constantius, of course, chose to elevate Constantius, of course, chose to elevate Constantius, of course, chose to elevate Gallus, who was not only older, but he Gallus, who was not only older, but he Gallus, who was not only older, but he didn't have his head shoved in a book didn't have his head shoved in a book didn't have his head shoved in a book all the time. all the time. all the time. In a ceremony in Antioch, Constantius In a ceremony in Antioch, Constantius In a ceremony in Antioch, Constantius formally invested Gallus with the title formally invested Gallus with the title formally invested Gallus with the title Caesar and gave him authority over the Caesar and gave him authority over the Caesar and gave him authority over the Eastern provinces. Eastern provinces. Eastern provinces. To seal the deal, Gallus was wed to To seal the deal, Gallus was wed to To seal the deal, Gallus was wed to Constantina, the outspoken sister of Constantina, the outspoken sister of Constantina, the outspoken sister of Constantius, who was also the one to so Constantius, who was also the one to so Constantius, who was also the one to so recently prod Vetranio into action. recently prod Vetranio into action. recently prod Vetranio into action. That she was Gallus' own cousin was That she was Gallus' own cousin was That she was Gallus' own cousin was neither here nor there. Peace with the Sassinids established and Peace with the Sassinids established and a loyal Caesar holding down the fort in a loyal Caesar holding down the fort in a loyal Caesar holding down the fort in Antioch, Constantius could finally, Antioch, Constantius could finally, Antioch, Constantius could finally, finally march west and exact the full finally march west and exact the full finally march west and exact the full measure of his revenge on Magnentius.

As As said before, it's not necessarily As As said before, it's not necessarily that Constantius was broken up about that Constantius was broken up about that Constantius was broken up about Constans' death, or even that he thought Constans' death, or even that he thought Constans' death, or even that he thought Magnentius would make a bad ruler. Magnentius would make a bad ruler. Magnentius would make a bad ruler. It was just that in a world where his It was just that in a world where his It was just that in a world where his own claim to the throne rested entirely own claim to the throne rested entirely own claim to the throne rested entirely on the fact that he was the blood son of on the fact that he was the blood son of on the fact that he was the blood son of Constantine, well, allowing someone from Constantine, well, allowing someone from Constantine, well, allowing someone from outside the family into the imperial outside the family into the imperial outside the family into the imperial circle kind of undercut the entire circle kind of undercut the entire circle kind of undercut the entire rationale for his own rule. rationale for his own rule. rationale for his own rule. The days of the Tetrarchy with its The days of the Tetrarchy with its The days of the Tetrarchy with its idealized vision of merit-based idealized vision of merit-based idealized vision of merit-based advancement were dead, dead, dead. advancement were dead, dead, dead. advancement were dead, dead, dead. The empire was back to classic kinship The empire was back to classic kinship The empire was back to classic kinship rules where blood runs thicker than rules where blood runs thicker than rules where blood runs thicker than water. Next week, Constantius will make sure Next week, Constantius will make sure that everyone gets the message that that everyone gets the message that that everyone gets the message that kinship rules are back in effect. kinship rules are back in effect. kinship rules are back in effect. And we will watch as the reign of And we will watch as the reign of And we will watch as the reign of Magnentius very quickly turns into the Magnentius very quickly turns into the Magnentius very quickly turns into the short reign of Magnentius. short reign of Magnentius. short reign of Magnentius. But having reasserted the supremacy of But having reasserted the supremacy of But having reasserted the supremacy of the Constantinian family, the Constantinian family, the Constantinian family, Constantius II Constantius II Constantius II will soon enough prove that while blood will soon enough prove that while blood will soon enough prove that while blood may run thicker than water, may run thicker than water, may run thicker than water, that did not mean that at the end of the that did not mean that at the end of the that did not mean that at the end of the day Constantius cared about anyone's day Constantius cared about anyone's day Constantius cared about anyone's blood but his own.

blood but his own. blood but his own. Which is to say that we will also get to Which is to say that we will also get to Which is to say that we will also get to watch next week as the reign of watch next week as the reign of watch next week as the reign of Constantius Gallus very quickly turns Constantius Gallus very quickly turns Constantius Gallus very quickly turns into the short reign of Constantius into the short reign of Constantius into the short reign of Constantius Gallus. Before we go this week, you know how Before we go this week, you know how last week I opened by saying that the last week I opened by saying that the last week I opened by saying that the tours were an absolutely fantastic time tours were an absolutely fantastic time tours were an absolutely fantastic time and that we hope to be doing them again and that we hope to be doing them again and that we hope to be doing them again very soon. very soon. very soon. Well, I couldn't be more excited to Well, I couldn't be more excited to Well, I couldn't be more excited to announce that very soon means October announce that very soon means October announce that very soon means October 2011. 2011. 2011. Version 2.0 of the official History of Version 2.0 of the official History of Version 2.0 of the official History of Rome Roman History Tour is ready to Rome Roman History Tour is ready to Rome Roman History Tour is ready to launch and will begin on October 21st, launch and will begin on October 21st, launch and will begin on October 21st, 2011. 2011. 2011. So if the first round of tours didn't So if the first round of tours didn't So if the first round of tours didn't work out for you, then by all means go work out for you, then by all means go work out for you, then by all means go to historyofrometour.com to historyofrometour.com to historyofrometour.com and send us an email that says, "I'm and send us an email that says, "I'm and send us an email that says, "I'm in." in." in." As before, additional tours can be As before, additional tours can be As before, additional tours can be scheduled to accommodate demand if we scheduled to accommodate demand if we scheduled to accommodate demand if we have that wonderful problem again. have that wonderful problem again. have that wonderful problem again. But the October 21st trip is locked in But the October 21st trip is locked in But the October 21st trip is locked in and ready to go.

and ready to go. and ready to go. Space is limited, so sign up today. Space is limited, so sign up today. Space is limited, so sign up today. For those of you who just slapped their For those of you who just slapped their For those of you who just slapped their heads realizing that there was no way heads realizing that there was no way heads realizing that there was no way they can make October work, well, you're they can make October work, well, you're they can make October work, well, you're in luck. in luck. in luck. Because we are also going to go ahead Because we are also going to go ahead Because we are also going to go ahead and throw open reservations for a third and throw open reservations for a third and throw open reservations for a third round of tours that will begin on round of tours that will begin on round of tours that will begin on February the 24th, 2012. February the 24th, 2012. February the 24th, 2012. Between the October 2011 dates and the Between the October 2011 dates and the Between the October 2011 dates and the February 2012 dates, you can make this February 2012 dates, you can make this February 2012 dates, you can make this work, right? Let's go hang out in Rome work, right? Let's go hang out in Rome work, right? Let's go hang out in Rome and look at cool stuff together. I and look at cool stuff together. I and look at cool stuff together. I promise you, it is an absolutely promise you, it is an absolutely promise you, it is an absolutely fantastic time.

Hello Hello and welcome to the History of Rome and welcome to the History of Rome and welcome to the History of Rome episode 142, You've Earned It. Last time, we left off with Constantius Last time, we left off with Constantius II II II finally headed west after extracting finally headed west after extracting finally headed west after extracting himself from the war with Persia in the himself from the war with Persia in the himself from the war with Persia in the winter of 350 AD. winter of 350 AD. winter of 350 AD. It had been almost a year since the It had been almost a year since the It had been almost a year since the Gallic general Magnentius had overthrown Gallic general Magnentius had overthrown Gallic general Magnentius had overthrown and killed Constantius' younger brother and killed Constantius' younger brother and killed Constantius' younger brother Constans, and it was finally, finally Constans, and it was finally, finally Constans, and it was finally, finally time for the emperor to do something time for the emperor to do something time for the emperor to do something about it. While on his way to dole out some While on his way to dole out some imperial retribution, though, imperial retribution, though, imperial retribution, though, Constantius had to stop along the way to Constantius had to stop along the way to Constantius had to stop along the way to take care of some business. take care of some business. take care of some business. You'll recall from last week that in You'll recall from last week that in You'll recall from last week that in March of 350, at the prompting of March of 350, at the prompting of March of 350, at the prompting of Constantina, Constantina, Constantina, the general Vetranio had declared the general Vetranio had declared the general Vetranio had declared himself Augustus at his headquarters himself Augustus at his headquarters himself Augustus at his headquarters along the Danube frontier. along the Danube frontier. along the Danube frontier. He had made this move specifically to He had made this move specifically to He had made this move specifically to aid Constantius and to counter the rise aid Constantius and to counter the rise aid Constantius and to counter the rise of Magnentius. of Magnentius. of Magnentius. But, when push came to shove, who knew But, when push came to shove, who knew But, when push came to shove, who knew what his ultimate ambitions were?

what his ultimate ambitions were? what his ultimate ambitions were? Or, what Constantius' reaction was going Or, what Constantius' reaction was going Or, what Constantius' reaction was going to be to Vetranio's self-elevation. to be to Vetranio's self-elevation. to be to Vetranio's self-elevation. So far, the emperor had let it slide So far, the emperor had let it slide So far, the emperor had let it slide because he had been tied up with the war because he had been tied up with the war because he had been tied up with the war against the Sassinid. But now, who against the Sassinid. But now, who against the Sassinid. But now, who knows? knows? knows? As Constantius approached the Dacian As Constantius approached the Dacian As Constantius approached the Dacian city of Serdica, though, it became city of Serdica, though, it became city of Serdica, though, it became obvious that neither man was planning to obvious that neither man was planning to obvious that neither man was planning to double-cross the other. double-cross the other. double-cross the other. The aging Vetranio welcomed 33-year-old The aging Vetranio welcomed 33-year-old The aging Vetranio welcomed 33-year-old Constantius as the true Augustus, and Constantius as the true Augustus, and Constantius as the true Augustus, and Constantius accepted the welcome without Constantius accepted the welcome without Constantius accepted the welcome without malice. malice. malice. They then traveled together across the They then traveled together across the They then traveled together across the province to Naissus, where on December province to Naissus, where on December province to Naissus, where on December the 25th, the two leaders mounted a the 25th, the two leaders mounted a the 25th, the two leaders mounted a stage before an assembly of troops. stage before an assembly of troops. stage before an assembly of troops. The soldiers had been instructed to The soldiers had been instructed to The soldiers had been instructed to reaffirm their allegiance to reaffirm their allegiance to reaffirm their allegiance to Constantius, and so, right on cue, they Constantius, and so, right on cue, they Constantius, and so, right on cue, they reaffirmed their allegiance to reaffirmed their allegiance to reaffirmed their allegiance to Constantius. Constantius. Constantius. The emperor accepted their pledge of The emperor accepted their pledge of The emperor accepted their pledge of loyalty, and then thanked Vetranio for loyalty, and then thanked Vetranio for loyalty, and then thanked Vetranio for the good work he had done defending his the good work he had done defending his the good work he had done defending his family's honor. family's honor. family's honor. Then, he graciously accepted the Then, he graciously accepted the Then, he graciously accepted the general's resignation, not just from the general's resignation, not just from the general's resignation, not just from the office of Augustus, but from the army office of Augustus, but from the army office of Augustus, but from the army completely.

completely. completely. There were no hard feelings on either There were no hard feelings on either There were no hard feelings on either side, but there was absolutely no way side, but there was absolutely no way side, but there was absolutely no way Constantius could afford to have a man Constantius could afford to have a man Constantius could afford to have a man who had sniffed imperial power remain who had sniffed imperial power remain who had sniffed imperial power remain anywhere near that power. It was just anywhere near that power. It was just anywhere near that power. It was just bad for business. bad for business. bad for business. Vetranio was allowed to live out the Vetranio was allowed to live out the Vetranio was allowed to live out the rest of his days as a private citizen, rest of his days as a private citizen, rest of his days as a private citizen, supported by a generous state pension. Constantius then traveled north to Constantius then traveled north to Sirmium, where he took stock of the Sirmium, where he took stock of the Sirmium, where he took stock of the situation on the Danube frontier and situation on the Danube frontier and situation on the Danube frontier and made his arrangements for the coming war made his arrangements for the coming war made his arrangements for the coming war with Magnentius. with Magnentius. with Magnentius. Aware that battle would likely be joined Aware that battle would likely be joined Aware that battle would likely be joined in the spring, Constantius called his in the spring, Constantius called his in the spring, Constantius called his cousin Gallus to court in March of 351 cousin Gallus to court in March of 351 cousin Gallus to court in March of 351 and formally elevated him to the rank of and formally elevated him to the rank of and formally elevated him to the rank of Caesar for all of the reasons I outlined Caesar for all of the reasons I outlined Caesar for all of the reasons I outlined last week. last week. last week. What's that you say? You could have What's that you say? You could have What's that you say? You could have sworn that last week I said Gallus was sworn that last week I said Gallus was sworn that last week I said Gallus was elevated at Antioch in 350 before elevated at Antioch in 350 before elevated at Antioch in 350 before Constantius even left the East? Constantius even left the East? Constantius even left the East? Well, yes, I did say that and I was Well, yes, I did say that and I was Well, yes, I did say that and I was wrong. wrong. wrong. I misinterpreted something I read while I misinterpreted something I read while I misinterpreted something I read while I was writing last week's show and then I was writing last week's show and then I was writing last week's show and then when I was writing this week's show, I when I was writing this week's show, I when I was writing this week's show, I got to the part in my notes where it got to the part in my notes where it got to the part in my notes where it said March 351, Gallus elevated at said March 351, Gallus elevated at said March 351, Gallus elevated at Sirmium and began muttering really foul Sirmium and began muttering really foul Sirmium and began muttering really foul things under my breath. So, sorry about things under my breath. So, sorry about things under my breath. So, sorry about that.

that. that. Gallus was elevated to the rank of Gallus was elevated to the rank of Gallus was elevated to the rank of Caesar in March of 351 at Sirmium and Caesar in March of 351 at Sirmium and Caesar in March of 351 at Sirmium and married off to Constantina at the same married off to Constantina at the same married off to Constantina at the same time. time. time. Then he was sent to Antioch to keep an Then he was sent to Antioch to keep an Then he was sent to Antioch to keep an eye on the East while Constantius eye on the East while Constantius eye on the East while Constantius focused on the West. Now, the stage was set for the Now, the stage was set for the long-awaited confrontation between long-awaited confrontation between long-awaited confrontation between emperor and usurper. emperor and usurper. emperor and usurper. Except neither commander was stupid and Except neither commander was stupid and Except neither commander was stupid and looking to just rush into some battle looking to just rush into some battle looking to just rush into some battle for the sake of having a battle. for the sake of having a battle. for the sake of having a battle. Constantius in particular had no Constantius in particular had no Constantius in particular had no interest in plunging into Gaul and so he interest in plunging into Gaul and so he interest in plunging into Gaul and so he remained coyly perched along the Danube remained coyly perched along the Danube remained coyly perched along the Danube hoping to draw his rival out. hoping to draw his rival out. hoping to draw his rival out. I have never read a good explanation for I have never read a good explanation for I have never read a good explanation for why Magnentius decided to fall for this why Magnentius decided to fall for this why Magnentius decided to fall for this and march away from his base of power and march away from his base of power and march away from his base of power and choose to face the emperor in and choose to face the emperor in and choose to face the emperor in Pannonia. Pannonia. Pannonia. And the only thing I can think of is And the only thing I can think of is And the only thing I can think of is that he felt like time was not on his that he felt like time was not on his that he felt like time was not on his side. side. side. He had convinced the legions of the West He had convinced the legions of the West He had convinced the legions of the West to back him against Constans. to back him against Constans. to back him against Constans. But now they were dealing with the far But now they were dealing with the far But now they were dealing with the far less hated Constantius.

less hated Constantius. less hated Constantius. So, maybe Magnentius determined that if So, maybe Magnentius determined that if So, maybe Magnentius determined that if he waited too long, that enthusiasm for he waited too long, that enthusiasm for he waited too long, that enthusiasm for the rebellion would drift and he would the rebellion would drift and he would the rebellion would drift and he would become isolated. But, that's all just me become isolated. But, that's all just me become isolated. But, that's all just me speculating. speculating. speculating. All we really know is that he did go to All we really know is that he did go to All we really know is that he did go to Constantius rather than forcing Constantius rather than forcing Constantius rather than forcing Constantius to come to him. Constantius to come to him. Constantius to come to him. But, even then the two rivals maneuvered But, even then the two rivals maneuvered But, even then the two rivals maneuvered around each other for the entire around each other for the entire around each other for the entire campaign season of 351. And it wasn't campaign season of 351. And it wasn't campaign season of 351. And it wasn't until September that their armies until September that their armies until September that their armies finally squared off. So, by now, the build-up to this battle So, by now, the build-up to this battle had been going on for a year and 9 had been going on for a year and 9 had been going on for a year and 9 months. months. months. As a general rule, it's usually safe to As a general rule, it's usually safe to As a general rule, it's usually safe to assume that a big match will never quite assume that a big match will never quite assume that a big match will never quite live up to the hype. And the longer the live up to the hype. And the longer the live up to the hype. And the longer the hype period, the less impressive the hype period, the less impressive the hype period, the less impressive the match will seem in comparison. match will seem in comparison. match will seem in comparison. But, the Battle of Mursa Major, fought But, the Battle of Mursa Major, fought But, the Battle of Mursa Major, fought alongside the Drava River, turned out to alongside the Drava River, turned out to alongside the Drava River, turned out to be a barn burner. be a barn burner. be a barn burner. True, it did not settle the issue once True, it did not settle the issue once True, it did not settle the issue once and for all like all of the and for all like all of the and for all like all of the advertisements on TV had promised it advertisements on TV had promised it advertisements on TV had promised it would. But, still, it was one of the would. But, still, it was one of the would. But, still, it was one of the bloodiest battles in the history of bloodiest battles in the history of bloodiest battles in the history of Roman Civil War.

Roman Civil War. Roman Civil War. And as you know now, that is really And as you know now, that is really And as you know now, that is really saying something. saying something. saying something. And on top of that, there was even a And on top of that, there was even a And on top of that, there was even a dramatic betrayal right before the dramatic betrayal right before the dramatic betrayal right before the whistle blew that changed the whole whistle blew that changed the whole whistle blew that changed the whole dynamic of the fight. dynamic of the fight. dynamic of the fight. The match was likely shaping up to be an The match was likely shaping up to be an The match was likely shaping up to be an equal contest with each side probably equal contest with each side probably equal contest with each side probably composed of 40 to 50,000 men. composed of 40 to 50,000 men. composed of 40 to 50,000 men. But, at the last minute, one of But, at the last minute, one of But, at the last minute, one of Magnentius' key supporters, a general Magnentius' key supporters, a general Magnentius' key supporters, a general named Claudius Silvanus, named Claudius Silvanus, named Claudius Silvanus, a general who was so at the center of a general who was so at the center of a general who was so at the center of the rebellion that not only had he been the rebellion that not only had he been the rebellion that not only had he been the host at the dinner party where the host at the dinner party where the host at the dinner party where Magnentius had been proclaimed Augustus, Magnentius had been proclaimed Augustus, Magnentius had been proclaimed Augustus, but he was also the man who had but he was also the man who had but he was also the man who had spearheaded the assault on Rome spearheaded the assault on Rome spearheaded the assault on Rome following Nepotianus' attempt to control following Nepotianus' attempt to control following Nepotianus' attempt to control the city. the city. the city. Well, he decided to defect to Well, he decided to defect to Well, he decided to defect to Constantius at the last minute. Constantius at the last minute. Constantius at the last minute. Taking most of the men under his command Taking most of the men under his command Taking most of the men under his command along with him, Magnentius was left with along with him, Magnentius was left with along with him, Magnentius was left with just 35,000 to square off against the just 35,000 to square off against the just 35,000 to square off against the 60,000 Constantius now controlled. 60,000 Constantius now controlled. 60,000 Constantius now controlled. But there was no getting out of the But there was no getting out of the But there was no getting out of the battle now. The two sides were locked battle now. The two sides were locked battle now. The two sides were locked in, and on the 28th of September, they in, and on the 28th of September, they in, and on the 28th of September, they got down to business.

As I said, the resulting battle was one As I said, the resulting battle was one of the bloodiest in the history of Roman of the bloodiest in the history of Roman of the bloodiest in the history of Roman civil war. civil war. civil war. Over the course of the day's fighting, Over the course of the day's fighting, Over the course of the day's fighting, fully half of Constantius' army, some fully half of Constantius' army, some fully half of Constantius' army, some 30,000 men, wound up dead in the field. 30,000 men, wound up dead in the field. 30,000 men, wound up dead in the field. Which would be really bad for Which would be really bad for Which would be really bad for Constantius, until you consider that Constantius, until you consider that Constantius, until you consider that fully 2/3 of Magnentius' army, some fully 2/3 of Magnentius' army, some fully 2/3 of Magnentius' army, some 25,000 men, also wound up dead in the 25,000 men, also wound up dead in the 25,000 men, also wound up dead in the field. field. field. The immediate upshot of this raw carnage The immediate upshot of this raw carnage The immediate upshot of this raw carnage was that with only 10,000 men left, was that with only 10,000 men left, was that with only 10,000 men left, Magnentius was forced to fall back Magnentius was forced to fall back Magnentius was forced to fall back across the Alps to northern Italy, across the Alps to northern Italy, across the Alps to northern Italy, and Constantius was able to declare and Constantius was able to declare and Constantius was able to declare victory. victory. victory. But the longer-term upshot was that at a But the longer-term upshot was that at a But the longer-term upshot was that at a time when the empire was under constant time when the empire was under constant time when the empire was under constant attack from all sides, attack from all sides, attack from all sides, Rome lost 55,000 highly trained soldiers Rome lost 55,000 highly trained soldiers Rome lost 55,000 highly trained soldiers in a single day. in a single day. in a single day. I'll leave it to you to do the math on I'll leave it to you to do the math on I'll leave it to you to do the math on whether you think the Battle of Mursa whether you think the Battle of Mursa whether you think the Battle of Mursa Major wound up as a net positive for the Major wound up as a net positive for the Major wound up as a net positive for the empire long-term. To his credit, though, Constantius did To his credit, though, Constantius did not immediately pursue Magnentius not immediately pursue Magnentius not immediately pursue Magnentius following the battle.

following the battle. following the battle. And by did not immediately pursue, I And by did not immediately pursue, I And by did not immediately pursue, I don't mean he waited a few days or even don't mean he waited a few days or even don't mean he waited a few days or even a few weeks. a few weeks. a few weeks. No, as Constantius had already No, as Constantius had already No, as Constantius had already demonstrated, he was not so blinded by demonstrated, he was not so blinded by demonstrated, he was not so blinded by his desire to crush Magnentius that he his desire to crush Magnentius that he his desire to crush Magnentius that he was willing to just abandon the rest of was willing to just abandon the rest of was willing to just abandon the rest of the empire to its fate. the empire to its fate. the empire to its fate. That is to say, that Constantius had That is to say, that Constantius had That is to say, that Constantius had enough foresight to recognize that enough foresight to recognize that enough foresight to recognize that beating down an internal enemy would be beating down an internal enemy would be beating down an internal enemy would be a pretty hollow victory if it meant a pretty hollow victory if it meant a pretty hollow victory if it meant allowing the external enemies of the allowing the external enemies of the allowing the external enemies of the empire to overrun the provinces. empire to overrun the provinces. empire to overrun the provinces. So, he put the war against Magnentius on So, he put the war against Magnentius on So, he put the war against Magnentius on hold for a full year as he focused his hold for a full year as he focused his hold for a full year as he focused his attention on the Danube frontier, and in attention on the Danube frontier, and in attention on the Danube frontier, and in particular, the Sarmatians. particular, the Sarmatians. particular, the Sarmatians. Since the Goths had been pushed back at Since the Goths had been pushed back at Since the Goths had been pushed back at the close of the crisis years, the the close of the crisis years, the the close of the crisis years, the Sarmatians had taken their place as Sarmatians had taken their place as Sarmatians had taken their place as public enemy number one along the public enemy number one along the public enemy number one along the northern border, and they took advantage northern border, and they took advantage northern border, and they took advantage of any and all weaknesses they detected of any and all weaknesses they detected of any and all weaknesses they detected in the empire's lines. in the empire's lines. in the empire's lines. If Constantius were to simply march off If Constantius were to simply march off If Constantius were to simply march off with the remaining legions in pursuit of with the remaining legions in pursuit of with the remaining legions in pursuit of Magnentius, well, that would be a Magnentius, well, that would be a Magnentius, well, that would be a weakness the Sarmatians would not fail weakness the Sarmatians would not fail weakness the Sarmatians would not fail to take advantage of.

So, for the rest of 351 and almost all So, for the rest of 351 and almost all of 352, Constantius stayed in Sirmium to of 352, Constantius stayed in Sirmium to of 352, Constantius stayed in Sirmium to focus his attention on stabilizing the focus his attention on stabilizing the focus his attention on stabilizing the border and running a pacification border and running a pacification border and running a pacification campaign against the Sarmatians. campaign against the Sarmatians. campaign against the Sarmatians. Only after he was reasonably sure that Only after he was reasonably sure that Only after he was reasonably sure that he could turn his back for a little he could turn his back for a little he could turn his back for a little while without the middle of the empire while without the middle of the empire while without the middle of the empire going to hell in a handbasket, did going to hell in a handbasket, did going to hell in a handbasket, did Constantius turn his attention back to Constantius turn his attention back to Constantius turn his attention back to Magnentius. Magnentius. Magnentius. Between his unwillingness to ditch the Between his unwillingness to ditch the Between his unwillingness to ditch the eastern frontier in the middle of a war, eastern frontier in the middle of a war, eastern frontier in the middle of a war, and his unwillingness to push on west and his unwillingness to push on west and his unwillingness to push on west before ensuring the Danube region was before ensuring the Danube region was before ensuring the Danube region was secure, secure, secure, I got to say, Constantius has a I got to say, Constantius has a I got to say, Constantius has a well-deserved reputation for impulsive well-deserved reputation for impulsive well-deserved reputation for impulsive hotheadedness, but it was clearly not a hotheadedness, but it was clearly not a hotheadedness, but it was clearly not a personality trait that defined him 100% personality trait that defined him 100% personality trait that defined him 100% of the time. of the time. of the time. At least some of the time, he was At least some of the time, he was At least some of the time, he was patient and farsighted. patient and farsighted. patient and farsighted. In his later dealings with Julian, he In his later dealings with Julian, he In his later dealings with Julian, he will display almost exactly this same will display almost exactly this same will display almost exactly this same temperament. temperament. temperament. So, you can say a lot of things about So, you can say a lot of things about So, you can say a lot of things about Constantius II, but I think it's pretty Constantius II, but I think it's pretty Constantius II, but I think it's pretty clear that at the end of the day, the clear that at the end of the day, the clear that at the end of the day, the man did have his priorities straight.

So, once he was satisfied that the So, once he was satisfied that the Danube was safe, he marched off through Danube was safe, he marched off through Danube was safe, he marched off through the Alps before the winter of 352 could the Alps before the winter of 352 could the Alps before the winter of 352 could settle in, and he landed in north Italy, settle in, and he landed in north Italy, settle in, and he landed in north Italy, where Magnentius had been waiting for where Magnentius had been waiting for where Magnentius had been waiting for him. him. him. Though he was not yet beaten, between Though he was not yet beaten, between Though he was not yet beaten, between the defection of Silvanus and the defeat the defection of Silvanus and the defeat the defection of Silvanus and the defeat at Mursa Major, Magnentius was at Mursa Major, Magnentius was at Mursa Major, Magnentius was definitely reeling. definitely reeling. definitely reeling. His legitimacy as a military leader had His legitimacy as a military leader had His legitimacy as a military leader had taken a major hit, but even more taken a major hit, but even more taken a major hit, but even more troubling was the fact that his troubling was the fact that his troubling was the fact that his political legitimacy was on life political legitimacy was on life political legitimacy was on life support. support. support. So, when Constantius crossed the Alps, So, when Constantius crossed the Alps, So, when Constantius crossed the Alps, all he really needed to do was pull the all he really needed to do was pull the all he really needed to do was pull the plug. plug. plug. The citizens of Italy had lost all The citizens of Italy had lost all The citizens of Italy had lost all interest in helping prop up Magnentius, interest in helping prop up Magnentius, interest in helping prop up Magnentius, but they were compelled to continue but they were compelled to continue but they were compelled to continue supporting him because he was the supporting him because he was the supporting him because he was the biggest baddest thing around. biggest baddest thing around. biggest baddest thing around. As soon as Constantius showed up with As soon as Constantius showed up with As soon as Constantius showed up with his bigger batter army though, the his bigger batter army though, the his bigger batter army though, the locals relished in helping the emperor locals relished in helping the emperor locals relished in helping the emperor expel Magnentius' garrisons from their expel Magnentius' garrisons from their expel Magnentius' garrisons from their various cities. various cities. various cities. Magnentius, no dummy, saw which way the Magnentius, no dummy, saw which way the Magnentius, no dummy, saw which way the winds were blowing and withdrew to Gaul. winds were blowing and withdrew to Gaul. winds were blowing and withdrew to Gaul. Constantius then entered Milan where he Constantius then entered Milan where he Constantius then entered Milan where he spent the winter planning the end game.

As soon as the spring of 353 arrived, As soon as the spring of 353 arrived, the emperor marched north into Gaul the emperor marched north into Gaul the emperor marched north into Gaul looking to squash the rebel general once looking to squash the rebel general once looking to squash the rebel general once and for all. and for all. and for all. Magnentius waited for Constantius at a Magnentius waited for Constantius at a Magnentius waited for Constantius at a pic spot in the Gallic Alps where the pic spot in the Gallic Alps where the pic spot in the Gallic Alps where the last battle of the war would soon be last battle of the war would soon be last battle of the war would soon be fought. fought. fought. Despite the significance of this battle, Despite the significance of this battle, Despite the significance of this battle, we don't know many details, troop we don't know many details, troop we don't know many details, troop numbers, or tactics, or anything like numbers, or tactics, or anything like numbers, or tactics, or anything like that. that. that. All we do know is that Magnentius was All we do know is that Magnentius was All we do know is that Magnentius was once again defeated, but once again able once again defeated, but once again able once again defeated, but once again able to get out of the battle alive. to get out of the battle alive. to get out of the battle alive. But, getting out alive was of small But, getting out alive was of small But, getting out alive was of small comfort as it only delayed the comfort as it only delayed the comfort as it only delayed the inevitable. inevitable. inevitable. With two major defeats behind him and With two major defeats behind him and With two major defeats behind him and his coalition collapsing, Magnentius his coalition collapsing, Magnentius his coalition collapsing, Magnentius came to terms with the fact that he had came to terms with the fact that he had came to terms with the fact that he had taken his shot at empire and missed. taken his shot at empire and missed. taken his shot at empire and missed. At some point after the final battle, At some point after the final battle, At some point after the final battle, though we don't know exactly when, though we don't know exactly when, though we don't know exactly when, Magnentius committed suicide by falling Magnentius committed suicide by falling Magnentius committed suicide by falling on his sword. Following the defeat and suicide of Following the defeat and suicide of Magnentius, Constantius found himself in Magnentius, Constantius found himself in Magnentius, Constantius found himself in a wholly new position. a wholly new position. a wholly new position. He was the only Augustus in the empire He was the only Augustus in the empire He was the only Augustus in the empire left standing.

left standing. left standing. Sure, he had something of an imperial Sure, he had something of an imperial Sure, he had something of an imperial colleague in Gallus, but Gallus was just colleague in Gallus, but Gallus was just colleague in Gallus, but Gallus was just a Caesar. a Caesar. a Caesar. So, I think it's safe to go ahead and So, I think it's safe to go ahead and So, I think it's safe to go ahead and say it. say it. say it. Constantius II was now the sole ruler of Constantius II was now the sole ruler of Constantius II was now the sole ruler of the Roman Empire. the Roman Empire. the Roman Empire. Congratulations, dude. You've earned it. Congratulations, dude. You've earned it. Congratulations, dude. You've earned it. The now sole emperor spent the rest of The now sole emperor spent the rest of The now sole emperor spent the rest of 353 and 354 campaigning against the 353 and 354 campaigning against the 353 and 354 campaigning against the Alamanni, mostly around the no man's Alamanni, mostly around the no man's Alamanni, mostly around the no man's land between the Rhine and Danube land between the Rhine and Danube land between the Rhine and Danube rivers. rivers. rivers. The sweetness of his victory over The sweetness of his victory over The sweetness of his victory over Magnentius, though, had almost Magnentius, though, had almost Magnentius, though, had almost immediately turned sour in Constantius's immediately turned sour in Constantius's immediately turned sour in Constantius's mouth, as he realized just how much the mouth, as he realized just how much the mouth, as he realized just how much the Rhine defenses had been weakened by the Rhine defenses had been weakened by the Rhine defenses had been weakened by the civil war. civil war. civil war. Magnentius had pulled men off the Magnentius had pulled men off the Magnentius had pulled men off the frontier to fight his battles, and most frontier to fight his battles, and most frontier to fight his battles, and most of them had never come back. of them had never come back. of them had never come back. So, the real prize of war that So, the real prize of war that So, the real prize of war that Constantius had won for himself was a Constantius had won for himself was a Constantius had won for himself was a chaotic and weak western frontier. chaotic and weak western frontier. chaotic and weak western frontier. Congratulations, you've earned that, Congratulations, you've earned that, Congratulations, you've earned that, too. too. too. He would do his best to get a handle on He would do his best to get a handle on He would do his best to get a handle on the situation, but it would be years the situation, but it would be years the situation, but it would be years before the citizens of the west were before the citizens of the west were before the citizens of the west were allowed to breathe easy again.

As Constantius was dealing with the As Constantius was dealing with the Alamanni, he was also forced to pay Alamanni, he was also forced to pay Alamanni, he was also forced to pay attention to something his advisers had attention to something his advisers had attention to something his advisers had been trying to get him to pay attention been trying to get him to pay attention been trying to get him to pay attention to for a little while now. to for a little while now. to for a little while now. The conduct of his Caesar, Constantius The conduct of his Caesar, Constantius The conduct of his Caesar, Constantius Gallus. Gallus. Gallus. Since his elevation to power, Gallus had Since his elevation to power, Gallus had Since his elevation to power, Gallus had set up shop in Antioch, and from almost set up shop in Antioch, and from almost set up shop in Antioch, and from almost the word go, complaints had been the word go, complaints had been the word go, complaints had been filtering in about his behavior. filtering in about his behavior. filtering in about his behavior. When you look at the situation When you look at the situation When you look at the situation objectively, objectively, objectively, I don't think Gallus comes off as that I don't think Gallus comes off as that I don't think Gallus comes off as that terrible a ruler, so much as one who was terrible a ruler, so much as one who was terrible a ruler, so much as one who was in the habit of making enemies with the in the habit of making enemies with the in the habit of making enemies with the wrong people. wrong people. wrong people. That is not to say he was a great guy That is not to say he was a great guy That is not to say he was a great guy who was just slandered to death, who was just slandered to death, who was just slandered to death, but there was definitely an influential but there was definitely an influential but there was definitely an influential clique of imperial advisers who hated clique of imperial advisers who hated clique of imperial advisers who hated him, and who exploited Constantius's him, and who exploited Constantius's him, and who exploited Constantius's natural paranoia to get rid of him. natural paranoia to get rid of him. natural paranoia to get rid of him. Oh, did I mention that Gallus is was to Oh, did I mention that Gallus is was to Oh, did I mention that Gallus is was to be gotten rid of? Well, he is. be gotten rid of? Well, he is. be gotten rid of? Well, he is. There were basically two main things There were basically two main things There were basically two main things that set the stage for the fall of the that set the stage for the fall of the that set the stage for the fall of the young Caesar. young Caesar. young Caesar. First, he was faced with a drought, First, he was faced with a drought, First, he was faced with a drought, which meant that grain supplies became which meant that grain supplies became which meant that grain supplies became limited.

limited. limited. Gallus, predictably, put the needs of Gallus, predictably, put the needs of Gallus, predictably, put the needs of the army above those of the common the army above those of the common the army above those of the common citizens, so grain deliveries to citizens, so grain deliveries to citizens, so grain deliveries to civilians were cut. civilians were cut. civilians were cut. This, again predictably, made Gallus not This, again predictably, made Gallus not This, again predictably, made Gallus not particularly beloved by the man in the particularly beloved by the man in the particularly beloved by the man in the street. street. street. Second, he had gotten in the habit of Second, he had gotten in the habit of Second, he had gotten in the habit of zealously persecuting pagans, zealously persecuting pagans, zealously persecuting pagans, particularly rich pagans, particularly rich pagans, particularly rich pagans, which is to say that Gallus appears to which is to say that Gallus appears to which is to say that Gallus appears to have stumbled across that ages-old have stumbled across that ages-old have stumbled across that ages-old method of imperial fundraising. method of imperial fundraising. method of imperial fundraising. Find the richest guy on the block and Find the richest guy on the block and Find the richest guy on the block and find him guilty of something. With Gallus making enemies among the With Gallus making enemies among the rich and poor alike, it was just a rich and poor alike, it was just a rich and poor alike, it was just a matter of time before word reached matter of time before word reached matter of time before word reached Constantius that there was a problem Constantius that there was a problem Constantius that there was a problem with his cousin. with his cousin. with his cousin. Constantius decided to dispatch one of Constantius decided to dispatch one of Constantius decided to dispatch one of his praetorian prefects to Antioch to his praetorian prefects to Antioch to his praetorian prefects to Antioch to ask Gallus to come to Italy and account ask Gallus to come to Italy and account ask Gallus to come to Italy and account for himself. for himself. for himself. But Gallus was suspicious of the But Gallus was suspicious of the But Gallus was suspicious of the prefect's true motives, and so had him prefect's true motives, and so had him prefect's true motives, and so had him arrested. arrested. arrested. Members of the local Antiochene Members of the local Antiochene Members of the local Antiochene political establishment attempted to political establishment attempted to political establishment attempted to come to the prefect's aid, come to the prefect's aid, come to the prefect's aid, but in the ensuing back and forth, but in the ensuing back and forth, but in the ensuing back and forth, evidence of a conspiracy to overthrow evidence of a conspiracy to overthrow evidence of a conspiracy to overthrow Gallus came to light. That, though it Gallus came to light. That, though it Gallus came to light. That, though it had nothing to do with the prefect's had nothing to do with the prefect's had nothing to do with the prefect's arrival, all got thrown into the same arrival, all got thrown into the same arrival, all got thrown into the same pot.

pot. pot. Gallus, angry and paranoid, executed a Gallus, angry and paranoid, executed a Gallus, angry and paranoid, executed a whole lot of them for treason, including whole lot of them for treason, including whole lot of them for treason, including the unlucky prefect. the unlucky prefect. the unlucky prefect. And with that, Gallus pretty much signed And with that, Gallus pretty much signed And with that, Gallus pretty much signed his own death warrant. Constantius was extremely irate when he Constantius was extremely irate when he found out about the treason trials, and found out about the treason trials, and found out about the treason trials, and sent another messenger to Antioch. sent another messenger to Antioch. sent another messenger to Antioch. This time, he did not ask Gallus to come This time, he did not ask Gallus to come This time, he did not ask Gallus to come to Italy. He ordered Gallus to come to to Italy. He ordered Gallus to come to to Italy. He ordered Gallus to come to Italy. Italy. Italy. And this order, as you can imagine, made And this order, as you can imagine, made And this order, as you can imagine, made Gallus really, really nervous. Gallus really, really nervous. Gallus really, really nervous. Orders like that from men like Orders like that from men like Orders like that from men like Constantius usually mean just the one Constantius usually mean just the one Constantius usually mean just the one thing. thing. thing. So, instead of packing up and heading So, instead of packing up and heading So, instead of packing up and heading west, Gallus packed up his wife/cousin west, Gallus packed up his wife/cousin west, Gallus packed up his wife/cousin Constantina and sent her west instead. Constantina and sent her west instead. Constantina and sent her west instead. The presumption is that Gallus was The presumption is that Gallus was The presumption is that Gallus was hoping she would be able to soothe her hoping she would be able to soothe her hoping she would be able to soothe her brother enough for Gallus to get out of brother enough for Gallus to get out of brother enough for Gallus to get out of this with his head still attached to his this with his head still attached to his this with his head still attached to his body. body. body. We will never know if this plan was We will never know if this plan was We will never know if this plan was going to work.

going to work. going to work. And there was good reason to think that And there was good reason to think that And there was good reason to think that it would not have worked since it would not have worked since it would not have worked since Constantius was likely as angry at Constantius was likely as angry at Constantius was likely as angry at Constantina as he was at Gallus at this Constantina as he was at Gallus at this Constantina as he was at Gallus at this point for the active role she had played point for the active role she had played point for the active role she had played in everything that had gone on. in everything that had gone on. in everything that had gone on. But, we will never know because on the But, we will never know because on the But, we will never know because on the way to Milan, Constantina came down sick way to Milan, Constantina came down sick way to Milan, Constantina came down sick and died en route. Hearing of his wife's death, Gallus Hearing of his wife's death, Gallus determined that he wasn't going determined that he wasn't going determined that he wasn't going anywhere, no way, no how. anywhere, no way, no how. anywhere, no way, no how. So, Constantius, that sneaky So, Constantius, that sneaky So, Constantius, that sneaky Constantius, tried a different tack. Constantius, tried a different tack. Constantius, tried a different tack. He sent another messenger to Gallus He sent another messenger to Gallus He sent another messenger to Gallus wondering aloud why Gallus had not come wondering aloud why Gallus had not come wondering aloud why Gallus had not come to Milan since all he wanted to do was to Milan since all he wanted to do was to Milan since all he wanted to do was make him co-Augustus. make him co-Augustus. make him co-Augustus. Gallus, paranoid but also ambitious, Gallus, paranoid but also ambitious, Gallus, paranoid but also ambitious, allowed himself to be persuaded that he allowed himself to be persuaded that he allowed himself to be persuaded that he was actually going to get promoted even was actually going to get promoted even was actually going to get promoted even after everything he had done. after everything he had done. after everything he had done. And so, he left for Milan immediately. And so, he left for Milan immediately. And so, he left for Milan immediately. But along the way, there were subtle But along the way, there were subtle But along the way, there were subtle clues that the promotion was in fact a clues that the promotion was in fact a clues that the promotion was in fact a ruse.

ruse. ruse. Like, for example, the fact that Like, for example, the fact that Like, for example, the fact that whenever Gallus's entourage approached, whenever Gallus's entourage approached, whenever Gallus's entourage approached, the various legionary garrisons along the various legionary garrisons along the various legionary garrisons along the way were mysteriously sent out on the way were mysteriously sent out on the way were mysteriously sent out on patrol. patrol. patrol. This meant that Gallus never got within This meant that Gallus never got within This meant that Gallus never got within sniffing distance of a force big enough sniffing distance of a force big enough sniffing distance of a force big enough to help him revolt should he decide that to help him revolt should he decide that to help him revolt should he decide that revolt was actually his best option. revolt was actually his best option. revolt was actually his best option. Isolated from whatever allies he had Isolated from whatever allies he had Isolated from whatever allies he had left and any soldiers who might be left and any soldiers who might be left and any soldiers who might be bribed into protecting him, bribed into protecting him, bribed into protecting him, Gallus was now easy pickings, and while Gallus was now easy pickings, and while Gallus was now easy pickings, and while entering the home stretch, the entering the home stretch, the entering the home stretch, the unsuspecting Caesar was picked up in unsuspecting Caesar was picked up in unsuspecting Caesar was picked up in Noricum by Constantius's men at some Noricum by Constantius's men at some Noricum by Constantius's men at some point in late 354, and placed under point in late 354, and placed under point in late 354, and placed under arrest. arrest. arrest. Assured that no harm would come to him, Assured that no harm would come to him, Assured that no harm would come to him, Gallus was escorted down to a city along Gallus was escorted down to a city along Gallus was escorted down to a city along the Adriatic coast, where some of the the Adriatic coast, where some of the the Adriatic coast, where some of the most powerful members of Constantius's most powerful members of Constantius's most powerful members of Constantius's court came to interrogate him. court came to interrogate him. court came to interrogate him. Unfortunately for the imprisoned Caesar, Unfortunately for the imprisoned Caesar, Unfortunately for the imprisoned Caesar, these men also happened to be the same these men also happened to be the same these men also happened to be the same men who had been pressing Constantius to men who had been pressing Constantius to men who had been pressing Constantius to eliminate Gallus ever since the victory eliminate Gallus ever since the victory eliminate Gallus ever since the victory over Magnentius. over Magnentius. over Magnentius. So, yeah, this is not really going to So, yeah, this is not really going to So, yeah, this is not really going to end well for Gallus.

The court officials accused the Caesar The court officials accused the Caesar of all manner of treason, and then of all manner of treason, and then of all manner of treason, and then tortured him in an attempt to get him to tortured him in an attempt to get him to tortured him in an attempt to get him to confess to all the things they needed confess to all the things they needed confess to all the things they needed him to confess to. him to confess to. him to confess to. But Gallus took another route, and But Gallus took another route, and But Gallus took another route, and decided to pin every single thing he was decided to pin every single thing he was decided to pin every single thing he was accused of on Constantina, who he accused of on Constantina, who he accused of on Constantina, who he painted as a conniving shrew who had painted as a conniving shrew who had painted as a conniving shrew who had forced him to do all this rotten stuff. forced him to do all this rotten stuff. forced him to do all this rotten stuff. A summary of Gallus's defense was sent A summary of Gallus's defense was sent A summary of Gallus's defense was sent to Constantius, who, upon reading the to Constantius, who, upon reading the to Constantius, who, upon reading the report, blew his top. report, blew his top. report, blew his top. This little weasel is trying to blame it This little weasel is trying to blame it This little weasel is trying to blame it all on my sister? all on my sister? all on my sister? Well, that's about it for him. Well, that's about it for him. Well, that's about it for him. Constantius sent his reply, Constantius sent his reply, Constantius sent his reply, "Execute the impertinent Caesar." Now, as was typical with Constantius, as Now, as was typical with Constantius, as soon as the initial fury wore off, he soon as the initial fury wore off, he soon as the initial fury wore off, he mellowed and sent another order that mellowed and sent another order that mellowed and sent another order that Gallus not be killed, and instead Gallus not be killed, and instead Gallus not be killed, and instead brought directly to Milan for further brought directly to Milan for further brought directly to Milan for further questioning. questioning. questioning. After all, it's not like Constantina was After all, it's not like Constantina was After all, it's not like Constantina was the Virgin Mary or something. So, maybe the Virgin Mary or something. So, maybe the Virgin Mary or something. So, maybe the kid did have a point. the kid did have a point. the kid did have a point. But Constantius's men knew their boss But Constantius's men knew their boss But Constantius's men knew their boss well, and knew that as likely as not, he well, and knew that as likely as not, he well, and knew that as likely as not, he was going to rescind the execution order was going to rescind the execution order was going to rescind the execution order when he calmed down. So, they wasted no when he calmed down. So, they wasted no when he calmed down. So, they wasted no time.

time. time. Gallus was put to death the minute the Gallus was put to death the minute the Gallus was put to death the minute the execution order arrived. execution order arrived. execution order arrived. He was 28 or 29 years old and had been He was 28 or 29 years old and had been He was 28 or 29 years old and had been Caesar for 3 and 1/2 years. When Constantius learned that Gallus had When Constantius learned that Gallus had been put to death, he probably regretted been put to death, he probably regretted been put to death, he probably regretted that his counter orders had not gone out that his counter orders had not gone out that his counter orders had not gone out quick enough to save his cousin, but I quick enough to save his cousin, but I quick enough to save his cousin, but I seriously doubt he lost much sleep over seriously doubt he lost much sleep over seriously doubt he lost much sleep over it. it. it. Gallus, as a person, had never really Gallus, as a person, had never really Gallus, as a person, had never really been much of anything to Constantius. been much of anything to Constantius. been much of anything to Constantius. But it did leave the emperor with a But it did leave the emperor with a But it did leave the emperor with a problem, because, after all, he had problem, because, after all, he had problem, because, after all, he had elevated Gallus for a reason, elevated Gallus for a reason, elevated Gallus for a reason, to maintain an imperial presence in the to maintain an imperial presence in the to maintain an imperial presence in the Far East. Far East. Far East. Wintering in Milan over the winter of Wintering in Milan over the winter of Wintering in Milan over the winter of 354-355, 354-355, 354-355, Constantius had to have been at least a Constantius had to have been at least a Constantius had to have been at least a little nervous now that the volatile little nervous now that the volatile little nervous now that the volatile border with the Persians was left border with the Persians was left border with the Persians was left unmanned. unmanned. unmanned. But the only male member of his family But the only male member of his family But the only male member of his family left, the emperor had no sons of his left, the emperor had no sons of his left, the emperor had no sons of his own, own, own, was the bookish and completely was the bookish and completely was the bookish and completely inexperienced Julian. inexperienced Julian. inexperienced Julian. Constantius had already elevated one Constantius had already elevated one Constantius had already elevated one inexperienced cousin to the purple, and inexperienced cousin to the purple, and inexperienced cousin to the purple, and look where that had gotten him.

look where that had gotten him. look where that had gotten him. So, I think he can be forgiven for So, I think he can be forgiven for So, I think he can be forgiven for hesitating a bit before wanting to do it hesitating a bit before wanting to do it hesitating a bit before wanting to do it all over again. As the spring of 355 turned into the As the spring of 355 turned into the summer of 355, though, a crisis popped summer of 355, though, a crisis popped summer of 355, though, a crisis popped up that likely pushed Constantius up that likely pushed Constantius up that likely pushed Constantius decisively into favoring the elevation decisively into favoring the elevation decisively into favoring the elevation of Julian. of Julian. of Julian. Well, alleged crisis, anyway. Well, alleged crisis, anyway. Well, alleged crisis, anyway. See, one of Constantius' flaws, and See, one of Constantius' flaws, and See, one of Constantius' flaws, and there were a few flaws, there were a few flaws, there were a few flaws, was that he was too quick to believe was that he was too quick to believe was that he was too quick to believe whatever he was told, especially in whatever he was told, especially in whatever he was told, especially in matters of conspiracy, sedition, and matters of conspiracy, sedition, and matters of conspiracy, sedition, and revolution. revolution. revolution. His court advisers had picked up on His court advisers had picked up on His court advisers had picked up on this, and so anytime a personal enemy of this, and so anytime a personal enemy of this, and so anytime a personal enemy of some senior official needed to be taken some senior official needed to be taken some senior official needed to be taken care of, well, let's just say that it care of, well, let's just say that it care of, well, let's just say that it wasn't too hard to convince Constantius wasn't too hard to convince Constantius wasn't too hard to convince Constantius that these personal enemies were, in that these personal enemies were, in that these personal enemies were, in fact, public enemies. fact, public enemies. fact, public enemies. And so it went for Claudius Silvanus. After defecting to Constantius at the After defecting to Constantius at the Battle of Mursa Major, Silvanus had been Battle of Mursa Major, Silvanus had been Battle of Mursa Major, Silvanus had been rewarded with the command of the Rhine rewarded with the command of the Rhine rewarded with the command of the Rhine legions, where he had served the emperor legions, where he had served the emperor legions, where he had served the emperor faithfully.

faithfully. faithfully. This did not mean he was a saint. This did not mean he was a saint. This did not mean he was a saint. Silvanus always made sure that he got Silvanus always made sure that he got Silvanus always made sure that he got his cut, if you know what I mean. his cut, if you know what I mean. his cut, if you know what I mean. But even if he wasn't necessarily But even if he wasn't necessarily But even if he wasn't necessarily honest, he had been faithful. honest, he had been faithful. honest, he had been faithful. But Silvanus had made enemies within But Silvanus had made enemies within But Silvanus had made enemies within Constantius' inner circle. And as his Constantius' inner circle. And as his Constantius' inner circle. And as his power and reputation grew, so too did power and reputation grew, so too did power and reputation grew, so too did his ability to threaten that inner his ability to threaten that inner his ability to threaten that inner circle. circle. circle. So, they determined to get rid of him. In a very cloak-and-dagger move, they In a very cloak-and-dagger move, they got a hold of a letter Silvanus had sent got a hold of a letter Silvanus had sent got a hold of a letter Silvanus had sent to a friend in Rome, to a friend in Rome, to a friend in Rome, sponged out some innocent lines, and sponged out some innocent lines, and sponged out some innocent lines, and rewrote them to make it look like rewrote them to make it look like rewrote them to make it look like Silvanus was drumming up support for a Silvanus was drumming up support for a Silvanus was drumming up support for a possible rebellion. possible rebellion. possible rebellion. Then, they forged a further series of Then, they forged a further series of Then, they forged a further series of letters that appeared to confirm letters that appeared to confirm letters that appeared to confirm Silvanus' guilt. Silvanus' guilt. Silvanus' guilt. Then, they waved all of this in the Then, they waved all of this in the Then, they waved all of this in the emperor's face and demanded he do emperor's face and demanded he do emperor's face and demanded he do something about it. As paranoid as Constantius was, though, As paranoid as Constantius was, though, he was surprised enough by the charges he was surprised enough by the charges he was surprised enough by the charges that he decided to investigate. that he decided to investigate. that he decided to investigate. Silvanus, of course, denied everything Silvanus, of course, denied everything Silvanus, of course, denied everything and dispatched a couple of top aides to and dispatched a couple of top aides to and dispatched a couple of top aides to Milan to rebut the charges the minute he Milan to rebut the charges the minute he Milan to rebut the charges the minute he heard what the unscrupulous courtiers heard what the unscrupulous courtiers heard what the unscrupulous courtiers were up to.

were up to. were up to. In a sad twist of fate, Silvanus' aides In a sad twist of fate, Silvanus' aides In a sad twist of fate, Silvanus' aides were able to prove the letters fake. were able to prove the letters fake. were able to prove the letters fake. But in the meantime, their general had But in the meantime, their general had But in the meantime, their general had gotten jumpy. gotten jumpy. gotten jumpy. Convinced that Constantius was going to Convinced that Constantius was going to Convinced that Constantius was going to find him guilty one way or the other, find him guilty one way or the other, find him guilty one way or the other, Silvanus decided that if he was going to Silvanus decided that if he was going to Silvanus decided that if he was going to be executed for treason, he may as well be executed for treason, he may as well be executed for treason, he may as well commit some treason. commit some treason. commit some treason. In the summer of 355, he declared In the summer of 355, he declared In the summer of 355, he declared himself Augustus and prepared for war. Not too long after this declaration, Not too long after this declaration, though, a message arrived from the though, a message arrived from the though, a message arrived from the emperor ordering Silvanus to come to emperor ordering Silvanus to come to emperor ordering Silvanus to come to Milan at once. Milan at once. Milan at once. Under normal circumstances, this would Under normal circumstances, this would Under normal circumstances, this would have been rightfully considered a death have been rightfully considered a death have been rightfully considered a death sentence. sentence. sentence. But the man who bore the message, a But the man who bore the message, a But the man who bore the message, a general named Ursicinus, general named Ursicinus, general named Ursicinus, gave Silvanus hope. gave Silvanus hope. gave Silvanus hope. Ursicinus and Silvanus shared a loathing Ursicinus and Silvanus shared a loathing Ursicinus and Silvanus shared a loathing for Constantius's inner circle. for Constantius's inner circle. for Constantius's inner circle. So the fact that the emperor had used So the fact that the emperor had used So the fact that the emperor had used him to bear the message meant that him to bear the message meant that him to bear the message meant that Silvanus may yet survive. Silvanus may yet survive. Silvanus may yet survive. Indeed, the contents of the message Indeed, the contents of the message Indeed, the contents of the message indicated that Constantius did not even indicated that Constantius did not even indicated that Constantius did not even realize Silvanus had gone ahead and realize Silvanus had gone ahead and realize Silvanus had gone ahead and declared himself Augustus.

declared himself Augustus. declared himself Augustus. So, Silvanus agreed to follow Ursicinus So, Silvanus agreed to follow Ursicinus So, Silvanus agreed to follow Ursicinus to Milan. to Milan. to Milan. But the crafty Constantius, ooh, that But the crafty Constantius, ooh, that But the crafty Constantius, ooh, that crafty Constantius, who did in fact know crafty Constantius, who did in fact know crafty Constantius, who did in fact know about Silvanus's revolt, had used about Silvanus's revolt, had used about Silvanus's revolt, had used Ursicinus specifically because he knew Ursicinus specifically because he knew Ursicinus specifically because he knew Silvanus would drop his guard. Silvanus would drop his guard. Silvanus would drop his guard. On the way to Milan, Silvanus was On the way to Milan, Silvanus was On the way to Milan, Silvanus was arrested and put to death. arrested and put to death. arrested and put to death. Executed for treason only because he had Executed for treason only because he had Executed for treason only because he had been framed for treason. been framed for treason. been framed for treason. That is a hard luck case. The Silvanus episode didn't really have The Silvanus episode didn't really have too many long-term repercussions for the too many long-term repercussions for the too many long-term repercussions for the empire. empire. empire. But it probably did play a role in But it probably did play a role in But it probably did play a role in Constantius's final decision to go ahead Constantius's final decision to go ahead Constantius's final decision to go ahead and elevate Julian to power. and elevate Julian to power. and elevate Julian to power. Between tribal incursions along the Between tribal incursions along the Between tribal incursions along the Rhine, the possibility of war with Rhine, the possibility of war with Rhine, the possibility of war with Persia, and the ever-present threat of Persia, and the ever-present threat of Persia, and the ever-present threat of revolt, Constantius knew he needed an revolt, Constantius knew he needed an revolt, Constantius knew he needed an imperial colleague to help him handle it imperial colleague to help him handle it imperial colleague to help him handle it all, and that said colleague had better all, and that said colleague had better all, and that said colleague had better be a member of the family because no one be a member of the family because no one be a member of the family because no one else could be trusted.

else could be trusted. else could be trusted. So next week, we will get our first look So next week, we will get our first look So next week, we will get our first look at the man enlightenment philosophers at the man enlightenment philosophers at the man enlightenment philosophers and neo-pagans everywhere crush so very and neo-pagans everywhere crush so very and neo-pagans everywhere crush so very hard on, hard on, hard on, Julian the Apostate, Julian the Apostate, Julian the Apostate, the last emperor to attempt to stem the the last emperor to attempt to stem the the last emperor to attempt to stem the rising tide of Christianity. Hello Hello and welcome to the History of Rome. and welcome to the History of Rome. and welcome to the History of Rome. Episode 143 Episode 143 Episode 143 Julian the Apostate. After defeating Magnentius, dispensing After defeating Magnentius, dispensing with Gallus, and putting down the recent with Gallus, and putting down the recent with Gallus, and putting down the recent revolt of Silvanus, revolt of Silvanus, revolt of Silvanus, for the first time in a long time, for the first time in a long time, for the first time in a long time, Constantius II Constantius II Constantius II was completely secure on the throne.

was completely secure on the throne. was completely secure on the throne. But with everything that had gone on the But with everything that had gone on the But with everything that had gone on the last few years, it must have felt like last few years, it must have felt like last few years, it must have felt like the most insecure security in the world. the most insecure security in the world. the most insecure security in the world. Like that at any moment some chunk of Like that at any moment some chunk of Like that at any moment some chunk of the empire could slip away and bring the empire could slip away and bring the empire could slip away and bring Constantius crashing down with it. Constantius crashing down with it. Constantius crashing down with it. Opportunistic German tribes had taken Opportunistic German tribes had taken Opportunistic German tribes had taken advantage of the shaky Rhine defenses, advantage of the shaky Rhine defenses, advantage of the shaky Rhine defenses, leaving the west awash in barbarian leaving the west awash in barbarian leaving the west awash in barbarian invaders. invaders. invaders. The Sarmatians were a persistent source The Sarmatians were a persistent source The Sarmatians were a persistent source of trouble along the Danube, and it of trouble along the Danube, and it of trouble along the Danube, and it seemed like the Sassinids would come seemed like the Sassinids would come seemed like the Sassinids would come crashing back into Mesopotamia at any crashing back into Mesopotamia at any crashing back into Mesopotamia at any moment. moment. moment. So while Constantius had to have been So while Constantius had to have been So while Constantius had to have been happy that he now was the sole and happy that he now was the sole and happy that he now was the sole and unchallenged ruler of the empire, unchallenged ruler of the empire, unchallenged ruler of the empire, he also had to have been more than a he also had to have been more than a he also had to have been more than a little wary about what the future had in little wary about what the future had in little wary about what the future had in store for him. store for him. store for him. With all of this weighing on his mind, With all of this weighing on his mind, With all of this weighing on his mind, the emperor finally decided in November the emperor finally decided in November the emperor finally decided in November of 355 to elevate the last male member of 355 to elevate the last male member of 355 to elevate the last male member of his family to the purple, and hope of his family to the purple, and hope of his family to the purple, and hope the young man would be able to help the young man would be able to help the young man would be able to help shore up that insecure security shore up that insecure security shore up that insecure security Constantius was wrestling with. Constantius was wrestling with. Constantius was wrestling with. It was obvious that at this stage in It was obvious that at this stage in It was obvious that at this stage in history the empire absolutely needed history the empire absolutely needed history the empire absolutely needed multiple emperors fighting on multiple multiple emperors fighting on multiple multiple emperors fighting on multiple fronts to keep the whole project from fronts to keep the whole project from fronts to keep the whole project from falling apart, and so enter Julian the falling apart, and so enter Julian the falling apart, and so enter Julian the Apostate.

Julian had been born in 331 or 332 AD in Julian had been born in 331 or 332 AD in Constantinople. And as we've already Constantinople. And as we've already Constantinople. And as we've already seen, he managed to survive the massacre seen, he managed to survive the massacre seen, he managed to survive the massacre of the princes by virtue of the fact of the princes by virtue of the fact of the princes by virtue of the fact that he was too young to pose any that he was too young to pose any that he was too young to pose any immediate threat. immediate threat. immediate threat. After the massacre, Julian was shipped After the massacre, Julian was shipped After the massacre, Julian was shipped off with his brother to Bithynia to live off with his brother to Bithynia to live off with his brother to Bithynia to live with their maternal grandmother. And he with their maternal grandmother. And he with their maternal grandmother. And he appears to have had a happy few years appears to have had a happy few years appears to have had a happy few years living in comfortable pseudo exile. living in comfortable pseudo exile. living in comfortable pseudo exile. His education was overseen by the bishop His education was overseen by the bishop His education was overseen by the bishop Eusebius, the same bishop Constantius Eusebius, the same bishop Constantius Eusebius, the same bishop Constantius had pushed to take over Constantinople had pushed to take over Constantinople had pushed to take over Constantinople in 338. And a Gothic eunuch named in 338. And a Gothic eunuch named in 338. And a Gothic eunuch named Mardonius. Mardonius. Mardonius. After Eusebius died in 341, Julian and After Eusebius died in 341, Julian and After Eusebius died in 341, Julian and Gallus were packed off to an imperial Gallus were packed off to an imperial Gallus were packed off to an imperial estate in Cappadocia. And there was estate in Cappadocia. And there was estate in Cappadocia. And there was nothing pseudo about this exile. nothing pseudo about this exile. nothing pseudo about this exile. Far from the cosmopolitan centers of the Far from the cosmopolitan centers of the Far from the cosmopolitan centers of the empire, the villa in Cappadocia became a empire, the villa in Cappadocia became a empire, the villa in Cappadocia became a prison that young Julian only managed to prison that young Julian only managed to prison that young Julian only managed to escape by means of the collection of escape by means of the collection of escape by means of the collection of books he was allowed to accumulate. books he was allowed to accumulate. books he was allowed to accumulate. Studying anything that seemed even Studying anything that seemed even Studying anything that seemed even mildly interesting, Julian became mildly interesting, Julian became mildly interesting, Julian became enamored with Greek philosophy and the enamored with Greek philosophy and the enamored with Greek philosophy and the pagan cults of old.

pagan cults of old. pagan cults of old. Though he was always careful to focus Though he was always careful to focus Though he was always careful to focus first and foremost on Christian texts to first and foremost on Christian texts to first and foremost on Christian texts to avoid any unpleasant questions about avoid any unpleasant questions about avoid any unpleasant questions about where his heart might be drifting. In 348, probably because he already had In 348, probably because he already had his eye on them as potential heirs, the his eye on them as potential heirs, the his eye on them as potential heirs, the sonless Constantius recalled his cousins sonless Constantius recalled his cousins sonless Constantius recalled his cousins from their Cappadocian exile. from their Cappadocian exile. from their Cappadocian exile. Gallus likely spent some time in Ephesus Gallus likely spent some time in Ephesus Gallus likely spent some time in Ephesus before settling in at Constantinople. before settling in at Constantinople. before settling in at Constantinople. While Julian spent the next two years While Julian spent the next two years While Julian spent the next two years bouncing between the capital and bouncing between the capital and bouncing between the capital and Nicomedia, furthering both his classical Nicomedia, furthering both his classical Nicomedia, furthering both his classical and Christian education by studying with and Christian education by studying with and Christian education by studying with the greatest teachers of his age. the greatest teachers of his age. the greatest teachers of his age. Following the revolt of Magnentius, the Following the revolt of Magnentius, the Following the revolt of Magnentius, the universe fired a warning shot across universe fired a warning shot across universe fired a warning shot across Julian's contemplative bow. When he Julian's contemplative bow. When he Julian's contemplative bow. When he found himself present in Sirmium to found himself present in Sirmium to found himself present in Sirmium to witness his brother's elevation to the witness his brother's elevation to the witness his brother's elevation to the rank of Caesar. rank of Caesar. rank of Caesar. It is one thing to be the kept relative It is one thing to be the kept relative It is one thing to be the kept relative of a distant Augustus. of a distant Augustus. of a distant Augustus. It is quite another to be the brother of It is quite another to be the brother of It is quite another to be the brother of a Caesar. a Caesar. a Caesar. The political waters were lapping at The political waters were lapping at The political waters were lapping at Julian's heels.

Julian's heels. Julian's heels. But they would not drown him just yet. But they would not drown him just yet. But they would not drown him just yet. And for the next few years, he was And for the next few years, he was And for the next few years, he was allowed some freedom of movement to allowed some freedom of movement to allowed some freedom of movement to continue his studies. continue his studies. continue his studies. So, he traveled up and down the So, he traveled up and down the So, he traveled up and down the Anatolian coast where he sought out the Anatolian coast where he sought out the Anatolian coast where he sought out the great masters of philosophy and great masters of philosophy and great masters of philosophy and rhetoric, and even magic. It was at this point, round about 351 or It was at this point, round about 351 or 352 AD, that Julian turned decisively 352 AD, that Julian turned decisively 352 AD, that Julian turned decisively away from Christianity. away from Christianity. away from Christianity. Now, there was no real dramatic moment Now, there was no real dramatic moment Now, there was no real dramatic moment of conversion where Julian lights a of conversion where Julian lights a of conversion where Julian lights a bundle of scripture on fire and declares bundle of scripture on fire and declares bundle of scripture on fire and declares himself the enemy of Christianity for himself the enemy of Christianity for himself the enemy of Christianity for all time. all time. all time. It was just that during this period, the It was just that during this period, the It was just that during this period, the scales of belief tipped away from scales of belief tipped away from scales of belief tipped away from Christianity and towards paganism. Christianity and towards paganism. Christianity and towards paganism. Julian knew Christian scripture backward Julian knew Christian scripture backward Julian knew Christian scripture backward and forward and had always been troubled and forward and had always been troubled and forward and had always been troubled by its many contradictions. And so now, by its many contradictions. And so now, by its many contradictions. And so now, he embraced an alternative theology. he embraced an alternative theology. he embraced an alternative theology. The classical philosophy he read and the The classical philosophy he read and the The classical philosophy he read and the pagan cult he encountered were exciting. pagan cult he encountered were exciting. pagan cult he encountered were exciting. And most likely, they simply offered And most likely, they simply offered And most likely, they simply offered Julian a more satisfying explanation of Julian a more satisfying explanation of Julian a more satisfying explanation of the cosmos than he found in Christian the cosmos than he found in Christian the cosmos than he found in Christian teachings.

teachings. teachings. I should note though that a few armchair I should note though that a few armchair I should note though that a few armchair psychologists have argued that Julian's psychologists have argued that Julian's psychologists have argued that Julian's rejection of Christianity may have rejection of Christianity may have rejection of Christianity may have stemmed from the fact that his devoutly stemmed from the fact that his devoutly stemmed from the fact that his devoutly Christian cousin Constantius had, you Christian cousin Constantius had, you Christian cousin Constantius had, you know, murdered his entire family. know, murdered his entire family. know, murdered his entire family. But I think that's unnecessary. But I think that's unnecessary. But I think that's unnecessary. I just think Julian was a whip-smart I just think Julian was a whip-smart I just think Julian was a whip-smart 20-year-old who turned his back on the 20-year-old who turned his back on the 20-year-old who turned his back on the traditional religion of his family in traditional religion of his family in traditional religion of his family in order to pursue more exotic belief order to pursue more exotic belief order to pursue more exotic belief systems. systems. systems. Things like this happen literally every Things like this happen literally every Things like this happen literally every single day. single day. single day. So, I don't think we need to bring the So, I don't think we need to bring the So, I don't think we need to bring the trauma of his childhood in to explain trauma of his childhood in to explain trauma of his childhood in to explain why Julian ultimately turned his back on why Julian ultimately turned his back on why Julian ultimately turned his back on Christianity forever. I have to imagine that the years in I have to imagine that the years in between Gallus's rise and Gallus's fall between Gallus's rise and Gallus's fall between Gallus's rise and Gallus's fall had to have been the happiest of had to have been the happiest of had to have been the happiest of Julian's life. Julian's life. Julian's life. He was young, mostly free to come and go He was young, mostly free to come and go He was young, mostly free to come and go as he pleased, and he was surrounded by as he pleased, and he was surrounded by as he pleased, and he was surrounded by exciting new ideas. exciting new ideas. exciting new ideas. For a reserved intellectual like Julian, For a reserved intellectual like Julian, For a reserved intellectual like Julian, this had to have been something close to this had to have been something close to this had to have been something close to heaven. heaven. heaven. Enjoying the perks of his imperial Enjoying the perks of his imperial Enjoying the perks of his imperial connections without any of the political connections without any of the political connections without any of the political or military entanglements.

or military entanglements. or military entanglements. However, when the Gallus affair climaxed However, when the Gallus affair climaxed However, when the Gallus affair climaxed with the execution of his brother, the with the execution of his brother, the with the execution of his brother, the idyllic life Julian ended, and something idyllic life Julian ended, and something idyllic life Julian ended, and something far more complicated took its place. far more complicated took its place. far more complicated took its place. As the last remaining male relative of As the last remaining male relative of As the last remaining male relative of Constantius, he was called to Milan Constantius, he was called to Milan Constantius, he was called to Milan shortly after his brother's death in shortly after his brother's death in shortly after his brother's death in late 354, so that the emperor could size late 354, so that the emperor could size late 354, so that the emperor could size him up. him up. him up. Figure out if he was dangerous first of Figure out if he was dangerous first of Figure out if he was dangerous first of all, and then figure out if maybe Julian all, and then figure out if maybe Julian all, and then figure out if maybe Julian could handle the job of Caesar should could handle the job of Caesar should could handle the job of Caesar should the need arise. After his arrival in the Italian capital After his arrival in the Italian capital though, he was kept under a sort of though, he was kept under a sort of though, he was kept under a sort of house arrest. house arrest. house arrest. He wasn't allowed to leave, but neither He wasn't allowed to leave, but neither He wasn't allowed to leave, but neither was he ever summoned to meet with was he ever summoned to meet with was he ever summoned to meet with Constantius. Constantius. Constantius. So, is he going to kill me like the rest So, is he going to kill me like the rest So, is he going to kill me like the rest of my family? Is he going to let me go? of my family? Is he going to let me go? of my family? Is he going to let me go? Like, what's the deal here? Like, what's the deal here? Like, what's the deal here? This limbo persisted a good 7 months, This limbo persisted a good 7 months, This limbo persisted a good 7 months, and it was not until mid-355 that and it was not until mid-355 that and it was not until mid-355 that Constantius finally decided to have a Constantius finally decided to have a Constantius finally decided to have a look at the boy. look at the boy. look at the boy. Julian had done his best to adopt a Julian had done his best to adopt a Julian had done his best to adopt a non-threatening posture throughout his non-threatening posture throughout his non-threatening posture throughout his life. And after meeting with the life. And after meeting with the life. And after meeting with the emperor, Julian was relieved to discover emperor, Julian was relieved to discover emperor, Julian was relieved to discover that this posture had shown through.

that this posture had shown through. that this posture had shown through. His confinement in Milan did not in fact His confinement in Milan did not in fact His confinement in Milan did not in fact turn out to be him just sitting on death turn out to be him just sitting on death turn out to be him just sitting on death row. row. row. Constantius decided to let his cousin Constantius decided to let his cousin Constantius decided to let his cousin leave Italy to continue his education. leave Italy to continue his education. leave Italy to continue his education. His life having just flashed before his His life having just flashed before his His life having just flashed before his eyes though, Julian took this eyes though, Julian took this eyes though, Julian took this opportunity to visit the only city a opportunity to visit the only city a opportunity to visit the only city a burgeoning young intellectual absolutely burgeoning young intellectual absolutely burgeoning young intellectual absolutely must visit before they die. must visit before they die. must visit before they die. Athens. Athens. Athens. He received permission to travel to the He received permission to travel to the He received permission to travel to the ancient city and departed at once. ancient city and departed at once. ancient city and departed at once. Eager to take in everything that Athens Eager to take in everything that Athens Eager to take in everything that Athens had to offer, he studied at the feet of had to offer, he studied at the feet of had to offer, he studied at the feet of the Greek masters and was inducted into the Greek masters and was inducted into the Greek masters and was inducted into the Eleusinian mysteries. the Eleusinian mysteries. the Eleusinian mysteries. But at the end of autumn 355, just 3 But at the end of autumn 355, just 3 But at the end of autumn 355, just 3 months after arriving, Julian learned months after arriving, Julian learned months after arriving, Julian learned that his days as a professional student that his days as a professional student that his days as a professional student were about to come to an end. were about to come to an end. were about to come to an end. Or maybe Constantius had reconsidered Or maybe Constantius had reconsidered Or maybe Constantius had reconsidered and it was his life that was about to and it was his life that was about to and it was his life that was about to come to an end. come to an end. come to an end. Julian reluctantly and most likely Julian reluctantly and most likely Julian reluctantly and most likely fearfully returned to Milan. As I'm sure you can probably guess As I'm sure you can probably guess though, Constantius had not called though, Constantius had not called though, Constantius had not called Julian back to Milan to kill him.

Julian back to Milan to kill him. Julian back to Milan to kill him. No, he had a far worse fate in store for No, he had a far worse fate in store for No, he had a far worse fate in store for the cerebral 23-year-old. the cerebral 23-year-old. the cerebral 23-year-old. On November 6, 355 AD, Constantius On November 6, 355 AD, Constantius On November 6, 355 AD, Constantius assembled the troops and announced that assembled the troops and announced that assembled the troops and announced that he was making Julian his Caesar. he was making Julian his Caesar. he was making Julian his Caesar. The troops cheered, Julian cringed, and The troops cheered, Julian cringed, and The troops cheered, Julian cringed, and the empire had itself a new junior the empire had itself a new junior the empire had itself a new junior emperor. emperor. emperor. And what would the new junior emperor's And what would the new junior emperor's And what would the new junior emperor's assignment be? assignment be? assignment be? How about ridding all Gaul of its German How about ridding all Gaul of its German How about ridding all Gaul of its German invaders and returning peace and invaders and returning peace and invaders and returning peace and security to the western provinces? security to the western provinces? security to the western provinces? Think you can handle that? Think you can handle that? Think you can handle that? This throw him in the deep end and see This throw him in the deep end and see This throw him in the deep end and see if he can swim mentality has been taken if he can swim mentality has been taken if he can swim mentality has been taken by some to indicate that Constantius by some to indicate that Constantius by some to indicate that Constantius didn't really care if Julian sank or didn't really care if Julian sank or didn't really care if Julian sank or swam. swam. swam. If the kid pulls it off, then great. The If the kid pulls it off, then great. The If the kid pulls it off, then great. The empire is that much better for it. empire is that much better for it. empire is that much better for it. But if it turns out he's in over his But if it turns out he's in over his But if it turns out he's in over his head and gets killed in the fighting, head and gets killed in the fighting, head and gets killed in the fighting, well, that takes care of a dynastic well, that takes care of a dynastic well, that takes care of a dynastic threat I'll probably just get all threat I'll probably just get all threat I'll probably just get all paranoid about in a few years anyway. paranoid about in a few years anyway. paranoid about in a few years anyway. In other words, sending Julian north was In other words, sending Julian north was In other words, sending Julian north was win-win, at least from Constantius' win-win, at least from Constantius' win-win, at least from Constantius' point of view.

As Julian left for Gaul, I can very much As Julian left for Gaul, I can very much picture the bookmakers of the empire picture the bookmakers of the empire picture the bookmakers of the empire taking odds as to whether the young taking odds as to whether the young taking odds as to whether the young Caesar was going to come back alive. Caesar was going to come back alive. Caesar was going to come back alive. He had no military experience and no He had no military experience and no He had no military experience and no political experience. political experience. political experience. So, if the Germans didn't stop him in So, if the Germans didn't stop him in So, if the Germans didn't stop him in the front, then surely some cutthroat the front, then surely some cutthroat the front, then surely some cutthroat advisor is going to stab him in the advisor is going to stab him in the advisor is going to stab him in the back. back. back. Just look at what had happened to his Just look at what had happened to his Just look at what had happened to his brother. brother. brother. When the new Caesar arrived in Gaul in When the new Caesar arrived in Gaul in When the new Caesar arrived in Gaul in his ill-fitting military attire and his ill-fitting military attire and his ill-fitting military attire and accompanied by an entourage whose accompanied by an entourage whose accompanied by an entourage whose loyalty first and foremost was to loyalty first and foremost was to loyalty first and foremost was to Constantius, Constantius, Constantius, no one figured that he stood a chance. no one figured that he stood a chance. no one figured that he stood a chance. But to everyone's surprise, Julian But to everyone's surprise, Julian But to everyone's surprise, Julian decided not to mess around with this decided not to mess around with this decided not to mess around with this thing. thing. thing. If he was going to be Caesar, then If he was going to be Caesar, then If he was going to be Caesar, then doggone it, he was going to be Caesar. doggone it, he was going to be Caesar. doggone it, he was going to be Caesar. Much as I'm sure part of him wanted to Much as I'm sure part of him wanted to Much as I'm sure part of him wanted to sit in his tent reading books while sit in his tent reading books while sit in his tent reading books while other men took care of his business for other men took care of his business for other men took care of his business for him, him, him, Julian refused to fall into that trap. Julian refused to fall into that trap. Julian refused to fall into that trap. The parallels to Marcus Aurelius on this The parallels to Marcus Aurelius on this The parallels to Marcus Aurelius on this point are interesting, and I often think point are interesting, and I often think point are interesting, and I often think that in Julian, we get a chance to see that in Julian, we get a chance to see that in Julian, we get a chance to see what a 20-something year-old Marcus what a 20-something year-old Marcus what a 20-something year-old Marcus would have been like as an emperor had would have been like as an emperor had would have been like as an emperor had not Antoninus Pius inexplicably reigned not Antoninus Pius inexplicably reigned not Antoninus Pius inexplicably reigned for like 150 years.

for like 150 years. for like 150 years. Both men were much more inclined Both men were much more inclined Both men were much more inclined temperamentally to intellectual temperamentally to intellectual temperamentally to intellectual pursuits, pursuits, pursuits, but forced into action, both refused to but forced into action, both refused to but forced into action, both refused to shirk their duty, and they took shirk their duty, and they took shirk their duty, and they took seriously their role as a military seriously their role as a military seriously their role as a military leader. leader. leader. It speaks well of both of them. It speaks well of both of them. It speaks well of both of them. Over that winter of 355-356, Over that winter of 355-356, Over that winter of 355-356, Julian threw himself into the soldier's Julian threw himself into the soldier's Julian threw himself into the soldier's life, commandeering a drill sergeant and life, commandeering a drill sergeant and life, commandeering a drill sergeant and forcing himself to do everything a new forcing himself to do everything a new forcing himself to do everything a new recruit would be expected to do. recruit would be expected to do. recruit would be expected to do. The senior officials surrounding the The senior officials surrounding the The senior officials surrounding the young leader, military and political young leader, military and political young leader, military and political alike, were surprised at his dedication, alike, were surprised at his dedication, alike, were surprised at his dedication, but still, they probably were snickering but still, they probably were snickering but still, they probably were snickering behind his back. behind his back. behind his back. This pampered prince was no soldier. Who This pampered prince was no soldier. Who This pampered prince was no soldier. Who did he think he was kidding? did he think he was kidding? did he think he was kidding? At the end of this no doubt stirring At the end of this no doubt stirring At the end of this no doubt stirring montage, though, Julian was in shape and montage, though, Julian was in shape and montage, though, Julian was in shape and ready for action. ready for action. ready for action. He had no no of sitting on the sidelines He had no no of sitting on the sidelines He had no no of sitting on the sidelines or being a mere figurehead. or being a mere figurehead. or being a mere figurehead. He was going to lead the legions into He was going to lead the legions into He was going to lead the legions into battle. battle. battle. If people didn't think he was up to it, If people didn't think he was up to it, If people didn't think he was up to it, well, he was just going to have to prove well, he was just going to have to prove well, he was just going to have to prove them wrong.

them wrong. them wrong. The only question left was where to The only question left was where to The only question left was where to start. As I touched on last week, the revolt As I touched on last week, the revolt and subsequent defeat of Magnentius had and subsequent defeat of Magnentius had and subsequent defeat of Magnentius had left the Rhine defenses in shambles. left the Rhine defenses in shambles. left the Rhine defenses in shambles. Cities were under garrisoned, Cities were under garrisoned, Cities were under garrisoned, watchtowers were left unmanned, watchtowers were left unmanned, watchtowers were left unmanned, and the general focus of everyone had and the general focus of everyone had and the general focus of everyone had been on the internal threat of been on the internal threat of been on the internal threat of Constantius, rather than the external Constantius, rather than the external Constantius, rather than the external threat of the Alamanni and the Franks. threat of the Alamanni and the Franks. threat of the Alamanni and the Franks. The Germans picked up on this pretty The Germans picked up on this pretty The Germans picked up on this pretty quickly, and in the five years since quickly, and in the five years since quickly, and in the five years since Magnentius had donned his purple cloak, Magnentius had donned his purple cloak, Magnentius had donned his purple cloak, the Romans had been pushed back off the the Romans had been pushed back off the the Romans had been pushed back off the Rhine River, Rhine River, Rhine River, losing control of a good number of losing control of a good number of losing control of a good number of cities in the process, including cities in the process, including cities in the process, including Cologne, the capital of Germania Cologne, the capital of Germania Cologne, the capital of Germania Inferior. Inferior. Inferior. So, Julian's first task was clear. So, Julian's first task was clear. So, Julian's first task was clear. March to the lower Rhine and retake the March to the lower Rhine and retake the March to the lower Rhine and retake the lost urban centers along the river. lost urban centers along the river. lost urban centers along the river. For all of 356, Julian campaigned For all of 356, Julian campaigned For all of 356, Julian campaigned against the Germans and emerged against the Germans and emerged against the Germans and emerged victorious from a series of victorious from a series of victorious from a series of decently-sized encounters. decently-sized encounters. decently-sized encounters. As winter approached, Julian had As winter approached, Julian had As winter approached, Julian had succeeded in driving off the occupying succeeded in driving off the occupying succeeded in driving off the occupying Germans and retaking, among other Germans and retaking, among other Germans and retaking, among other cities, the great military capital of cities, the great military capital of cities, the great military capital of Cologne.

Cologne. Cologne. It was a fantastic start to his career, It was a fantastic start to his career, It was a fantastic start to his career, though I would be negligent in my duties though I would be negligent in my duties though I would be negligent in my duties if I didn't point out that defending if I didn't point out that defending if I didn't point out that defending walled cities was not exactly the walled cities was not exactly the walled cities was not exactly the Germans' forte. Germans' forte. Germans' forte. They withdrew at the first sign of They withdrew at the first sign of They withdrew at the first sign of serious pushback from the Romans. serious pushback from the Romans. serious pushback from the Romans. But still, a good first day for the new But still, a good first day for the new But still, a good first day for the new Caesar. Caesar. Caesar. The winter would bring Julian's first The winter would bring Julian's first The winter would bring Julian's first taste of real hardship. taste of real hardship. taste of real hardship. After scattering his men across Gaul in After scattering his men across Gaul in After scattering his men across Gaul in winter quarters, Julian himself set up winter quarters, Julian himself set up winter quarters, Julian himself set up shop with a small garrison in the city shop with a small garrison in the city shop with a small garrison in the city of Senones. of Senones. of Senones. Julian, confident that the year's Julian, confident that the year's Julian, confident that the year's campaign had put the Germans on notice, campaign had put the Germans on notice, campaign had put the Germans on notice, was expecting no trouble. was expecting no trouble. was expecting no trouble. But as soon as he was settled, an army But as soon as he was settled, an army But as soon as he was settled, an army of Franks suddenly appeared at the gates of Franks suddenly appeared at the gates of Franks suddenly appeared at the gates of the city. of the city. of the city. It was not a large army, but it was It was not a large army, but it was It was not a large army, but it was bigger than any force Julian could bigger than any force Julian could bigger than any force Julian could muster right at that moment. So, direct muster right at that moment. So, direct muster right at that moment. So, direct counterattack was out of the question. counterattack was out of the question. counterattack was out of the question. That said, the city's defensive That said, the city's defensive That said, the city's defensive fortifications were sturdy. So, it looks fortifications were sturdy. So, it looks fortifications were sturdy. So, it looks like if the Germans want a siege, then a like if the Germans want a siege, then a like if the Germans want a siege, then a siege is what they are going to get.

siege is what they are going to get. siege is what they are going to get. The Germans apparently had no problem The Germans apparently had no problem The Germans apparently had no problem with this, and so a siege is what they with this, and so a siege is what they with this, and so a siege is what they got. got. got. For the next month, Julian was trapped For the next month, Julian was trapped For the next month, Julian was trapped inside the city. inside the city. inside the city. Unable to break out, but also unwilling Unable to break out, but also unwilling Unable to break out, but also unwilling to give up. to give up. to give up. Now, the siege of Senon raises a huge Now, the siege of Senon raises a huge Now, the siege of Senon raises a huge question. question. question. What in the world was Marcellus doing What in the world was Marcellus doing What in the world was Marcellus doing during all of this? during all of this? during all of this? Who was Marcellus, you ask? Well, he was Who was Marcellus, you ask? Well, he was Who was Marcellus, you ask? Well, he was Julian's Master of the Horse, Julian's Master of the Horse, Julian's Master of the Horse, who was stationed just 100 miles away who was stationed just 100 miles away who was stationed just 100 miles away with an army big enough to easily drive with an army big enough to easily drive with an army big enough to easily drive off the besieging Germans. off the besieging Germans. off the besieging Germans. He knew what was happening, and yet he He knew what was happening, and yet he He knew what was happening, and yet he did nothing. did nothing. did nothing. He had his excuses, but really, dude, He had his excuses, but really, dude, He had his excuses, but really, dude, what is so important that you can't pop what is so important that you can't pop what is so important that you can't pop down and rescue the freaking Caesar of down and rescue the freaking Caesar of down and rescue the freaking Caesar of the Empire? the Empire? the Empire? Which is exactly what Julian wanted to Which is exactly what Julian wanted to Which is exactly what Julian wanted to know after the Germans got tired of the know after the Germans got tired of the know after the Germans got tired of the stalemate and withdrew. stalemate and withdrew. stalemate and withdrew. Marcellus, as I said, has his excuses. Marcellus, as I said, has his excuses. Marcellus, as I said, has his excuses. But there was absolutely no doubt in But there was absolutely no doubt in But there was absolutely no doubt in Julian's mind that he had been hung out Julian's mind that he had been hung out Julian's mind that he had been hung out to dry by a disgruntled subordinate, and to dry by a disgruntled subordinate, and to dry by a disgruntled subordinate, and he wrote to Constantius telling the he wrote to Constantius telling the he wrote to Constantius telling the emperor exactly that, and demanding that emperor exactly that, and demanding that emperor exactly that, and demanding that Marcellus be removed from his post.

Marcellus be removed from his post. Marcellus be removed from his post. Marcellus countered by writing a letter Marcellus countered by writing a letter Marcellus countered by writing a letter of his own, explaining why he had failed of his own, explaining why he had failed of his own, explaining why he had failed to do anything about the siege. to do anything about the siege. to do anything about the siege. But confirming, at least in my own mind, But confirming, at least in my own mind, But confirming, at least in my own mind, that Marcellus was full of it and had that Marcellus was full of it and had that Marcellus was full of it and had indeed intentionally left Julian hung indeed intentionally left Julian hung indeed intentionally left Julian hung out to dry. out to dry. out to dry. Constantius sided with his Caesar, and Constantius sided with his Caesar, and Constantius sided with his Caesar, and Marcellus was banished to the Danube Marcellus was banished to the Danube Marcellus was banished to the Danube frontier. Once the spring of 357 arrived, Julian Once the spring of 357 arrived, Julian was ready to put the winter struggle was ready to put the winter struggle was ready to put the winter struggle behind him and go on the offensive. behind him and go on the offensive. behind him and go on the offensive. In coordination with his master of the In coordination with his master of the In coordination with his master of the infantry, a general named Barbatio, infantry, a general named Barbatio, infantry, a general named Barbatio, Julian planned a two-pronged invasion of Julian planned a two-pronged invasion of Julian planned a two-pronged invasion of Alamanni territory along the upper Alamanni territory along the upper Alamanni territory along the upper Rhine. Rhine. Rhine. Julian would march due east, while Julian would march due east, while Julian would march due east, while Barbatio, currently in Milan, would Barbatio, currently in Milan, would Barbatio, currently in Milan, would march north through Raetia. march north through Raetia. march north through Raetia. They would then meet in Alamanni They would then meet in Alamanni They would then meet in Alamanni territory and deliver some stern territory and deliver some stern territory and deliver some stern reprisals to the Germans for running reprisals to the Germans for running reprisals to the Germans for running amok in Roman territory. amok in Roman territory. amok in Roman territory. But the flying pincer move Julian But the flying pincer move Julian But the flying pincer move Julian envisioned fell apart immediately. envisioned fell apart immediately. envisioned fell apart immediately. It started out well enough, but as It started out well enough, but as It started out well enough, but as Julian advanced, a German army crossed Julian advanced, a German army crossed Julian advanced, a German army crossed the Rhine and attacked the key Gallic the Rhine and attacked the key Gallic the Rhine and attacked the key Gallic city of Lugdunum, city of Lugdunum, city of Lugdunum, forcing Julian to stop and come to the forcing Julian to stop and come to the forcing Julian to stop and come to the city's aid.

city's aid. city's aid. Barbatio, meanwhile, was about to prove Barbatio, meanwhile, was about to prove Barbatio, meanwhile, was about to prove himself to be either incompetent, or himself to be either incompetent, or himself to be either incompetent, or sinister, or maybe both. sinister, or maybe both. sinister, or maybe both. Not only had he allowed the Germans now Not only had he allowed the Germans now Not only had he allowed the Germans now attacking Lugdunum through the line in attacking Lugdunum through the line in attacking Lugdunum through the line in the first place, the first place, the first place, but when they were finally driven off by but when they were finally driven off by but when they were finally driven off by Julian, Barbatio let them waltz right Julian, Barbatio let them waltz right Julian, Barbatio let them waltz right back through, back through, back through, despite a clear warning from Julian that despite a clear warning from Julian that despite a clear warning from Julian that fugitive barbarians were headed his way fugitive barbarians were headed his way fugitive barbarians were headed his way and weighed down with captured treasure. As if this wasn't bad enough, a few As if this wasn't bad enough, a few weeks later, Julian was fighting with weeks later, Julian was fighting with weeks later, Julian was fighting with the Alamanni and struggling to cross the the Alamanni and struggling to cross the the Alamanni and struggling to cross the Rhine, and he requested Barbatio send Rhine, and he requested Barbatio send Rhine, and he requested Barbatio send him seven boats to help him make the him seven boats to help him make the him seven boats to help him make the crossing. crossing. crossing. Barbatio was in the process of building Barbatio was in the process of building Barbatio was in the process of building a pontoon bridge of his own, and with a pontoon bridge of his own, and with a pontoon bridge of his own, and with more than enough boats at his disposal, more than enough boats at his disposal, more than enough boats at his disposal, Julian figured the master of the Julian figured the master of the Julian figured the master of the infantry could spare him a few. infantry could spare him a few. infantry could spare him a few. But when he got the request, get this, But when he got the request, get this, But when he got the request, get this, rather than give Julian seven boats, rather than give Julian seven boats, rather than give Julian seven boats, Barbatio burned seven boats, Barbatio burned seven boats, Barbatio burned seven boats, which just doesn't make sense on any which just doesn't make sense on any which just doesn't make sense on any level. level. level. So, then Julian found a fordable spot in So, then Julian found a fordable spot in So, then Julian found a fordable spot in the river and managed to drive off the the river and managed to drive off the the river and managed to drive off the Alamanni he had been facing.

Alamanni he had been facing. Alamanni he had been facing. But when he looked around for Barbatio, But when he looked around for Barbatio, But when he looked around for Barbatio, who should be in the area any second who should be in the area any second who should be in the area any second now, now, now, he discovered that his master of the he discovered that his master of the he discovered that his master of the infantry had been outsmarted and that infantry had been outsmarted and that infantry had been outsmarted and that the Germans had destroyed his pontoon the Germans had destroyed his pontoon the Germans had destroyed his pontoon bridge. And so, Barbatio was still on bridge. And so, Barbatio was still on bridge. And so, Barbatio was still on the Roman side of the Rhine. the Roman side of the Rhine. the Roman side of the Rhine. Left alone in German territory, Julian Left alone in German territory, Julian Left alone in German territory, Julian prudently fell back. Undeterred, the Caesar set about trying Undeterred, the Caesar set about trying to salvage the campaign. And so, he to salvage the campaign. And so, he to salvage the campaign. And so, he called for additional grain supplies called for additional grain supplies called for additional grain supplies from the south. from the south. from the south. But rather than allow these grain But rather than allow these grain But rather than allow these grain supplies to pass through, Barbatio, supplies to pass through, Barbatio, supplies to pass through, Barbatio, again, get this, burned the carts they again, get this, burned the carts they again, get this, burned the carts they were being transported on, were being transported on, were being transported on, claiming that he was afraid the claiming that he was afraid the claiming that he was afraid the shipments would fall into enemy hands. shipments would fall into enemy hands. shipments would fall into enemy hands. Then, unilaterally deciding that the Then, unilaterally deciding that the Then, unilaterally deciding that the year's campaign season was over, year's campaign season was over, year's campaign season was over, Barbatio withdrew back to Milan, leaving Barbatio withdrew back to Milan, leaving Barbatio withdrew back to Milan, leaving Julian exposed to a swarm of stirred-up Julian exposed to a swarm of stirred-up Julian exposed to a swarm of stirred-up Germans. So, what exactly was Barbatio's deal? So, what exactly was Barbatio's deal? Ammianus Marcellinus, the Ammianus Marcellinus, the Ammianus Marcellinus, the soldier-historian who was serving in the soldier-historian who was serving in the soldier-historian who was serving in the legions at this point, summed it up legions at this point, summed it up legions at this point, summed it up nicely when he said, "It is unresolved nicely when he said, "It is unresolved nicely when he said, "It is unresolved whether he, that is Barbatio, committed whether he, that is Barbatio, committed whether he, that is Barbatio, committed so many monstrous acts as a result of so many monstrous acts as a result of so many monstrous acts as a result of his own vanity and self-destructiveness, his own vanity and self-destructiveness, his own vanity and self-destructiveness, or prompted by orders of the emperor."

or prompted by orders of the emperor." or prompted by orders of the emperor." Coupled with Marcellus' conduct the Coupled with Marcellus' conduct the Coupled with Marcellus' conduct the previous winter, it does not seem previous winter, it does not seem previous winter, it does not seem exactly out of the question to wonder if exactly out of the question to wonder if exactly out of the question to wonder if Julian's various commanders had been Julian's various commanders had been Julian's various commanders had been given explicit instructions by the given explicit instructions by the given explicit instructions by the emperor to undermine his Caesar at every emperor to undermine his Caesar at every emperor to undermine his Caesar at every opportunity. opportunity. opportunity. But Constantius did want the Germans But Constantius did want the Germans But Constantius did want the Germans bottled up, and he had sent Julian to bottled up, and he had sent Julian to bottled up, and he had sent Julian to spearhead the operation. So, it seems a spearhead the operation. So, it seems a spearhead the operation. So, it seems a little weird that he would little weird that he would little weird that he would simultaneously try to trip him up. simultaneously try to trip him up. simultaneously try to trip him up. If he wanted Julian dead, why Why just If he wanted Julian dead, why Why just If he wanted Julian dead, why Why just kill him like he had killed everyone kill him like he had killed everyone kill him like he had killed everyone else? else? else? In all likelihood then, Marcellus, In all likelihood then, Marcellus, In all likelihood then, Marcellus, Barbacio, and the others Barbacio, and the others Barbacio, and the others were simply ticked off about having to were simply ticked off about having to were simply ticked off about having to take orders from some untested youth take orders from some untested youth take orders from some untested youth playing soldier. playing soldier. playing soldier. And when they saw chances to undermine And when they saw chances to undermine And when they saw chances to undermine him, they took them. him, they took them. him, they took them. That, and Barbacio appears to have been That, and Barbacio appears to have been That, and Barbacio appears to have been kind of an idiot. But despite their efforts, Julian would But despite their efforts, Julian would not be undermined. not be undermined. not be undermined. Indeed, it was right at this low moment, Indeed, it was right at this low moment, Indeed, it was right at this low moment, ditched by Barbacio and left stranded ditched by Barbacio and left stranded ditched by Barbacio and left stranded near Strasbourg with an undersized and near Strasbourg with an undersized and near Strasbourg with an undersized and ill-supplied army, that Julian won his ill-supplied army, that Julian won his ill-supplied army, that Julian won his greatest victory.

A German king named Chnodomar, I have no A German king named Chnodomar, I have no idea if I'm pronouncing that right, idea if I'm pronouncing that right, idea if I'm pronouncing that right, took the success the Alamanni had been took the success the Alamanni had been took the success the Alamanni had been having that year as an opportunity to having that year as an opportunity to having that year as an opportunity to forge a coalition of six tribes and lead forge a coalition of six tribes and lead forge a coalition of six tribes and lead them on a massive offensive. them on a massive offensive. them on a massive offensive. As Julian hunkered down with the 13,000 As Julian hunkered down with the 13,000 As Julian hunkered down with the 13,000 soldiers he had left, reports came in soldiers he had left, reports came in soldiers he had left, reports came in that some 35,000 Alamanni were crossing that some 35,000 Alamanni were crossing that some 35,000 Alamanni were crossing the Rhine river and heading straight for the Rhine river and heading straight for the Rhine river and heading straight for him. him. him. Julian, choosing to force the issue now Julian, choosing to force the issue now Julian, choosing to force the issue now rather than face battle after retreat rather than face battle after retreat rather than face battle after retreat that would likely completely exhaust his that would likely completely exhaust his that would likely completely exhaust his already exhausted army, already exhausted army, already exhausted army, ordered his men forward. ordered his men forward. ordered his men forward. Though the Romans were outnumbered, and Though the Romans were outnumbered, and Though the Romans were outnumbered, and by Romans I of course mean the Germans by Romans I of course mean the Germans by Romans I of course mean the Germans fighting for Rome, fighting for Rome, fighting for Rome, the discipline that had always been the the discipline that had always been the the discipline that had always been the legions calling card was still a legions calling card was still a legions calling card was still a decisive factor. decisive factor. decisive factor. And at the Battle of Strasbourg, And at the Battle of Strasbourg, And at the Battle of Strasbourg, Julian had some of the best troops in Julian had some of the best troops in Julian had some of the best troops in the whole empire at his disposal. The turning point in this battle likely The turning point in this battle likely came before the first shot was even came before the first shot was even came before the first shot was even fired.

fired. fired. Always hyper-protective of the Always hyper-protective of the Always hyper-protective of the egalitarianism that they felt defined egalitarianism that they felt defined egalitarianism that they felt defined them, them, them, the German troops demanded that the German troops demanded that the German troops demanded that Chnodomar and the other chiefs dismount Chnodomar and the other chiefs dismount Chnodomar and the other chiefs dismount from their horses and fight on foot with from their horses and fight on foot with from their horses and fight on foot with everyone else. everyone else. everyone else. Bowing to public pressure, the German Bowing to public pressure, the German Bowing to public pressure, the German king complied. king complied. king complied. But in so doing, he lost his mobility But in so doing, he lost his mobility But in so doing, he lost his mobility and any sort of ability to run a and any sort of ability to run a and any sort of ability to run a coherent attack. coherent attack. coherent attack. But then again, with 35,000 fighting But then again, with 35,000 fighting But then again, with 35,000 fighting 13,000, how coherent does your attack 13,000, how coherent does your attack 13,000, how coherent does your attack really need to be? Things started out well for the Germans Things started out well for the Germans as they managed to turn back Julian's as they managed to turn back Julian's as they managed to turn back Julian's initial cavalry assault on their left initial cavalry assault on their left initial cavalry assault on their left side. side. side. Heartened by this success, the middle of Heartened by this success, the middle of Heartened by this success, the middle of the German line surged forward and the the German line surged forward and the the German line surged forward and the bloody business of raw hand-to-hand bloody business of raw hand-to-hand bloody business of raw hand-to-hand fighting commenced. fighting commenced. fighting commenced. Eventually, the sheer weight of the Eventually, the sheer weight of the Eventually, the sheer weight of the Germans took its toll and the German Germans took its toll and the German Germans took its toll and the German center was cut in two. center was cut in two. center was cut in two. Normally, this would be death to an Normally, this would be death to an Normally, this would be death to an army. But both split wings were able to army. But both split wings were able to army. But both split wings were able to maintain their order and continue maintain their order and continue maintain their order and continue fighting as two separate units.

fighting as two separate units. fighting as two separate units. Still, things looked pretty dire for Still, things looked pretty dire for Still, things looked pretty dire for Julian and his army until the Roman back Julian and his army until the Roman back Julian and his army until the Roman back reserve line stepped up to the plate. reserve line stepped up to the plate. reserve line stepped up to the plate. After the Germans cut through the front After the Germans cut through the front After the Germans cut through the front line, they ran headlong into a solid line, they ran headlong into a solid line, they ran headlong into a solid wall of highly trained veterans who wall of highly trained veterans who wall of highly trained veterans who refused to be pushed back and who refused to be pushed back and who refused to be pushed back and who refused to be split up. refused to be split up. refused to be split up. So now, rather than emerging on the far So now, rather than emerging on the far So now, rather than emerging on the far side of a victorious charge with nothing side of a victorious charge with nothing side of a victorious charge with nothing left to do but mop up the fractured left to do but mop up the fractured left to do but mop up the fractured Roman army, Roman army, Roman army, the German foot soldiers found the German foot soldiers found the German foot soldiers found themselves trapped between the solid themselves trapped between the solid themselves trapped between the solid back line and the two wings of the split back line and the two wings of the split back line and the two wings of the split front line who now hemmed them in on front line who now hemmed them in on front line who now hemmed them in on either side. either side. either side. If Julian had been able to swing some If Julian had been able to swing some If Julian had been able to swing some cavalry around behind them, this all cavalry around behind them, this all cavalry around behind them, this all would have resembled nothing so much as would have resembled nothing so much as would have resembled nothing so much as the last phase of the Battle of Cannae. the last phase of the Battle of Cannae. the last phase of the Battle of Cannae. So yeah, now things looked pretty dire So yeah, now things looked pretty dire So yeah, now things looked pretty dire for the Alamanni. for the Alamanni. for the Alamanni. Finally, frustrated and dying by the Finally, frustrated and dying by the Finally, frustrated and dying by the hundreds, the Germans lost heart and hundreds, the Germans lost heart and hundreds, the Germans lost heart and high-tailed it out of there. Julian ordered his own army in pursuit, Julian ordered his own army in pursuit, but only to a point.

but only to a point. but only to a point. He told his men that when they reached He told his men that when they reached He told his men that when they reached the Rhine, that they were not to get the Rhine, that they were not to get the Rhine, that they were not to get bogged down by climbing into the river. bogged down by climbing into the river. bogged down by climbing into the river. Instead, he ordered them to stay on the Instead, he ordered them to stay on the Instead, he ordered them to stay on the banks and just fire spears and arrows at banks and just fire spears and arrows at banks and just fire spears and arrows at the fleeing Germans. the fleeing Germans. the fleeing Germans. The estimate is that the Alamanni left The estimate is that the Alamanni left The estimate is that the Alamanni left as many dead in that river as they had as many dead in that river as they had as many dead in that river as they had on the battlefield. on the battlefield. on the battlefield. In total, 6,000 Germans died at the In total, 6,000 Germans died at the In total, 6,000 Germans died at the Battle of Strasbourg. Battle of Strasbourg. Battle of Strasbourg. The Romans, amazingly, lost only 243. The cherry on top of this great victory The cherry on top of this great victory was when Chnodomar was tracked down and was when Chnodomar was tracked down and was when Chnodomar was tracked down and brought back in chains. brought back in chains. brought back in chains. Julian dutifully sent the beaten king on Julian dutifully sent the beaten king on Julian dutifully sent the beaten king on to Milan for Constantius to gloat over. The Battle of Strasbourg cemented The Battle of Strasbourg cemented Julian's reputation as a leader to be Julian's reputation as a leader to be Julian's reputation as a leader to be reckoned with. reckoned with. reckoned with. His troops now loved him. His troops now loved him. His troops now loved him. Constantius's agents now feared him. Constantius's agents now feared him. Constantius's agents now feared him. And that little tick in the back of the And that little tick in the back of the And that little tick in the back of the emperor's mind, the one that led him to emperor's mind, the one that led him to emperor's mind, the one that led him to be super paranoid about everyone and be super paranoid about everyone and be super paranoid about everyone and everything, especially threats from everything, especially threats from everything, especially threats from within his own family, within his own family, within his own family, well, that little tick just got real well, that little tick just got real well, that little tick just got real fired up.

Next time, we'll watch all of this come Next time, we'll watch all of this come to a head as the relationship between to a head as the relationship between to a head as the relationship between Constantius and Julian will break down Constantius and Julian will break down Constantius and Julian will break down completely over an order to transfer completely over an order to transfer completely over an order to transfer Gallic troops to the east to help fight Gallic troops to the east to help fight Gallic troops to the east to help fight the resurgent Sassinids. the resurgent Sassinids. the resurgent Sassinids. Were the troops really needed? Or was Were the troops really needed? Or was Were the troops really needed? Or was this all just about undermining, there's this all just about undermining, there's this all just about undermining, there's that word again, that word again, that word again, a Caesar on the rise? a Caesar on the rise? a Caesar on the rise? I say next time because I hate to do I say next time because I hate to do I say next time because I hate to do this to you after just being gone for so this to you after just being gone for so this to you after just being gone for so long, but I'm flying back home for a long, but I'm flying back home for a long, but I'm flying back home for a week of family fun and I will have week of family fun and I will have week of family fun and I will have absolutely no time to work on the show. absolutely no time to work on the show. absolutely no time to work on the show. But, we'll be back in 2 weeks to watch But, we'll be back in 2 weeks to watch But, we'll be back in 2 weeks to watch as Julian's troops, surprisingly and as Julian's troops, surprisingly and as Julian's troops, surprisingly and without any prompting from me, I swear, without any prompting from me, I swear, without any prompting from me, I swear, declare Julian Augustus.

Hello Hello and welcome to the history of Rome. and welcome to the history of Rome. and welcome to the history of Rome. Episode 144, Episode 144, Episode 144, the road to Constantinople. Julian's first taste of what the future Julian's first taste of what the future had in store for him it came immediately had in store for him it came immediately had in store for him it came immediately after the battle of Strasbourg in 357 after the battle of Strasbourg in 357 after the battle of Strasbourg in 357 AD. AD. AD. Having just routed a German army that Having just routed a German army that Having just routed a German army that outnumbered them three to one and outnumbered them three to one and outnumbered them three to one and suffering only minimal losses while suffering only minimal losses while suffering only minimal losses while doing it, doing it, doing it, the Roman soldiers under Julian's the Roman soldiers under Julian's the Roman soldiers under Julian's command were understandably exuberant. command were understandably exuberant. command were understandably exuberant. So exuberant that when Julian emerged to So exuberant that when Julian emerged to So exuberant that when Julian emerged to address them following the battle, the address them following the battle, the address them following the battle, the troops spontaneously hailed him as troops spontaneously hailed him as troops spontaneously hailed him as Augustus. Augustus. Augustus. This seditious offer hung in the air for This seditious offer hung in the air for This seditious offer hung in the air for a heartbeat before the 25-year-old a heartbeat before the 25-year-old a heartbeat before the 25-year-old Julian swatted it down harshly. Julian swatted it down harshly. Julian swatted it down harshly. "My cousin Constantius is Augustus." he "My cousin Constantius is Augustus." he "My cousin Constantius is Augustus." he told them, "and I will not under any told them, "and I will not under any told them, "and I will not under any circumstances allow you to elevate me in circumstances allow you to elevate me in circumstances allow you to elevate me in opposition to him." opposition to him." opposition to him." This closed the matter for the moment, This closed the matter for the moment, This closed the matter for the moment, but after another two and a half years but after another two and a half years but after another two and a half years of rising tensions between Julian and of rising tensions between Julian and of rising tensions between Julian and Constantius, the young Caesar would Constantius, the young Caesar would Constantius, the young Caesar would eventually change his mind and allow his eventually change his mind and allow his eventually change his mind and allow his army to give him what they wanted to army to give him what they wanted to army to give him what they wanted to give him.

That said, Julian's actions following That said, Julian's actions following the victory at Strasbourg went a long the victory at Strasbourg went a long the victory at Strasbourg went a long way towards convincing the troops that way towards convincing the troops that way towards convincing the troops that maybe attempting to elevate their Caesar maybe attempting to elevate their Caesar maybe attempting to elevate their Caesar had actually been a bad idea. had actually been a bad idea. had actually been a bad idea. Sitting right on the line between fall Sitting right on the line between fall Sitting right on the line between fall and winter 357, the Roman soldiers and winter 357, the Roman soldiers and winter 357, the Roman soldiers assumed that feather in cap, Julian assumed that feather in cap, Julian assumed that feather in cap, Julian would order them to a well-deserved would order them to a well-deserved would order them to a well-deserved winter's rest. winter's rest. winter's rest. But the young general decided instead But the young general decided instead But the young general decided instead that now was the best time to drive the that now was the best time to drive the that now was the best time to drive the Germans into the ground. So, he ordered Germans into the ground. So, he ordered Germans into the ground. So, he ordered his army across the Rhine. his army across the Rhine. his army across the Rhine. The troops were incredulous. The troops were incredulous. The troops were incredulous. Are you kidding? We just beat a horde of Are you kidding? We just beat a horde of Are you kidding? We just beat a horde of barbarians in a battle that by all barbarians in a battle that by all barbarians in a battle that by all accounts we should have lost, and now accounts we should have lost, and now accounts we should have lost, and now you want us to invade Germany in the you want us to invade Germany in the you want us to invade Germany in the middle of winter. middle of winter. middle of winter. You must be kidding. He's kidding, You must be kidding. He's kidding, You must be kidding. He's kidding, right? right? right? But Julian was not kidding, and so over But Julian was not kidding, and so over But Julian was not kidding, and so over the Rhine the legions went. Julian spent the next few months Julian spent the next few months attacking Alamanni settlements and attacking Alamanni settlements and attacking Alamanni settlements and generally running amok. generally running amok. generally running amok. The Germans were just as surprised to The Germans were just as surprised to The Germans were just as surprised to see the Roman soldiers coming as the see the Roman soldiers coming as the see the Roman soldiers coming as the Roman soldiers were to be coming, and Roman soldiers were to be coming, and Roman soldiers were to be coming, and they scattered hastily in the face of they scattered hastily in the face of they scattered hastily in the face of these unexpected assaults.

these unexpected assaults. these unexpected assaults. Though the winter campaign made Julian Though the winter campaign made Julian Though the winter campaign made Julian supremely unpopular, strategically it supremely unpopular, strategically it supremely unpopular, strategically it was a complete success. was a complete success. was a complete success. Three of the six German chiefs who had Three of the six German chiefs who had Three of the six German chiefs who had fought against him at Strasbourg were fought against him at Strasbourg were fought against him at Strasbourg were hunted down and forced to submit to hunted down and forced to submit to hunted down and forced to submit to Roman authority. Roman authority. Roman authority. In the middle of January, and satisfied In the middle of January, and satisfied In the middle of January, and satisfied that he had made substantial gains in that he had made substantial gains in that he had made substantial gains in the never-ending war for control of the the never-ending war for control of the the never-ending war for control of the Rhine River, Julian finally ordered his Rhine River, Julian finally ordered his Rhine River, Julian finally ordered his army back to Gaul. army back to Gaul. army back to Gaul. Dispersing his men around the province, Dispersing his men around the province, Dispersing his men around the province, Julian himself settled into the city of Julian himself settled into the city of Julian himself settled into the city of Lutetia, which by that point may already Lutetia, which by that point may already Lutetia, which by that point may already have been known by the name that we know have been known by the name that we know have been known by the name that we know it today. it today. it today. Paris. While wintering in Paris, Julian turned While wintering in Paris, Julian turned his attention to civil affairs, even his attention to civil affairs, even his attention to civil affairs, even though strictly speaking they were though strictly speaking they were though strictly speaking they were outside of his jurisdiction. outside of his jurisdiction. outside of his jurisdiction. Despite the fact that he held imperial Despite the fact that he held imperial Despite the fact that he held imperial office as Caesar, Julian was technically office as Caesar, Julian was technically office as Caesar, Julian was technically only authorized to address the military only authorized to address the military only authorized to address the military defense of his provinces. defense of his provinces. defense of his provinces. This followed from the precedent This followed from the precedent This followed from the precedent established by Diocletian separating established by Diocletian separating established by Diocletian separating military from civilian power, military from civilian power, military from civilian power, and it meant that while Julian was in and it meant that while Julian was in and it meant that while Julian was in Gaul, there was another center of Gaul, there was another center of Gaul, there was another center of political gravity.

political gravity. political gravity. The Praetorian Prefect, Florentius. The Praetorian Prefect, Florentius. The Praetorian Prefect, Florentius. Florentius was not a bad administrator, Florentius was not a bad administrator, Florentius was not a bad administrator, but like the other senior officials in but like the other senior officials in but like the other senior officials in Gaul, he resented the arrival of the Gaul, he resented the arrival of the Gaul, he resented the arrival of the thoroughly self-confident Julian. thoroughly self-confident Julian. thoroughly self-confident Julian. Especially when Julian began sticking Especially when Julian began sticking Especially when Julian began sticking his nose in where it did not belong. his nose in where it did not belong. his nose in where it did not belong. After 2 years of uneasy power sharing, After 2 years of uneasy power sharing, After 2 years of uneasy power sharing, the two men finally came to blows over the two men finally came to blows over the two men finally came to blows over the issue of provincial taxation. the issue of provincial taxation. the issue of provincial taxation. Both agreed that it was in everyone's Both agreed that it was in everyone's Both agreed that it was in everyone's best interest to initiate a rebuilding best interest to initiate a rebuilding best interest to initiate a rebuilding effort across Gaul for the benefit of effort across Gaul for the benefit of effort across Gaul for the benefit of the civilian population. the civilian population. the civilian population. Both also agreed that, unfortunately, Both also agreed that, unfortunately, Both also agreed that, unfortunately, the current tax receipts were not going the current tax receipts were not going the current tax receipts were not going to cover the effort. So, more revenue to cover the effort. So, more revenue to cover the effort. So, more revenue was needed. was needed. was needed. Florentius wanted to simply throw out a Florentius wanted to simply throw out a Florentius wanted to simply throw out a supplemental tax to raise the necessary supplemental tax to raise the necessary supplemental tax to raise the necessary funds. funds. funds. But Julian dug a little deeper into the But Julian dug a little deeper into the But Julian dug a little deeper into the issue and came away convinced that what issue and came away convinced that what issue and came away convinced that what they really needed to do was cut taxes. This counterintuitive idea sprang from This counterintuitive idea sprang from two basic facts.

two basic facts. two basic facts. First, the people who would be hardest First, the people who would be hardest First, the people who would be hardest hit by the supplemental tax had already hit by the supplemental tax had already hit by the supplemental tax had already paid everything that they could afford paid everything that they could afford paid everything that they could afford that year. that year. that year. There was no wool left to be sheared. There was no wool left to be sheared. There was no wool left to be sheared. Second, the real problem was not that Second, the real problem was not that Second, the real problem was not that the tax rate wasn't high enough, it was the tax rate wasn't high enough, it was the tax rate wasn't high enough, it was that the taxes weren't being collected that the taxes weren't being collected that the taxes weren't being collected properly. properly. properly. For years, the wealthy landowners of For years, the wealthy landowners of For years, the wealthy landowners of Gaul had been hiding inside of a Gaul had been hiding inside of a Gaul had been hiding inside of a loophole. loophole. loophole. Every so often, as a sign of goodwill or Every so often, as a sign of goodwill or Every so often, as a sign of goodwill or to celebrate something or another, the to celebrate something or another, the to celebrate something or another, the government would issue a proclamation government would issue a proclamation government would issue a proclamation canceling out unpaid debts to the state. canceling out unpaid debts to the state. canceling out unpaid debts to the state. So, the rich men of Gaul simply stopped So, the rich men of Gaul simply stopped So, the rich men of Gaul simply stopped paying their taxes altogether. paying their taxes altogether. paying their taxes altogether. If government officials got pushy, a If government officials got pushy, a If government officials got pushy, a helpful bribe would help turn their helpful bribe would help turn their helpful bribe would help turn their heads until, inevitably, a proclamation heads until, inevitably, a proclamation heads until, inevitably, a proclamation canceling all old debts would be canceling all old debts would be canceling all old debts would be announced and everyone was dropped back announced and everyone was dropped back announced and everyone was dropped back down to zero. down to zero. down to zero. The poor and middle classes couldn't The poor and middle classes couldn't The poor and middle classes couldn't afford to pay off the officials, so they afford to pay off the officials, so they afford to pay off the officials, so they were left to cover the expenses of the were left to cover the expenses of the were left to cover the expenses of the whole provincial administration. whole provincial administration. whole provincial administration. Florentius' supplemental tax would Florentius' supplemental tax would Florentius' supplemental tax would simply hit these classes up for more simply hit these classes up for more simply hit these classes up for more cash, and it was obvious to anyone who cash, and it was obvious to anyone who cash, and it was obvious to anyone who cared to pay attention that they really cared to pay attention that they really cared to pay attention that they really didn't have any more cash to give.

didn't have any more cash to give. didn't have any more cash to give. So, Julian proposed simply cutting taxes So, Julian proposed simply cutting taxes So, Julian proposed simply cutting taxes across the board, and then actually, you across the board, and then actually, you across the board, and then actually, you know, collecting what everyone owed. know, collecting what everyone owed. know, collecting what everyone owed. This would lead to greater prosperity This would lead to greater prosperity This would lead to greater prosperity and more tax revenue for the government. and more tax revenue for the government. and more tax revenue for the government. Q.E.D. Q.E.D. Q.E.D. Florentius was annoyed that Julian was Florentius was annoyed that Julian was Florentius was annoyed that Julian was even involved with the issue, and really even involved with the issue, and really even involved with the issue, and really annoyed that Julian was trying to annoyed that Julian was trying to annoyed that Julian was trying to contradict him, and so he immediately contradict him, and so he immediately contradict him, and so he immediately wrote to Constantius complaining about wrote to Constantius complaining about wrote to Constantius complaining about the Caesar's conduct. the Caesar's conduct. the Caesar's conduct. But though Florentius was the emperor's But though Florentius was the emperor's But though Florentius was the emperor's picked man, Constantius decided in this picked man, Constantius decided in this picked man, Constantius decided in this case to side with Julian. case to side with Julian. case to side with Julian. Taxes were reduced in Gaul by something Taxes were reduced in Gaul by something Taxes were reduced in Gaul by something like 2/3, and officials stopped allowing like 2/3, and officials stopped allowing like 2/3, and officials stopped allowing the wealthy to defer their payments. the wealthy to defer their payments. the wealthy to defer their payments. The result was a double boon. The lower The result was a double boon. The lower The result was a double boon. The lower classes thrived because they had less classes thrived because they had less classes thrived because they had less taxes to pay, and tax revenues increased taxes to pay, and tax revenues increased taxes to pay, and tax revenues increased because the rich were paying their fair because the rich were paying their fair because the rich were paying their fair share. share. share. Not a bad day's policy making. Not a bad day's policy making. Not a bad day's policy making. The success of Julian's proposal was not The success of Julian's proposal was not The success of Julian's proposal was not enough to endear him to Florentius, enough to endear him to Florentius, enough to endear him to Florentius, though, especially because as the summer though, especially because as the summer though, especially because as the summer of 358 arrived, Julian ran another of of 358 arrived, Julian ran another of of 358 arrived, Julian ran another of the prefect's policies off the rails.

Since the revolt of Magnentius, the Since the revolt of Magnentius, the Franks had incrementally increased their Franks had incrementally increased their Franks had incrementally increased their power along the northern coast of Gaul, power along the northern coast of Gaul, power along the northern coast of Gaul, until by this point, they basically until by this point, they basically until by this point, they basically controlled the English Channel. controlled the English Channel. controlled the English Channel. This was, of course, a serious strategic This was, of course, a serious strategic This was, of course, a serious strategic issue for the Romans, as it meant that issue for the Romans, as it meant that issue for the Romans, as it meant that supply lines from Britannia were not at supply lines from Britannia were not at supply lines from Britannia were not at all secure, all secure, all secure, which is why Julian had to rely on which is why Julian had to rely on which is why Julian had to rely on shipments from the south to feed his shipments from the south to feed his shipments from the south to feed his army in the the army in the the army in the the Florentius' proposal was to just pay the Florentius' proposal was to just pay the Florentius' proposal was to just pay the Franks not to attack Roman ships. Franks not to attack Roman ships. Franks not to attack Roman ships. This straightforward business This straightforward business This straightforward business proposition won Constantius's blessing, proposition won Constantius's blessing, proposition won Constantius's blessing, but not without a caveat. but not without a caveat. but not without a caveat. The emperor wrote to Julian and told the The emperor wrote to Julian and told the The emperor wrote to Julian and told the young Caesar to go along with the plan young Caesar to go along with the plan young Caesar to go along with the plan unless he found it, quote, "absolutely unless he found it, quote, "absolutely unless he found it, quote, "absolutely disgraceful." disgraceful." disgraceful." And to Julian, that's exactly what it And to Julian, that's exactly what it And to Julian, that's exactly what it was. was. was. Without waiting or consulting with Without waiting or consulting with Without waiting or consulting with anyone, he lined up his troops and anyone, he lined up his troops and anyone, he lined up his troops and marched them north intent on smashing marched them north intent on smashing marched them north intent on smashing the Franks and freeing up the grain the Franks and freeing up the grain the Franks and freeing up the grain supply from Britain. supply from Britain. supply from Britain. It was a risky strategy, especially It was a risky strategy, especially It was a risky strategy, especially since feeding his army depended entirely since feeding his army depended entirely since feeding his army depended entirely on freeing up those supply lines.

on freeing up those supply lines. on freeing up those supply lines. But, fortune favored his boldness and But, fortune favored his boldness and But, fortune favored his boldness and after a few weeks on campaign, the after a few weeks on campaign, the after a few weeks on campaign, the Franks were brought to heel. Franks were brought to heel. Franks were brought to heel. Much to Julian's delight and Much to Julian's delight and Much to Julian's delight and Florentius's chagrin. At the end of the successful operation, At the end of the successful operation, though, Julian's standing with his men though, Julian's standing with his men though, Julian's standing with his men once again took a nose dive when they once again took a nose dive when they once again took a nose dive when they noticed that in his hurry to get the noticed that in his hurry to get the noticed that in his hurry to get the campaign going, all the supplies they campaign going, all the supplies they campaign going, all the supplies they had were the supplies they had on their had were the supplies they had on their had were the supplies they had on their back. back. back. When Julian began to order these When Julian began to order these When Julian began to order these supplies dispersed to the string of supplies dispersed to the string of supplies dispersed to the string of forts he was building to help keep the forts he was building to help keep the forts he was building to help keep the area secure, area secure, area secure, his men started to get very angry very his men started to get very angry very his men started to get very angry very quickly. quickly. quickly. At first, Julian thought the grumbling At first, Julian thought the grumbling At first, Julian thought the grumbling was just more grumbling. was just more grumbling. was just more grumbling. But, a hungry army is a dangerous army. But, a hungry army is a dangerous army. But, a hungry army is a dangerous army. And the Caesar was forced to offer a And the Caesar was forced to offer a And the Caesar was forced to offer a naked bribe to get the men back in line naked bribe to get the men back in line naked bribe to get the men back in line as they waited for a relief shipment of as they waited for a relief shipment of as they waited for a relief shipment of grain. grain. grain. His troops mollified, Julian ordered the His troops mollified, Julian ordered the His troops mollified, Julian ordered the army across the Rhine for a second time. army across the Rhine for a second time. army across the Rhine for a second time. And over the course of the rest of the And over the course of the rest of the And over the course of the rest of the year, he tracked down two more of the year, he tracked down two more of the year, he tracked down two more of the chiefs who had fought him at Strasbourg chiefs who had fought him at Strasbourg chiefs who had fought him at Strasbourg and forced them, too, to sign a and forced them, too, to sign a and forced them, too, to sign a non-aggression treaty.

non-aggression treaty. non-aggression treaty. As the winter 358 approached, Julian was As the winter 358 approached, Julian was As the winter 358 approached, Julian was able to survey his province with able to survey his province with able to survey his province with satisfaction. satisfaction. satisfaction. Despite the fact that he had been either Despite the fact that he had been either Despite the fact that he had been either subtly undermined or outright opposed by subtly undermined or outright opposed by subtly undermined or outright opposed by most of the senior officials in Gaul. most of the senior officials in Gaul. most of the senior officials in Gaul. The young Caesar had succeeded in The young Caesar had succeeded in The young Caesar had succeeded in stabilizing the Rhine frontier, securing stabilizing the Rhine frontier, securing stabilizing the Rhine frontier, securing control of the English Channel, and control of the English Channel, and control of the English Channel, and generally seeing to it that the citizens generally seeing to it that the citizens generally seeing to it that the citizens of Gaul could prosper once again. It was right around this point, of It was right around this point, of course, that his relations with course, that his relations with course, that his relations with Constantius began to fray. Constantius began to fray. Constantius began to fray. Nothing spells imperial paranoia like Nothing spells imperial paranoia like Nothing spells imperial paranoia like the popular success of an underling, the popular success of an underling, the popular success of an underling, and as Julian's reputation grew, so too and as Julian's reputation grew, so too and as Julian's reputation grew, so too did the scheming of Constantius' court. Just to set the stage for what's coming Just to set the stage for what's coming next, though, we should note that the next, though, we should note that the next, though, we should note that the rising imperial tensions did not occur rising imperial tensions did not occur rising imperial tensions did not occur in a vacuum. in a vacuum. in a vacuum. While Julian was off subduing Gaul, While Julian was off subduing Gaul, While Julian was off subduing Gaul, Constantius stayed mostly in Milan, Constantius stayed mostly in Milan, Constantius stayed mostly in Milan, popping over to the Danube frontier as popping over to the Danube frontier as popping over to the Danube frontier as need be, and once, get this, even paying need be, and once, get this, even paying need be, and once, get this, even paying a visit to Rome, the first such visit of a visit to Rome, the first such visit of a visit to Rome, the first such visit of his life.

his life. his life. In 357, though, a troubling embassy In 357, though, a troubling embassy In 357, though, a troubling embassy arrived from the East. arrived from the East. arrived from the East. Agents of the Sassanid King Shapur had Agents of the Sassanid King Shapur had Agents of the Sassanid King Shapur had come to demand that Constantius return come to demand that Constantius return come to demand that Constantius return all territory ceded to the Romans by the all territory ceded to the Romans by the all territory ceded to the Romans by the Treaty of Nisibis some 60 years earlier. Treaty of Nisibis some 60 years earlier. Treaty of Nisibis some 60 years earlier. The emperor had no intention of coming The emperor had no intention of coming The emperor had no intention of coming anywhere close to agreeing to the anywhere close to agreeing to the anywhere close to agreeing to the ambassador's demands, and he sent them ambassador's demands, and he sent them ambassador's demands, and he sent them packing with a firm no. packing with a firm no. packing with a firm no. That being said, the fact that Shapur That being said, the fact that Shapur That being said, the fact that Shapur had even asked meant that the Persian had even asked meant that the Persian had even asked meant that the Persian king had likely secured his northern king had likely secured his northern king had likely secured his northern border and was now turning his attention border and was now turning his attention border and was now turning his attention back to his western border. back to his western border. back to his western border. So, Constantius sent an embassy of his So, Constantius sent an embassy of his So, Constantius sent an embassy of his own back to Shapur, trying to arrange a own back to Shapur, trying to arrange a own back to Shapur, trying to arrange a peace that did not require Rome to just peace that did not require Rome to just peace that did not require Rome to just utterly capitulate. utterly capitulate. utterly capitulate. This time, it was Shapur's turn to send This time, it was Shapur's turn to send This time, it was Shapur's turn to send the embassy packing with a firm no. the embassy packing with a firm no. the embassy packing with a firm no. War was looming once again. As the spring of 359 arrived, then, As the spring of 359 arrived, then, there were two ways that Constantius there were two ways that Constantius there were two ways that Constantius could look at the success of his younger could look at the success of his younger could look at the success of his younger cousin in Gaul.

cousin in Gaul. cousin in Gaul. He could either be happy that the West He could either be happy that the West He could either be happy that the West seemed locked down right at the moment seemed locked down right at the moment seemed locked down right at the moment when the East was about to blow up, when the East was about to blow up, when the East was about to blow up, or he could be unnerved by the fact that or he could be unnerved by the fact that or he could be unnerved by the fact that just as he was about to be dragged off just as he was about to be dragged off just as he was about to be dragged off to fight a war in the East, his younger to fight a war in the East, his younger to fight a war in the East, his younger cousin was becoming immensely popular in cousin was becoming immensely popular in cousin was becoming immensely popular in the West. the West. the West. With Constantius off fighting, how long With Constantius off fighting, how long With Constantius off fighting, how long would it be until Julian made a grab for would it be until Julian made a grab for would it be until Julian made a grab for power? Unfortunately for everyone, the one Unfortunately for everyone, the one person who would act as a check on person who would act as a check on person who would act as a check on Constantius' paranoia was his wife Constantius' paranoia was his wife Constantius' paranoia was his wife Eusebia, and she was now dead. Eusebia, and she was now dead. Eusebia, and she was now dead. The Augusta had always liked Julian and The Augusta had always liked Julian and The Augusta had always liked Julian and defended the young Caesar whenever the defended the young Caesar whenever the defended the young Caesar whenever the emperor's advisers ran the boy down. emperor's advisers ran the boy down. emperor's advisers ran the boy down. Now that she was dead, everywhere Now that she was dead, everywhere Now that she was dead, everywhere Constantius turned, men were telling him Constantius turned, men were telling him Constantius turned, men were telling him that Julian was a threat, and so the that Julian was a threat, and so the that Julian was a threat, and so the emperor naturally came to believe that emperor naturally came to believe that emperor naturally came to believe that Julian was indeed now a threat. While he was growing more and more While he was growing more and more paranoid about his Caesar, Constantius paranoid about his Caesar, Constantius paranoid about his Caesar, Constantius was knocked sideways by word that in the was knocked sideways by word that in the was knocked sideways by word that in the East, Shapur had begun a siege of the East, Shapur had begun a siege of the East, Shapur had begun a siege of the key fortress city of Amida.

key fortress city of Amida. key fortress city of Amida. The emperor dashed East, but along the The emperor dashed East, but along the The emperor dashed East, but along the way learned that after 73 days, Amida way learned that after 73 days, Amida way learned that after 73 days, Amida had fallen. had fallen. had fallen. And with it had gone six legions. And with it had gone six legions. And with it had gone six legions. Upon reaching the East, Constantius Upon reaching the East, Constantius Upon reaching the East, Constantius discovered the extent of the damage done discovered the extent of the damage done discovered the extent of the damage done by Shapur and realized quickly that he by Shapur and realized quickly that he by Shapur and realized quickly that he did not have enough local manpower to did not have enough local manpower to did not have enough local manpower to properly defend the border. properly defend the border. properly defend the border. So in January of 360, he sent a fateful So in January of 360, he sent a fateful So in January of 360, he sent a fateful letter to Julian. letter to Julian. letter to Julian. A letter that would initiate the final A letter that would initiate the final A letter that would initiate the final break between the two men. break between the two men. break between the two men. Since Gaul was now relatively peaceful Since Gaul was now relatively peaceful Since Gaul was now relatively peaceful and things were falling apart in Syria, and things were falling apart in Syria, and things were falling apart in Syria, Constantius ordered almost half of Constantius ordered almost half of Constantius ordered almost half of Julian's Gallic army to march at once to Julian's Gallic army to march at once to Julian's Gallic army to march at once to Syria to help shore up the Eastern Syria to help shore up the Eastern Syria to help shore up the Eastern front. Given the circumstances, the order is Given the circumstances, the order is understandable. But to Julian and his understandable. But to Julian and his understandable. But to Julian and his officers, the true reason for the troop officers, the true reason for the troop officers, the true reason for the troop redeployment was as plain as day. redeployment was as plain as day. redeployment was as plain as day. Julian had gotten too powerful, and Julian had gotten too powerful, and Julian had gotten too powerful, and Constantius was attempting to neuter Constantius was attempting to neuter Constantius was attempting to neuter him. him. him. Neither Julian nor his men knew the full Neither Julian nor his men knew the full Neither Julian nor his men knew the full extent of the disaster unfolding in the extent of the disaster unfolding in the extent of the disaster unfolding in the Far East. And after a year in which Far East. And after a year in which Far East. And after a year in which relations between emperor and Caesar had relations between emperor and Caesar had relations between emperor and Caesar had become more and more strained, it was become more and more strained, it was become more and more strained, it was easy for them to jump to the conclusion easy for them to jump to the conclusion easy for them to jump to the conclusion that something sinister was a foot.

that something sinister was a foot. that something sinister was a foot. Now, I'm not willing to give Constantius Now, I'm not willing to give Constantius Now, I'm not willing to give Constantius a complete pass in all this. a complete pass in all this. a complete pass in all this. Of all the provinces in the empire, he Of all the provinces in the empire, he Of all the provinces in the empire, he just so happened to demand just so happened to demand just so happened to demand reinforcements from the one province reinforcements from the one province reinforcements from the one province where the troops were uniformly loyal to where the troops were uniformly loyal to where the troops were uniformly loyal to Julian. Julian. Julian. That really does smell like something. That really does smell like something. That really does smell like something. But I think that at the end of the day, But I think that at the end of the day, But I think that at the end of the day, Julian wound up revolting over a fairly Julian wound up revolting over a fairly Julian wound up revolting over a fairly rational military decision. rational military decision. rational military decision. It was probably a non-issue blown way It was probably a non-issue blown way It was probably a non-issue blown way out of proportion. That said, it certainly was not a That said, it certainly was not a non-issue to the men of the Gallic non-issue to the men of the Gallic non-issue to the men of the Gallic legions. legions. legions. Especially since Julian had specifically Especially since Julian had specifically Especially since Julian had specifically promised them that they would never have promised them that they would never have promised them that they would never have to serve beyond the Alps. to serve beyond the Alps. to serve beyond the Alps. The army of the late empire was a far The army of the late empire was a far The army of the late empire was a far more settled force than in previous more settled force than in previous more settled force than in previous ages, and all of these men had wives and ages, and all of these men had wives and ages, and all of these men had wives and children and land and interests in Gaul. children and land and interests in Gaul. children and land and interests in Gaul. And they were happy to fight to protect And they were happy to fight to protect And they were happy to fight to protect all of that. But they had no interest in all of that. But they had no interest in all of that. But they had no interest in being uprooted to go fight in some being uprooted to go fight in some being uprooted to go fight in some far-off desert.

far-off desert. far-off desert. When news of the order leaked, the When news of the order leaked, the When news of the order leaked, the soldiers stationed in Paris for the soldiers stationed in Paris for the soldiers stationed in Paris for the winter immediately demanded to know what winter immediately demanded to know what winter immediately demanded to know what Julian was going to do about it. Because Julian was going to do about it. Because Julian was going to do about it. Because we are not going to go out and fight we are not going to go out and fight we are not going to go out and fight Persians. Persians. Persians. The situation began to quickly spiral The situation began to quickly spiral The situation began to quickly spiral out of control as other garrisons heard out of control as other garrisons heard out of control as other garrisons heard the news and began to agitate. the news and began to agitate. the news and began to agitate. Julian finally decided that he needed to Julian finally decided that he needed to Julian finally decided that he needed to meet this head-on. So, he circulated an meet this head-on. So, he circulated an meet this head-on. So, he circulated an order for all the troops to leave their order for all the troops to leave their order for all the troops to leave their quarters and come to Paris so he could quarters and come to Paris so he could quarters and come to Paris so he could address the issue directly. address the issue directly. address the issue directly. As each garrison arrived, Julian went As each garrison arrived, Julian went As each garrison arrived, Julian went out to greet them and attempted to win out to greet them and attempted to win out to greet them and attempted to win them over with promises of glory and them over with promises of glory and them over with promises of glory and appeals to their patriotic spirit. But, appeals to their patriotic spirit. But, appeals to their patriotic spirit. But, yeah, not so much. yeah, not so much. yeah, not so much. He then attempted a compromise, He then attempted a compromise, He then attempted a compromise, announcing that the soldiers would be announcing that the soldiers would be announcing that the soldiers would be allowed to bring their families along if allowed to bring their families along if allowed to bring their families along if they so desired. they so desired. they so desired. This kind of addressed their concerns, This kind of addressed their concerns, This kind of addressed their concerns, but not really. but not really. but not really. Really, they just really didn't want to Really, they just really didn't want to Really, they just really didn't want to go. go. go. So, then pamphlets began circulating and So, then pamphlets began circulating and So, then pamphlets began circulating and rabble-rousers became more brazen.

rabble-rousers became more brazen. rabble-rousers became more brazen. Things were getting ugly and a Things were getting ugly and a Things were getting ugly and a full-blown mutiny looked like it was full-blown mutiny looked like it was full-blown mutiny looked like it was right around the corner. right around the corner. right around the corner. The other senior officials in Gaul The other senior officials in Gaul The other senior officials in Gaul recognized the powder keg Julian was recognized the powder keg Julian was recognized the powder keg Julian was sitting on and most, for either personal sitting on and most, for either personal sitting on and most, for either personal or professional reasons, decided that or professional reasons, decided that or professional reasons, decided that the very best thing they could do was the very best thing they could do was the very best thing they could do was stay the hell out of Paris for a while. stay the hell out of Paris for a while. stay the hell out of Paris for a while. So, for example, So, for example, So, for example, when Julian wrote to Florentius and when Julian wrote to Florentius and when Julian wrote to Florentius and requested the prefect come to Paris to requested the prefect come to Paris to requested the prefect come to Paris to help him broker a solution, Florentius help him broker a solution, Florentius help him broker a solution, Florentius alternatively ignored the letters or alternatively ignored the letters or alternatively ignored the letters or invented paper-thin excuses to remain invented paper-thin excuses to remain invented paper-thin excuses to remain where he was. where he was. where he was. There was no love lost between the two There was no love lost between the two There was no love lost between the two men and it looked like Julian was about men and it looked like Julian was about men and it looked like Julian was about to be consumed by a furious army. to be consumed by a furious army. to be consumed by a furious army. Why in the world would Florentius want Why in the world would Florentius want Why in the world would Florentius want to get in the way of such a delicious to get in the way of such a delicious to get in the way of such a delicious ending to this annoying story? ending to this annoying story? ending to this annoying story? But, Julian was not going to go down But, Julian was not going to go down But, Julian was not going to go down that easy. that easy. that easy. As I just mentioned, the assumption As I just mentioned, the assumption As I just mentioned, the assumption within his inner circle was that the within his inner circle was that the within his inner circle was that the redeployment order was all about redeployment order was all about redeployment order was all about Constantius taking Julian out at the Constantius taking Julian out at the Constantius taking Julian out at the knees because the emperor was paranoid knees because the emperor was paranoid knees because the emperor was paranoid and jealous of his younger cousin.

and jealous of his younger cousin. and jealous of his younger cousin. So, Julian was reminded that there was So, Julian was reminded that there was So, Julian was reminded that there was one solution to this problem that he one solution to this problem that he one solution to this problem that he really ought to consider. really ought to consider. really ought to consider. And in fact, the way things were going, And in fact, the way things were going, And in fact, the way things were going, it was really the only solution on the it was really the only solution on the it was really the only solution on the table if he wanted to keep his head. table if he wanted to keep his head. table if he wanted to keep his head. It was time to play the trump card. So, one night in February, Julian and So, one night in February, Julian and his inner circle got together for dinner his inner circle got together for dinner his inner circle got together for dinner and discussed how best to play this and discussed how best to play this and discussed how best to play this trump card. trump card. trump card. Of course, in Julian's later telling, Of course, in Julian's later telling, Of course, in Julian's later telling, everything that's about to happen was everything that's about to happen was everything that's about to happen was totally spontaneous and he was taken totally spontaneous and he was taken totally spontaneous and he was taken completely by surprise. completely by surprise. completely by surprise. But really, as you know by now, that's But really, as you know by now, that's But really, as you know by now, that's not really the way these things work. not really the way these things work. not really the way these things work. A few hours after the dinner broke up A few hours after the dinner broke up A few hours after the dinner broke up then, Julian was taken completely by then, Julian was taken completely by then, Julian was taken completely by surprise as the soldiers spontaneously surprise as the soldiers spontaneously surprise as the soldiers spontaneously surrounded his quarters and hailed him surrounded his quarters and hailed him surrounded his quarters and hailed him as Augustus. as Augustus. as Augustus. But Julian did not immediately appear But Julian did not immediately appear But Julian did not immediately appear and instead let the word go round of and instead let the word go round of and instead let the word go round of what was happening at the Imperial what was happening at the Imperial what was happening at the Imperial residence.

residence. residence. The next morning though, with the troops The next morning though, with the troops The next morning though, with the troops assembled and expectant, Julian stepped assembled and expectant, Julian stepped assembled and expectant, Julian stepped up onto the platform and announced that up onto the platform and announced that up onto the platform and announced that he could not in good conscience abide by he could not in good conscience abide by he could not in good conscience abide by Constantius' order. Constantius' order. Constantius' order. He would accept their acclamation, He would accept their acclamation, He would accept their acclamation, become Augustus, and fight for them if become Augustus, and fight for them if become Augustus, and fight for them if they would fight for him. they would fight for him. they would fight for him. The cheers were immediate and prolonged. The cheers were immediate and prolonged. The cheers were immediate and prolonged. Julian was hoisted up on a shield and Julian was hoisted up on a shield and Julian was hoisted up on a shield and carried about triumphantly. carried about triumphantly. carried about triumphantly. The revolt had begun. But Julian planned to play this thing But Julian planned to play this thing carefully. carefully. carefully. He wrote a letter to Constantius He wrote a letter to Constantius He wrote a letter to Constantius explaining what had happened, that it explaining what had happened, that it explaining what had happened, that it was all outside of his control, was all outside of his control, was all outside of his control, and he even offered a compromise whereby and he even offered a compromise whereby and he even offered a compromise whereby Julian would reinforce the East with Julian would reinforce the East with Julian would reinforce the East with troops from Hispania. troops from Hispania. troops from Hispania. He even signed the letter Caesar so as He even signed the letter Caesar so as He even signed the letter Caesar so as to avoid offending the emperor to avoid offending the emperor to avoid offending the emperor unnecessarily. unnecessarily. unnecessarily. But when Constantius received the But when Constantius received the But when Constantius received the message, this small gesture was lost message, this small gesture was lost message, this small gesture was lost amidst the furious raging. amidst the furious raging. amidst the furious raging. As with the revolt of Magnentius though, As with the revolt of Magnentius though, As with the revolt of Magnentius though, Constantius was locked down against the Constantius was locked down against the Constantius was locked down against the Sassinids, and he refused to abandon the Sassinids, and he refused to abandon the Sassinids, and he refused to abandon the East just to go deal with his treasonous East just to go deal with his treasonous East just to go deal with his treasonous Caesar.

Caesar. Caesar. Again, as with the revolt of Magnentius, Again, as with the revolt of Magnentius, Again, as with the revolt of Magnentius, this is, I think, to Constantius's this is, I think, to Constantius's this is, I think, to Constantius's credit. credit. credit. All he could do then was send a sharp All he could do then was send a sharp All he could do then was send a sharp reply denouncing the actions of Julian reply denouncing the actions of Julian reply denouncing the actions of Julian and the Gallic army. and the Gallic army. and the Gallic army. But when Julian read that letter But when Julian read that letter But when Julian read that letter publicly, the imperial minister who had publicly, the imperial minister who had publicly, the imperial minister who had delivered it was forced to high tail it delivered it was forced to high tail it delivered it was forced to high tail it out of Paris at top speed, fearing for out of Paris at top speed, fearing for out of Paris at top speed, fearing for his life. The rest of 360 then passed with letters The rest of 360 then passed with letters flying back and forth between the two flying back and forth between the two flying back and forth between the two now rival Augusti. now rival Augusti. now rival Augusti. Neither was looking for war. Neither was looking for war. Neither was looking for war. Julian because he was actually in a Julian because he was actually in a Julian because he was actually in a pretty weak position, pretty weak position, pretty weak position, and Constantius because of Shapur's and Constantius because of Shapur's and Constantius because of Shapur's continued belligerency. continued belligerency. continued belligerency. But neither would either back down. But neither would either back down. But neither would either back down. Julian asserted his independence, and Julian asserted his independence, and Julian asserted his independence, and Constantius denied it. Constantius denied it. Constantius denied it. So, whether they wanted it or not, So, whether they wanted it or not, So, whether they wanted it or not, eventually, war was going to come. So, while the letters flew, both So, while the letters flew, both prepared.

prepared. prepared. Julian secured the support of the Julian secured the support of the Julian secured the support of the British legions, and then spent the year British legions, and then spent the year British legions, and then spent the year campaigning against the Germans to campaigning against the Germans to campaigning against the Germans to ensure that they would remain passive ensure that they would remain passive ensure that they would remain passive should he wind up marching east. should he wind up marching east. should he wind up marching east. Constantius, meanwhile, intensified his Constantius, meanwhile, intensified his Constantius, meanwhile, intensified his recruitment efforts while simultaneously recruitment efforts while simultaneously recruitment efforts while simultaneously looking to cut a deal with the Persians looking to cut a deal with the Persians looking to cut a deal with the Persians to temporarily suspend hostilities. to temporarily suspend hostilities. to temporarily suspend hostilities. It was not until early 361, though, a It was not until early 361, though, a It was not until early 361, though, a full year after Julian's elevation, that full year after Julian's elevation, that full year after Julian's elevation, that war truly became inevitable. war truly became inevitable. war truly became inevitable. As Julian fought a suddenly emboldened As Julian fought a suddenly emboldened As Julian fought a suddenly emboldened army of Alamanni, army of Alamanni, army of Alamanni, he captured communications that made it he captured communications that made it he captured communications that made it very clear that the Germans were being very clear that the Germans were being very clear that the Germans were being prompted to action by Constantius. prompted to action by Constantius. prompted to action by Constantius. This revelation, coupled with news that This revelation, coupled with news that This revelation, coupled with news that the war machine the emperor was the war machine the emperor was the war machine the emperor was assembling in the East was not assembling in the East was not assembling in the East was not necessarily being assembled to fight the necessarily being assembled to fight the necessarily being assembled to fight the Persians Persians Persians led Julian to the conclusion that he had led Julian to the conclusion that he had led Julian to the conclusion that he had better act now or risk annihilation. By June of 361, Julian's mind was made By June of 361, Julian's mind was made up. He was going to go on the offensive.

He gathered up 23,000 men, the most he He gathered up 23,000 men, the most he felt he could spare, and then divided felt he could spare, and then divided felt he could spare, and then divided them into three columns. them into three columns. them into three columns. Two of 10,000 men to be led by Two of 10,000 men to be led by Two of 10,000 men to be led by subordinates subordinates subordinates and the last column with 3,000 to be led and the last column with 3,000 to be led and the last column with 3,000 to be led by Julian personally. by Julian personally. by Julian personally. These three columns then sped east along These three columns then sped east along These three columns then sped east along different routes hoping to fly further different routes hoping to fly further different routes hoping to fly further under the radar and travel at a faster under the radar and travel at a faster under the radar and travel at a faster pace than one giant army would be able pace than one giant army would be able pace than one giant army would be able to do. to do. to do. Mostly the strategy worked except for Mostly the strategy worked except for Mostly the strategy worked except for the fact that when Julian arrived at the fact that when Julian arrived at the fact that when Julian arrived at Sirmium, where everyone was supposed to Sirmium, where everyone was supposed to Sirmium, where everyone was supposed to link up, he was the only one there. link up, he was the only one there. link up, he was the only one there. With the Sirmium garrison alerted to With the Sirmium garrison alerted to With the Sirmium garrison alerted to Julian's offensive and his backup still Julian's offensive and his backup still Julian's offensive and his backup still en route, the rebel Augustus had to en route, the rebel Augustus had to en route, the rebel Augustus had to think fast. think fast. think fast. His solution was brilliant. His solution was brilliant. His solution was brilliant. A small detachment of soldiers snuck A small detachment of soldiers snuck A small detachment of soldiers snuck into the city and made their way to the into the city and made their way to the into the city and made their way to the commander's bedroom. commander's bedroom. commander's bedroom. Before anyone knew what had happened, Before anyone knew what had happened, Before anyone knew what had happened, the leader of the city was captured and the leader of the city was captured and the leader of the city was captured and snuck back into Julian's tent. snuck back into Julian's tent. snuck back into Julian's tent. Once there, the captured commander was Once there, the captured commander was Once there, the captured commander was told that Julian meant him no harm, but told that Julian meant him no harm, but told that Julian meant him no harm, but it was probably in his best interest to it was probably in his best interest to it was probably in his best interest to stand down Sirmium and allow Julian to stand down Sirmium and allow Julian to stand down Sirmium and allow Julian to take the city.

take the city. take the city. The commander, with his back now The commander, with his back now The commander, with his back now personally against the wall, reluctantly personally against the wall, reluctantly personally against the wall, reluctantly agreed and Julian entered Sirmium agreed and Julian entered Sirmium agreed and Julian entered Sirmium unopposed. unopposed. unopposed. Once the rest of his army showed up, Once the rest of his army showed up, Once the rest of his army showed up, Julian ordered the Sirmium legions Julian ordered the Sirmium legions Julian ordered the Sirmium legions redeployed to Gaul, where they were to redeployed to Gaul, where they were to redeployed to Gaul, where they were to keep an eye on the now weakly defended keep an eye on the now weakly defended keep an eye on the now weakly defended Rhine frontier. Rhine frontier. Rhine frontier. It seemed like a good idea in theory. It seemed like a good idea in theory. It seemed like a good idea in theory. Neutralize a force whose loyalty could Neutralize a force whose loyalty could Neutralize a force whose loyalty could not be counted on while simultaneously not be counted on while simultaneously not be counted on while simultaneously shoring up the rear. shoring up the rear. shoring up the rear. But the Sirmium troops were not the But the Sirmium troops were not the But the Sirmium troops were not the least bit happy about being sent to least bit happy about being sent to least bit happy about being sent to Gaul. And so, while passing through Gaul. And so, while passing through Gaul. And so, while passing through northern Italy, they revolted and northern Italy, they revolted and northern Italy, they revolted and captured Aquileia. captured Aquileia. captured Aquileia. Okay, well, that's not good. Okay, well, that's not good. Okay, well, that's not good. With his military offensive going well, With his military offensive going well, With his military offensive going well, but not perfectly, Julian then went on but not perfectly, Julian then went on but not perfectly, Julian then went on the offensive politically. the offensive politically. the offensive politically. Writing to the leadership of Rome and Writing to the leadership of Rome and Writing to the leadership of Rome and the various cities of Greece, defending the various cities of Greece, defending the various cities of Greece, defending his actions and denouncing Constantius. his actions and denouncing Constantius. his actions and denouncing Constantius. The only problem was that Constantius The only problem was that Constantius The only problem was that Constantius was actually wildly popular in Rome and was actually wildly popular in Rome and was actually wildly popular in Rome and the various Greek cities.

the various Greek cities. the various Greek cities. Julian's overblown rhetoric rang false Julian's overblown rhetoric rang false Julian's overblown rhetoric rang false and rather than ginning up support for and rather than ginning up support for and rather than ginning up support for his cause, his cause, his cause, the letters left him further isolated. As well as this adventure had begun, it As well as this adventure had begun, it was now starting to unravel. was now starting to unravel. was now starting to unravel. His aim had probably been to capture His aim had probably been to capture His aim had probably been to capture Constantinople before Constantius left Constantinople before Constantius left Constantinople before Constantius left the East. the East. the East. But then the real heavy news dropped. But then the real heavy news dropped. But then the real heavy news dropped. Constantius had made a deal with the Constantius had made a deal with the Constantius had made a deal with the Sassinids and was already marching west. Sassinids and was already marching west. Sassinids and was already marching west. Bottled up in the middle of the empire Bottled up in the middle of the empire Bottled up in the middle of the empire with his supply lines to Gaul cut off with his supply lines to Gaul cut off with his supply lines to Gaul cut off and political support non-existent, and political support non-existent, and political support non-existent, Julian was looking doomed. Julian was looking doomed. Julian was looking doomed. What he needed What he needed What he needed was a miracle. Then, in November of 361, a miracle. Then, in November of 361, a miracle. Constantius and his army had made it as Constantius and his army had made it as Constantius and his army had made it as far as the Cilician Gates when the far as the Cilician Gates when the far as the Cilician Gates when the emperor came down sick. emperor came down sick. emperor came down sick. Unwilling to stop, he ordered the army Unwilling to stop, he ordered the army Unwilling to stop, he ordered the army to press on. But by the end of the next to press on. But by the end of the next to press on. But by the end of the next day, the shocking news began to spread.

day, the shocking news began to spread. day, the shocking news began to spread. Constantius II was dead. Constantius II was dead. Constantius II was dead. He was 44 years old and had been an He was 44 years old and had been an He was 44 years old and had been an Augustus for 24 years. Following right on the heels of this Following right on the heels of this shocking news was the even more shocking shocking news was the even more shocking shocking news was the even more shocking news. news. news. That despite the fact that they were That despite the fact that they were That despite the fact that they were about to fight each other to the death, about to fight each other to the death, about to fight each other to the death, Julian was still listed in Constantius' Julian was still listed in Constantius' Julian was still listed in Constantius' will as the sole and rightful heir to will as the sole and rightful heir to will as the sole and rightful heir to the empire. the empire. the empire. So now, far from having to fight his way So now, far from having to fight his way So now, far from having to fight his way to Constantinople, the road to the to Constantinople, the road to the to Constantinople, the road to the capital was wide open. capital was wide open. capital was wide open. Julian, who had been raised a forgotten Julian, who had been raised a forgotten Julian, who had been raised a forgotten exile, exile, exile, was now the sole ruler of the Roman was now the sole ruler of the Roman was now the sole ruler of the Roman Empire. Empire. Empire. Next week, we will see what he does now Next week, we will see what he does now Next week, we will see what he does now that he wields so much power. that he wields so much power. that he wields so much power. And I'll give you a hint. It has And I'll give you a hint. It has And I'll give you a hint. It has something to do with why we call him something to do with why we call him something to do with why we call him Julian the Apostate.

Hello, Hello, and welcome to the history of Rome. and welcome to the history of Rome. and welcome to the history of Rome. Episode 145, Episode 145, Episode 145, Julian the Apostate. In November of 361 AD, Constantius II In November of 361 AD, Constantius II died and Julian, last of the died and Julian, last of the died and Julian, last of the Constantinians, inherited the empire. Constantinians, inherited the empire. Constantinians, inherited the empire. It would be an ironic end to the It would be an ironic end to the It would be an ironic end to the dynasty. dynasty. dynasty. At least, I'm pretty sure it's ironic. At least, I'm pretty sure it's ironic. At least, I'm pretty sure it's ironic. Uh sometimes I think that no situation Uh sometimes I think that no situation Uh sometimes I think that no situation actually fits the technical definition actually fits the technical definition actually fits the technical definition of irony, and that the word just sort of of irony, and that the word just sort of of irony, and that the word just sort of hangs out in the linguistic ether hangs out in the linguistic ether hangs out in the linguistic ether singing a siren song that's designed to singing a siren song that's designed to singing a siren song that's designed to crash the unsuspecting against the crash the unsuspecting against the crash the unsuspecting against the jagged rocks of pedantry. jagged rocks of pedantry. jagged rocks of pedantry. But, I'm pretty sure it's ironic. But, I'm pretty sure it's ironic. But, I'm pretty sure it's ironic. Constantine began the dynasty by Constantine began the dynasty by Constantine began the dynasty by single-handedly launching Christianity single-handedly launching Christianity single-handedly launching Christianity to prominence and his nephew would end to prominence and his nephew would end to prominence and his nephew would end it by attempting to single-handedly turn it by attempting to single-handedly turn it by attempting to single-handedly turn back the clock and bury Christianity. back the clock and bury Christianity. back the clock and bury Christianity. That's ironic, right? It sure seems That's ironic, right? It sure seems That's ironic, right? It sure seems ironic, but it's probably just ironic, but it's probably just ironic, but it's probably just interesting.

When Julian received word that his When Julian received word that his cousin was dead, I have to imagine that cousin was dead, I have to imagine that cousin was dead, I have to imagine that it took a few minutes for the news to it took a few minutes for the news to it took a few minutes for the news to sink in. sink in. sink in. Here he was hunkered down in Thrace and Here he was hunkered down in Thrace and Here he was hunkered down in Thrace and ready to make what was very possibly ready to make what was very possibly ready to make what was very possibly shaping up to be his last stand and shaping up to be his last stand and shaping up to be his last stand and instead, Constantius is dead and I am instead, Constantius is dead and I am instead, Constantius is dead and I am now emperor. now emperor. now emperor. Like an approaching hurricane that just Like an approaching hurricane that just Like an approaching hurricane that just sort of transforms at the last moment sort of transforms at the last moment sort of transforms at the last moment into a pleasant sunny day, it takes a into a pleasant sunny day, it takes a into a pleasant sunny day, it takes a second to fully appreciate what the heck second to fully appreciate what the heck second to fully appreciate what the heck has just happened. has just happened. has just happened. But after the first few minutes of But after the first few minutes of But after the first few minutes of blinking wonder passed, Julian wasted no blinking wonder passed, Julian wasted no blinking wonder passed, Julian wasted no time completely embracing his imperial time completely embracing his imperial time completely embracing his imperial windfall. windfall. windfall. It appears that he had been thinking for It appears that he had been thinking for It appears that he had been thinking for a while about what he would do if he a while about what he would do if he a while about what he would do if he became emperor became emperor became emperor because as soon as he became emperor, because as soon as he became emperor, because as soon as he became emperor, Julian jumped right into a completely Julian jumped right into a completely Julian jumped right into a completely out of left field program of reform with out of left field program of reform with out of left field program of reform with both feet. both feet. both feet. Many critics of the new emperor note Many critics of the new emperor note Many critics of the new emperor note though that while his enthusiasm is though that while his enthusiasm is though that while his enthusiasm is laudable, maybe Julian should have laudable, maybe Julian should have laudable, maybe Julian should have looked before he leaped.

Now the unopposed master of the empire, Now the unopposed master of the empire, Julian entered Constantinople on Julian entered Constantinople on Julian entered Constantinople on December the 11th, 361 AD and December the 11th, 361 AD and December the 11th, 361 AD and immediately got down to it. immediately got down to it. immediately got down to it. The first order of business, of course, The first order of business, of course, The first order of business, of course, was to completely overhaul the imperial was to completely overhaul the imperial was to completely overhaul the imperial court. court. court. Stocking the halls of the palace were Stocking the halls of the palace were Stocking the halls of the palace were men who were not just venal and corrupt, men who were not just venal and corrupt, men who were not just venal and corrupt, but men who had actively opposed Julian. but men who had actively opposed Julian. but men who had actively opposed Julian. Men who had consistently tried to talk Men who had consistently tried to talk Men who had consistently tried to talk Constantius into killing him. Constantius into killing him. Constantius into killing him. These men needed to be identified and These men needed to be identified and These men needed to be identified and purged. purged. purged. Aware that it might look bad if he just Aware that it might look bad if he just Aware that it might look bad if he just showed up and started arbitrarily showed up and started arbitrarily showed up and started arbitrarily killing people, Julian gave his purge killing people, Julian gave his purge killing people, Julian gave his purge the air of objectivity by appointing an the air of objectivity by appointing an the air of objectivity by appointing an independent commission of six trusted independent commission of six trusted independent commission of six trusted men to sort through the roles and men to sort through the roles and men to sort through the roles and separate the good men from the bad men. separate the good men from the bad men. separate the good men from the bad men. The emperor even went so far as to The emperor even went so far as to The emperor even went so far as to situate this commission across the Sea situate this commission across the Sea situate this commission across the Sea of Marmara in the town of Chalcedon so of Marmara in the town of Chalcedon so of Marmara in the town of Chalcedon so that the verdicts would not originate that the verdicts would not originate that the verdicts would not originate from the Imperial Palace itself. from the Imperial Palace itself. from the Imperial Palace itself. But I doubt that anyone was too fooled But I doubt that anyone was too fooled But I doubt that anyone was too fooled by this superficial independence.

by this superficial independence. by this superficial independence. The worst of the emperor's enemies were The worst of the emperor's enemies were The worst of the emperor's enemies were executed and the rest were exiled. executed and the rest were exiled. executed and the rest were exiled. It wasn't hard to see the invisible hand It wasn't hard to see the invisible hand It wasn't hard to see the invisible hand of Julian guiding the commission's of Julian guiding the commission's of Julian guiding the commission's decisions about who needed to go and who decisions about who needed to go and who decisions about who needed to go and who could stay. could stay. could stay. But beyond the strictly personal But beyond the strictly personal But beyond the strictly personal personnel decisions, the commission also personnel decisions, the commission also personnel decisions, the commission also included among the guilty men who were included among the guilty men who were included among the guilty men who were just plain old bad eggs. just plain old bad eggs. just plain old bad eggs. Constantius' court had a reputation for Constantius' court had a reputation for Constantius' court had a reputation for corruption corruption corruption and the idealistic Julian appears to and the idealistic Julian appears to and the idealistic Julian appears to have been genuinely interested in have been genuinely interested in have been genuinely interested in purging the Imperial rolls of the worst purging the Imperial rolls of the worst purging the Imperial rolls of the worst of the worst. But Julian was not done when the But Julian was not done when the commission wrapped up its business. commission wrapped up its business. commission wrapped up its business. For all the attention his religious For all the attention his religious For all the attention his religious policies receive, religious policies policies receive, religious policies policies receive, religious policies that we'll get to in a minute, that we'll get to in a minute, that we'll get to in a minute, it is worth noting that Julian was not it is worth noting that Julian was not it is worth noting that Julian was not just trying to turn the clock back on just trying to turn the clock back on just trying to turn the clock back on the church. He was also trying to turn the church. He was also trying to turn the church. He was also trying to turn it back on the state. it back on the state. it back on the state. Julian clearly idolized the emperors of Julian clearly idolized the emperors of Julian clearly idolized the emperors of the Antonine dynasty and sought to base the Antonine dynasty and sought to base the Antonine dynasty and sought to base his own administration on their example.

his own administration on their example. his own administration on their example. The first thing he attacked was just the The first thing he attacked was just the The first thing he attacked was just the sheer bloat of the Imperial court. sheer bloat of the Imperial court. sheer bloat of the Imperial court. The golden age emperors had not needed The golden age emperors had not needed The golden age emperors had not needed 50 chefs and 30 secretaries and a 50 chefs and 30 secretaries and a 50 chefs and 30 secretaries and a personal barber, so why did he? personal barber, so why did he? personal barber, so why did he? Pink slips started flying through the Pink slips started flying through the Pink slips started flying through the palace and anyone deemed unnecessary, palace and anyone deemed unnecessary, palace and anyone deemed unnecessary, redundant, or useless was simply given redundant, or useless was simply given redundant, or useless was simply given the boot. the boot. the boot. But, firing all the leeches was just the But, firing all the leeches was just the But, firing all the leeches was just the beginning of Julian's attempt to turn beginning of Julian's attempt to turn beginning of Julian's attempt to turn back the clock to the 100s AD. back the clock to the 100s AD. back the clock to the 100s AD. In a far more dramatic and far more In a far more dramatic and far more In a far more dramatic and far more disruptive move, the emperor also began disruptive move, the emperor also began disruptive move, the emperor also began to abandon the whole emperor as a living to abandon the whole emperor as a living to abandon the whole emperor as a living god conceit. god conceit. god conceit. He shed the massive smoke screen of He shed the massive smoke screen of He shed the massive smoke screen of official standing between him and his official standing between him and his official standing between him and his subjects. He ate simple foods and wore subjects. He ate simple foods and wore subjects. He ate simple foods and wore simple clothes. He grew a philosopher's simple clothes. He grew a philosopher's simple clothes. He grew a philosopher's beard. beard. beard. Clearly, Julian wanted to pretend like Clearly, Julian wanted to pretend like Clearly, Julian wanted to pretend like the epoch-shifting reforms of Diocletian the epoch-shifting reforms of Diocletian the epoch-shifting reforms of Diocletian had never happened and return to the had never happened and return to the had never happened and return to the princeps model of governance.

In Julian's head, these were virtuous In Julian's head, these were virtuous reforms that would be embraced by a reforms that would be embraced by a reforms that would be embraced by a public weary of overblown imperial egos. public weary of overblown imperial egos. public weary of overblown imperial egos. But, mostly, the public was just But, mostly, the public was just But, mostly, the public was just bewildered. bewildered. bewildered. It would have been like Vespasian It would have been like Vespasian It would have been like Vespasian emerging from the civil wars of 69 AD emerging from the civil wars of 69 AD emerging from the civil wars of 69 AD and suddenly announcing that the and suddenly announcing that the and suddenly announcing that the Republic was back in effect. Republic was back in effect. Republic was back in effect. No one would have had any idea how to No one would have had any idea how to No one would have had any idea how to act, how to deal with it, or what was act, how to deal with it, or what was act, how to deal with it, or what was even expected of them. even expected of them. even expected of them. The entire political system of the late The entire political system of the late The entire political system of the late empire was centered around a empire was centered around a empire was centered around a quasi-divine emperor who inhabited the quasi-divine emperor who inhabited the quasi-divine emperor who inhabited the realm between man and god. realm between man and god. realm between man and god. To have an emperor suddenly joining in To have an emperor suddenly joining in To have an emperor suddenly joining in Senate debates, expressing emotion in Senate debates, expressing emotion in Senate debates, expressing emotion in public, and just sort of generally being public, and just sort of generally being public, and just sort of generally being around, well, it was massively around, well, it was massively around, well, it was massively disconcerting. Julian meant well, but his vision was Julian meant well, but his vision was hopelessly anachronistic. hopelessly anachronistic. hopelessly anachronistic. When he died, the mere mortals of the When he died, the mere mortals of the When he died, the mere mortals of the empire gratefully ran back into the empire gratefully ran back into the empire gratefully ran back into the paternal embrace of their once again paternal embrace of their once again paternal embrace of their once again quasi-divine emperor.

While he was bringing the role of While he was bringing the role of emperor back down to Earth. Julian also emperor back down to Earth. Julian also emperor back down to Earth. Julian also attempted to reduce the public power of attempted to reduce the public power of attempted to reduce the public power of the imperial bureaucracy in general. the imperial bureaucracy in general. the imperial bureaucracy in general. Adopting a more Trajan-like worldview, Adopting a more Trajan-like worldview, Adopting a more Trajan-like worldview, Julian believed that the central Julian believed that the central Julian believed that the central government was there to focus on the big government was there to focus on the big government was there to focus on the big picture issues like defense and picture issues like defense and picture issues like defense and taxation. taxation. taxation. It was not there to micromanage the It was not there to micromanage the It was not there to micromanage the affairs of every city, town, hamlet, and affairs of every city, town, hamlet, and affairs of every city, town, hamlet, and farmhouse in the empire. farmhouse in the empire. farmhouse in the empire. Seeking to devolve political authority, Seeking to devolve political authority, Seeking to devolve political authority, Julian re-empowered the ruling councils Julian re-empowered the ruling councils Julian re-empowered the ruling councils of the cities and handed over of the cities and handed over of the cities and handed over jurisdiction of huge tracts of imperial jurisdiction of huge tracts of imperial jurisdiction of huge tracts of imperial land to these local magistrates. land to these local magistrates. land to these local magistrates. The idea was to get them involved in the The idea was to get them involved in the The idea was to get them involved in the decision-making process, so Julian decision-making process, so Julian decision-making process, so Julian himself was not bogged down by endless himself was not bogged down by endless himself was not bogged down by endless minutia. minutia. minutia. But once again, the citizens of the But once again, the citizens of the But once again, the citizens of the empire were more bewildered than empire were more bewildered than empire were more bewildered than anything else. anything else. anything else. Had Julian lived longer, this might all Had Julian lived longer, this might all Had Julian lived longer, this might all have eventually sunk in. have eventually sunk in. have eventually sunk in. But in the year and a half he ruled, he But in the year and a half he ruled, he But in the year and a half he ruled, he mostly just spun his wheels trying to mostly just spun his wheels trying to mostly just spun his wheels trying to convince the leading men of various convince the leading men of various convince the leading men of various cities that being a magistrate wasn't cities that being a magistrate wasn't cities that being a magistrate wasn't just a massive financial burden anymore.

just a massive financial burden anymore. just a massive financial burden anymore. That real power and real authority was That real power and real authority was That real power and real authority was theirs for the taking. theirs for the taking. theirs for the taking. They remained skeptical though until They remained skeptical though until They remained skeptical though until Julian's death ended the argument and Julian's death ended the argument and Julian's death ended the argument and the rich and powerful men of the empire the rich and powerful men of the empire the rich and powerful men of the empire continued their drift into rural continued their drift into rural continued their drift into rural feudalism undisturbed. To the energized 29-year-old emperor, To the energized 29-year-old emperor, however, these reforms were not yet however, these reforms were not yet however, these reforms were not yet doomed to failure. And he really felt doomed to failure. And he really felt doomed to failure. And he really felt like he was just getting started on a like he was just getting started on a like he was just getting started on a complete overhaul of the empire's complete overhaul of the empire's complete overhaul of the empire's political constitution. political constitution. political constitution. He had no way of knowing that because he He had no way of knowing that because he He had no way of knowing that because he was about to die, none of this was going was about to die, none of this was going was about to die, none of this was going to stick. We don't really have any idea what would We don't really have any idea what would have happened had Julian lived, and it have happened had Julian lived, and it have happened had Julian lived, and it is one of the great speculative is one of the great speculative is one of the great speculative questions of Roman history. questions of Roman history. questions of Roman history. Maybe the institutional barriers would Maybe the institutional barriers would Maybe the institutional barriers would have been too great to overcome in the have been too great to overcome in the have been too great to overcome in the end. end. end. But then again, maybe 30 years of Julian But then again, maybe 30 years of Julian But then again, maybe 30 years of Julian really would have been revolutionary.

Which brings us to the heart and soul of Which brings us to the heart and soul of Julian's short reign. Julian's short reign. Julian's short reign. The heart and soul of Julian the The heart and soul of Julian the The heart and soul of Julian the Apostate. As I mentioned two episodes back, Julian As I mentioned two episodes back, Julian had secretly rejected Christianity had secretly rejected Christianity had secretly rejected Christianity around 358 A.D. Not long after being around 358 A.D. Not long after being around 358 A.D. Not long after being released from his Cappadocian exile. released from his Cappadocian exile. released from his Cappadocian exile. But until now, this rejection had been a But until now, this rejection had been a But until now, this rejection had been a behind closed doors sort of thing. behind closed doors sort of thing. behind closed doors sort of thing. Close friends and advisers were aware of Close friends and advisers were aware of Close friends and advisers were aware of Julian's religious preferences. Julian's religious preferences. Julian's religious preferences. But since there was no upside to But since there was no upside to But since there was no upside to publicizing these religious preferences, publicizing these religious preferences, publicizing these religious preferences, it was a secret that stayed with his it was a secret that stayed with his it was a secret that stayed with his close friends and advisers. close friends and advisers. close friends and advisers. Now that he was king of the hill though, Now that he was king of the hill though, Now that he was king of the hill though, Julian was free to bring his paganism Julian was free to bring his paganism Julian was free to bring his paganism out into the open. And boy, did he ever out into the open. And boy, did he ever out into the open. And boy, did he ever bring it out into the open. bring it out into the open. bring it out into the open. From the minute he became emperor, From the minute he became emperor, From the minute he became emperor, Julian worked obsessively to tear down Julian worked obsessively to tear down Julian worked obsessively to tear down the socio-political influence of the the socio-political influence of the the socio-political influence of the Christians. Christians. Christians. Or as Julian liked to call them, the Or as Julian liked to call them, the Or as Julian liked to call them, the Galileans. A subtle dig based on a quote Galileans. A subtle dig based on a quote Galileans. A subtle dig based on a quote from the Gospel of John, that out of from the Gospel of John, that out of from the Gospel of John, that out of Galilee ariseth no prophet.

Galilee ariseth no prophet. Galilee ariseth no prophet. But Julian knew that merely tearing down But Julian knew that merely tearing down But Julian knew that merely tearing down would not be sufficient to fulfill his would not be sufficient to fulfill his would not be sufficient to fulfill his vision of a re-paganized empire. vision of a re-paganized empire. vision of a re-paganized empire. He would also have to build something up He would also have to build something up He would also have to build something up to replace the soon-to-be displaced to replace the soon-to-be displaced to replace the soon-to-be displaced Christians. When Julian entered Constantinople in When Julian entered Constantinople in December 361, he immediately began this December 361, he immediately began this December 361, he immediately began this dual program of tearing down dual program of tearing down dual program of tearing down Christianity and building up paganism. Christianity and building up paganism. Christianity and building up paganism. It goes without saying that the It goes without saying that the It goes without saying that the political purge that accompanied political purge that accompanied political purge that accompanied Julian's arrival in the capital was Julian's arrival in the capital was Julian's arrival in the capital was driven in part by religious motives. driven in part by religious motives. driven in part by religious motives. In other words, the Christians were to In other words, the Christians were to In other words, the Christians were to be kicked out of influential posts, be kicked out of influential posts, be kicked out of influential posts, denied access to the imperial purse denied access to the imperial purse denied access to the imperial purse strings, and denied access to the strings, and denied access to the strings, and denied access to the emperor personally. Since the previous regime of Constantius Since the previous regime of Constantius had been so overtly Christian though, had been so overtly Christian though, had been so overtly Christian though, this basically meant getting rid of this basically meant getting rid of this basically meant getting rid of everyone. Something even Julian found he everyone. Something even Julian found he everyone. Something even Julian found he couldn't bring himself to do. couldn't bring himself to do. couldn't bring himself to do. So, the apostate emperor wound up So, the apostate emperor wound up So, the apostate emperor wound up retaining a handful of the most honest retaining a handful of the most honest retaining a handful of the most honest and capable Christians in his and capable Christians in his and capable Christians in his administration.

Beyond these token few though, if you Beyond these token few though, if you were Christian, your civil service were Christian, your civil service were Christian, your civil service career was suddenly in jeopardy. career was suddenly in jeopardy. career was suddenly in jeopardy. Now, of course, the swiftness with which Now, of course, the swiftness with which Now, of course, the swiftness with which Julian was able to reorganize the inner Julian was able to reorganize the inner Julian was able to reorganize the inner circle of the imperial government could circle of the imperial government could circle of the imperial government could not be matched on a system-wide basis. not be matched on a system-wide basis. not be matched on a system-wide basis. The bureaucracy was simply too large and The bureaucracy was simply too large and The bureaucracy was simply too large and too dispersed to overhaul overnight. too dispersed to overhaul overnight. too dispersed to overhaul overnight. But, Julian was taking the long view on But, Julian was taking the long view on But, Julian was taking the long view on this thing. And so, he promulgated a this thing. And so, he promulgated a this thing. And so, he promulgated a discriminatory order that when jobs discriminatory order that when jobs discriminatory order that when jobs opened up, the god-fearing candidates, opened up, the god-fearing candidates, opened up, the god-fearing candidates, that is, pagans, that is, pagans, that is, pagans, were to be preferred over the atheists, were to be preferred over the atheists, were to be preferred over the atheists, that is, the Christians. that is, the Christians. that is, the Christians. For the ambitious civil servant, this For the ambitious civil servant, this For the ambitious civil servant, this had to be a frustrating development. had to be a frustrating development. had to be a frustrating development. Like a week ago, they told me I had to Like a week ago, they told me I had to Like a week ago, they told me I had to be Christian if I wanted this job, and be Christian if I wanted this job, and be Christian if I wanted this job, and now you're telling me that because I'm a now you're telling me that because I'm a now you're telling me that because I'm a Christian, I'm not going to get the job? Christian, I'm not going to get the job? Christian, I'm not going to get the job? I don't really care one way or the I don't really care one way or the I don't really care one way or the other. I just wish you guys would get other. I just wish you guys would get other. I just wish you guys would get your story straight. On the building up front, Julian turned On the building up front, Julian turned his attention first to building up in his attention first to building up in his attention first to building up in the literal sense.

the literal sense. the literal sense. He ordered all the old shrines and He ordered all the old shrines and He ordered all the old shrines and temples and sanctuaries that had been temples and sanctuaries that had been temples and sanctuaries that had been closed over the years to be reopened, closed over the years to be reopened, closed over the years to be reopened, and appropriated imperial funds to help and appropriated imperial funds to help and appropriated imperial funds to help defray the cost. defray the cost. defray the cost. But, knowing that the central government But, knowing that the central government But, knowing that the central government would not be able to afford to cover would not be able to afford to cover would not be able to afford to cover even a fraction of the total cost that even a fraction of the total cost that even a fraction of the total cost that this order would generate, this order would generate, this order would generate, Julian issued an addendum edict that was Julian issued an addendum edict that was Julian issued an addendum edict that was one part practical and one part one part practical and one part one part practical and one part punitive. punitive. punitive. Under the previous Christian regimes, Under the previous Christian regimes, Under the previous Christian regimes, the citizens had been encouraged to the citizens had been encouraged to the citizens had been encouraged to destroy the blasphemous sanctuaries of destroy the blasphemous sanctuaries of destroy the blasphemous sanctuaries of the pagans the pagans the pagans or at the very least to repurpose them or at the very least to repurpose them or at the very least to repurpose them into something more useful. into something more useful. into something more useful. So, all these old pagan buildings became So, all these old pagan buildings became So, all these old pagan buildings became shops and warehouses, and in some cases shops and warehouses, and in some cases shops and warehouses, and in some cases family apartments. family apartments. family apartments. Julian ordered that the men responsible Julian ordered that the men responsible Julian ordered that the men responsible for the destruction or repurposing of for the destruction or repurposing of for the destruction or repurposing of the temples be responsible for the costs the temples be responsible for the costs the temples be responsible for the costs of undoing the damage they had done. of undoing the damage they had done. of undoing the damage they had done. Even Julian's most ardent admirers are Even Julian's most ardent admirers are Even Julian's most ardent admirers are troubled by the real-world effects of troubled by the real-world effects of troubled by the real-world effects of this edict.

this edict. this edict. The empire had been Christian for 40 The empire had been Christian for 40 The empire had been Christian for 40 years now. years now. years now. So, in many cases, families and So, in many cases, families and So, in many cases, families and businesses had absorbed the old pagan businesses had absorbed the old pagan businesses had absorbed the old pagan holy places a really long time ago. holy places a really long time ago. holy places a really long time ago. Their lives and livelihoods had become Their lives and livelihoods had become Their lives and livelihoods had become tied, at imperial encouragement no less, tied, at imperial encouragement no less, tied, at imperial encouragement no less, to the discarded husks of what they had to the discarded husks of what they had to the discarded husks of what they had been assured were dead cults. been assured were dead cults. been assured were dead cults. Now, suddenly, Julian wanted to kick Now, suddenly, Julian wanted to kick Now, suddenly, Julian wanted to kick them out and make them pay to rebuild them out and make them pay to rebuild them out and make them pay to rebuild the houses of said dead cults. the houses of said dead cults. the houses of said dead cults. It was unfair in theory and cruel in It was unfair in theory and cruel in It was unfair in theory and cruel in practice. But, Julian pushed on undeterred, and in But, Julian pushed on undeterred, and in February of 362, about 4 months after February of 362, about 4 months after February of 362, about 4 months after donning the purple, donning the purple, donning the purple, he issued his famous, or infamous he issued his famous, or infamous he issued his famous, or infamous depending on who you talk to, depending on who you talk to, depending on who you talk to, edict on religious tolerance. edict on religious tolerance. edict on religious tolerance. The point of the edict was to officially The point of the edict was to officially The point of the edict was to officially overturn the anti-pagan laws that had overturn the anti-pagan laws that had overturn the anti-pagan laws that had been on the books since the reign of been on the books since the reign of been on the books since the reign of Constantine. Constantine. Constantine. Now, those laws, which banned sacrifice Now, those laws, which banned sacrifice Now, those laws, which banned sacrifice had never been uniformly or even had never been uniformly or even had never been uniformly or even diligently enforced, but still diligently enforced, but still diligently enforced, but still officially they were out there and so officially they were out there and so officially they were out there and so Julian officially canceled them.

Julian officially canceled them. Julian officially canceled them. Using the same sort of language Using the same sort of language Using the same sort of language Constantine had once used himself in the Constantine had once used himself in the Constantine had once used himself in the Edict of Milan, Edict of Milan, Edict of Milan, Julian declared that all religions were Julian declared that all religions were Julian declared that all religions were now to be considered equal in the eyes now to be considered equal in the eyes now to be considered equal in the eyes of the government. of the government. of the government. This meant that all the secret pagans or This meant that all the secret pagans or This meant that all the secret pagans or lapsed pagans or whoever could now lapsed pagans or whoever could now lapsed pagans or whoever could now return to their old ways without fear of return to their old ways without fear of return to their old ways without fear of state sanction. state sanction. state sanction. It also meant though that Christianity It also meant though that Christianity It also meant though that Christianity was not illegal. was not illegal. was not illegal. Given everything we know about Julian Given everything we know about Julian Given everything we know about Julian the Apostate, one might assume that the the Apostate, one might assume that the the Apostate, one might assume that the first thing he did was ban the Galilean first thing he did was ban the Galilean first thing he did was ban the Galilean religion outright. religion outright. religion outright. But his plans were a bit more subtle, a But his plans were a bit more subtle, a But his plans were a bit more subtle, a bit more long-term and a bit more bit more long-term and a bit more bit more long-term and a bit more rational than his name might imply. rational than his name might imply. rational than his name might imply. The utter failure of the great The utter failure of the great The utter failure of the great persecution was not exactly ancient persecution was not exactly ancient persecution was not exactly ancient history. history. history. Julian knew that far from breaking the Julian knew that far from breaking the Julian knew that far from breaking the Christians, that violent repression only Christians, that violent repression only Christians, that violent repression only led to a hardening of their resolve. led to a hardening of their resolve. led to a hardening of their resolve. So his edict was designed to unleash So his edict was designed to unleash So his edict was designed to unleash upon them their very worst and most upon them their very worst and most upon them their very worst and most hated enemy in all the world, hated enemy in all the world, hated enemy in all the world, other Christians.

other Christians. other Christians. Julian's Edict of Toleration meant that Julian's Edict of Toleration meant that Julian's Edict of Toleration meant that the 40-year-old policy of using Imperial the 40-year-old policy of using Imperial the 40-year-old policy of using Imperial muscle to back up what, for lack of a muscle to back up what, for lack of a muscle to back up what, for lack of a better word, I'll call mainstream better word, I'll call mainstream better word, I'll call mainstream Christianity was over. Christianity was over. Christianity was over. All those repressed heresies were now All those repressed heresies were now All those repressed heresies were now free to come out of the woodwork and free to come out of the woodwork and free to come out of the woodwork and preach their own particular brand of the preach their own particular brand of the preach their own particular brand of the one true faith. one true faith. one true faith. Just at the moment when the Christian Just at the moment when the Christian Just at the moment when the Christian community needed to unite in the face of community needed to unite in the face of community needed to unite in the face of Julian's attacks, Julian's attacks, Julian's attacks, its ranks were sowed with discord. its ranks were sowed with discord. its ranks were sowed with discord. In Julian's perfect world, he would In Julian's perfect world, he would In Julian's perfect world, he would never have to do anything so dramatic as never have to do anything so dramatic as never have to do anything so dramatic as destroy Christianity. destroy Christianity. destroy Christianity. Instead, they would just slowly, but Instead, they would just slowly, but Instead, they would just slowly, but surely, tear themselves apart. Probably the nicest thing about this Probably the nicest thing about this toleration strategy was that it enabled toleration strategy was that it enabled toleration strategy was that it enabled Julian to maintain the moral high Julian to maintain the moral high Julian to maintain the moral high ground. ground. ground. He pointedly declared that no religious He pointedly declared that no religious He pointedly declared that no religious violence would be accepted, no matter violence would be accepted, no matter violence would be accepted, no matter who the perpetrator or who the victim.

who the perpetrator or who the victim. who the perpetrator or who the victim. Pagans were not to attack Christians. Pagans were not to attack Christians. Pagans were not to attack Christians. Christians were not to attack pagans, Christians were not to attack pagans, Christians were not to attack pagans, and Christians were not to attack each and Christians were not to attack each and Christians were not to attack each other. other. other. Thus, Julian was able to avoid being Thus, Julian was able to avoid being Thus, Julian was able to avoid being painted as some monster ala Galerius or painted as some monster ala Galerius or painted as some monster ala Galerius or Maximinus Daia. Maximinus Daia. Maximinus Daia. Because I just want everyone to get Because I just want everyone to get Because I just want everyone to get along. along. along. What's wrong with everyone getting What's wrong with everyone getting What's wrong with everyone getting along? along? along? Come on. Can't we all just get along? Come on. Can't we all just get along? Come on. Can't we all just get along? But just because he encouraged But just because he encouraged But just because he encouraged non-violent means of achieving his goal, non-violent means of achieving his goal, non-violent means of achieving his goal, that did not mean that Julian's goal was that did not mean that Julian's goal was that did not mean that Julian's goal was not to drive Christianity into the not to drive Christianity into the not to drive Christianity into the ground. ground. ground. His goal, most definitely, was to drive His goal, most definitely, was to drive His goal, most definitely, was to drive Christianity into the ground. In May of 362, Julian left In May of 362, Julian left Constantinople and headed for Antioch. Constantinople and headed for Antioch. Constantinople and headed for Antioch. Since he had originally established his Since he had originally established his Since he had originally established his bona fides in the West, it was important bona fides in the West, it was important bona fides in the West, it was important for the new emperor to reach out to the for the new emperor to reach out to the for the new emperor to reach out to the Eastern provinces and consolidate his Eastern provinces and consolidate his Eastern provinces and consolidate his rule over the whole empire. rule over the whole empire. rule over the whole empire. The East, after all, had been The East, after all, had been The East, after all, had been Constantius' domain for almost a quarter Constantius' domain for almost a quarter Constantius' domain for almost a quarter of a century.

of a century. of a century. And Julian had come to power in the And Julian had come to power in the And Julian had come to power in the middle of a revolt against the man the middle of a revolt against the man the middle of a revolt against the man the Eastern provincials had happily called Eastern provincials had happily called Eastern provincials had happily called Augustus all those years. Augustus all those years. Augustus all those years. In other words, Julian had some making In other words, Julian had some making In other words, Julian had some making up to do. up to do. up to do. On top of this political rationale, On top of this political rationale, On top of this political rationale, Julian also had a military rationale for Julian also had a military rationale for Julian also had a military rationale for heading East. heading East. heading East. The war with the Persians that The war with the Persians that The war with the Persians that Constantius had broken off was still Constantius had broken off was still Constantius had broken off was still hanging out there unresolved. And Julian hanging out there unresolved. And Julian hanging out there unresolved. And Julian wanted to use that war to cement his wanted to use that war to cement his wanted to use that war to cement his imperial authority. imperial authority. imperial authority. A big win over the Persians would A big win over the Persians would A big win over the Persians would catapult him to a whole new level. catapult him to a whole new level. catapult him to a whole new level. Not only would he earn the respect of Not only would he earn the respect of Not only would he earn the respect of the Eastern legions who had just months the Eastern legions who had just months the Eastern legions who had just months before been marching out to crush him, before been marching out to crush him, before been marching out to crush him, but he would also establish himself as a but he would also establish himself as a but he would also establish himself as a military leader of unparalleled skill. military leader of unparalleled skill. military leader of unparalleled skill. He could already point to major He could already point to major He could already point to major victories in the West. victories in the West. victories in the West. Add major victories in the East, and Add major victories in the East, and Add major victories in the East, and boy, boy, boy, he might just become bigger than he might just become bigger than he might just become bigger than Constantine.

On the road to Antioch, Julian issued On the road to Antioch, Julian issued another one of his famous/infamous another one of his famous/infamous another one of his famous/infamous anti-Christian edicts. anti-Christian edicts. anti-Christian edicts. Henceforth, Christians would not be Henceforth, Christians would not be Henceforth, Christians would not be allowed to teach children using any of allowed to teach children using any of allowed to teach children using any of the classical texts. the classical texts. the classical texts. That meant no Homer, no Cicero, no That meant no Homer, no Cicero, no That meant no Homer, no Cicero, no Plato. Plato. Plato. But of course, the basic curriculum of But of course, the basic curriculum of But of course, the basic curriculum of Roman education, philosophy, and Roman education, philosophy, and Roman education, philosophy, and grammar, and rhetoric, grammar, and rhetoric, grammar, and rhetoric, used all of those works as their used all of those works as their used all of those works as their standard textbooks. standard textbooks. standard textbooks. If you can't teach Homer, you can't If you can't teach Homer, you can't If you can't teach Homer, you can't teach grammar. It's just that simple. teach grammar. It's just that simple. teach grammar. It's just that simple. The edict thus presented the parents of The edict thus presented the parents of The edict thus presented the parents of the empire with a stark choice. the empire with a stark choice. the empire with a stark choice. Their kids could either be taught by Their kids could either be taught by Their kids could either be taught by Christian teachers, but be denied the Christian teachers, but be denied the Christian teachers, but be denied the standard education, standard education, standard education, or they could be given the standard or they could be given the standard or they could be given the standard education and be denied any Christian education and be denied any Christian education and be denied any Christian interpretation of the material. interpretation of the material. interpretation of the material. Since a classical education was still Since a classical education was still Since a classical education was still required if you wanted to have any sort required if you wanted to have any sort required if you wanted to have any sort of decent career, of decent career, of decent career, Julian was banking that the vast Julian was banking that the vast Julian was banking that the vast majority of parents would choose to majority of parents would choose to majority of parents would choose to abandon Christian teachers rather than abandon Christian teachers rather than abandon Christian teachers rather than have their children grow up not knowing have their children grow up not knowing have their children grow up not knowing who Achilles was.

who Achilles was. who Achilles was. To put this another way, To put this another way, To put this another way, Julian passed a law essentially Julian passed a law essentially Julian passed a law essentially strangling off Christian access to strangling off Christian access to strangling off Christian access to impressionable young minds. impressionable young minds. impressionable young minds. Like I say, he wanted to drive Like I say, he wanted to drive Like I say, he wanted to drive Christianity into the ground. When he arrived in Antioch in July of When he arrived in Antioch in July of 362 though, Julian finally ran into some 362 though, Julian finally ran into some 362 though, Julian finally ran into some pushback to all this. pushback to all this. pushback to all this. He came into the Eastern capital under He came into the Eastern capital under He came into the Eastern capital under the mistaken assumption that the city the mistaken assumption that the city the mistaken assumption that the city was eager to shed its Christian veneer was eager to shed its Christian veneer was eager to shed its Christian veneer and return to its pagan roots. and return to its pagan roots. and return to its pagan roots. But that was really not the case as the But that was really not the case as the But that was really not the case as the fracas over the nearby Temple of Apollo fracas over the nearby Temple of Apollo fracas over the nearby Temple of Apollo would make abundantly clear. would make abundantly clear. would make abundantly clear. Julian went to visit the famous temple Julian went to visit the famous temple Julian went to visit the famous temple shortly after his arrival and was shortly after his arrival and was shortly after his arrival and was dismayed at the dilapidated condition he dismayed at the dilapidated condition he dismayed at the dilapidated condition he found it in. found it in. found it in. When he ordered a priest to join him at When he ordered a priest to join him at When he ordered a priest to join him at the site for a sacrifice, he was further the site for a sacrifice, he was further the site for a sacrifice, he was further incensed to see the disinterested priest incensed to see the disinterested priest incensed to see the disinterested priest wandering up with a leftover goose to wandering up with a leftover goose to wandering up with a leftover goose to offer Apollo rather than a nice fat offer Apollo rather than a nice fat offer Apollo rather than a nice fat bull.

bull. bull. Julian then consulted the oracle of the Julian then consulted the oracle of the Julian then consulted the oracle of the temple in order to gain some much needed temple in order to gain some much needed temple in order to gain some much needed mystical advice mystical advice mystical advice but was told that as long as the dead but was told that as long as the dead but was told that as long as the dead were desecrating the temple grounds that were desecrating the temple grounds that were desecrating the temple grounds that the oracle could not speak. the oracle could not speak. the oracle could not speak. In this case, the dead referred to a In this case, the dead referred to a In this case, the dead referred to a famous Christian martyr who had been famous Christian martyr who had been famous Christian martyr who had been buried near the temple grounds. buried near the temple grounds. buried near the temple grounds. Julian figured it would be no big deal Julian figured it would be no big deal Julian figured it would be no big deal to exhume the body and then move it back to exhume the body and then move it back to exhume the body and then move it back to a proper cemetery to a proper cemetery to a proper cemetery but the citizens of Antioch were but the citizens of Antioch were but the citizens of Antioch were outraged at the sacrilege. outraged at the sacrilege. outraged at the sacrilege. They came out en masse to protest the They came out en masse to protest the They came out en masse to protest the emperor's decision and then just a few emperor's decision and then just a few emperor's decision and then just a few days later the Temple of Apollo days later the Temple of Apollo days later the Temple of Apollo mysteriously burned down. mysteriously burned down. mysteriously burned down. The verdict of history is that the fire The verdict of history is that the fire The verdict of history is that the fire was probably an accident caused when was probably an accident caused when was probably an accident caused when some lit candles were neglected. some lit candles were neglected. some lit candles were neglected. But the verdict of Julian was that the But the verdict of Julian was that the But the verdict of Julian was that the Christians of Antioch were guilty of Christians of Antioch were guilty of Christians of Antioch were guilty of arson. All of this growing enmity was further All of this growing enmity was further exacerbated by another bout of famine exacerbated by another bout of famine exacerbated by another bout of famine just like the one that had helped take just like the one that had helped take just like the one that had helped take down Julian's brother Gallus.

down Julian's brother Gallus. down Julian's brother Gallus. The emperor attempted to set price The emperor attempted to set price The emperor attempted to set price controls on the now scarce grain supply. controls on the now scarce grain supply. controls on the now scarce grain supply. But all that happened was that rich But all that happened was that rich But all that happened was that rich merchants bought up all the available merchants bought up all the available merchants bought up all the available food at the controlled price and then food at the controlled price and then food at the controlled price and then carted it off to the surrounding carted it off to the surrounding carted it off to the surrounding countryside where they sold it at an countryside where they sold it at an countryside where they sold it at an insane markup. insane markup. insane markup. Between the religious conflict, the Between the religious conflict, the Between the religious conflict, the famine, and the just downright famine, and the just downright famine, and the just downright incompatibility of Julian and the incompatibility of Julian and the incompatibility of Julian and the Antiochenes, Antiochenes, Antiochenes, they like sumptuous living and games, he they like sumptuous living and games, he they like sumptuous living and games, he liked plain living and philosophy. liked plain living and philosophy. liked plain living and philosophy. It soon became clear that this was a It soon became clear that this was a It soon became clear that this was a relationship that was just never going relationship that was just never going relationship that was just never going to work. to work. to work. At a set of games thrown by Julian, At a set of games thrown by Julian, At a set of games thrown by Julian, against his will of course, the against his will of course, the against his will of course, the Antiochenes went in for a particularly Antiochenes went in for a particularly Antiochenes went in for a particularly harsh round of heckling that left the harsh round of heckling that left the harsh round of heckling that left the emperor embarrassed and embittered. emperor embarrassed and embittered. emperor embarrassed and embittered. He responded uh by publicly He responded uh by publicly He responded uh by publicly disseminating a satirical work called disseminating a satirical work called disseminating a satirical work called The Beard Hater, in which he viciously The Beard Hater, in which he viciously The Beard Hater, in which he viciously lampooned the citizens of Antioch while lampooned the citizens of Antioch while lampooned the citizens of Antioch while pretending to make fun of himself.

pretending to make fun of himself. pretending to make fun of himself. No one really comes off well in the No one really comes off well in the No one really comes off well in the exchange and the final upshot of it all exchange and the final upshot of it all exchange and the final upshot of it all is that when the emperor finally left is that when the emperor finally left is that when the emperor finally left the city in March 363, the city in March 363, the city in March 363, he promised never to return. His encounter with the Antiochenes His encounter with the Antiochenes though did not cause him to reassess his though did not cause him to reassess his though did not cause him to reassess his religious policies so much as cause him religious policies so much as cause him religious policies so much as cause him to dig in his heels. to dig in his heels. to dig in his heels. In January 363, Christians were banned In January 363, Christians were banned In January 363, Christians were banned from practicing law. from practicing law. from practicing law. In February, the Christian custom of In February, the Christian custom of In February, the Christian custom of daytime funerals was prohibited. But as I said, Julian was not just about But as I said, Julian was not just about tearing down. tearing down. tearing down. In the middle of all this, he also made In the middle of all this, he also made In the middle of all this, he also made an energetic, if futile, attempt to an energetic, if futile, attempt to an energetic, if futile, attempt to unify all the various pagan cults into a unify all the various pagan cults into a unify all the various pagan cults into a single organized religion, single organized religion, single organized religion, something that could structurally something that could structurally something that could structurally compete with Christianity. compete with Christianity. compete with Christianity. Julian could see how the empire-wide Julian could see how the empire-wide Julian could see how the empire-wide network of Christians helped cement its network of Christians helped cement its network of Christians helped cement its place in the hearts and minds of the place in the hearts and minds of the place in the hearts and minds of the citizens.

citizens. citizens. How their dedication to helping the How their dedication to helping the How their dedication to helping the poor, tending to the sick, and offering poor, tending to the sick, and offering poor, tending to the sick, and offering sanctuary to the lost made them so sanctuary to the lost made them so sanctuary to the lost made them so popular with the common people. popular with the common people. popular with the common people. And most of all, how their unity despite And most of all, how their unity despite And most of all, how their unity despite their many differences made them an their many differences made them an their many differences made them an institutional force to be reckoned with. institutional force to be reckoned with. institutional force to be reckoned with. So, Julian tried to create a pagan So, Julian tried to create a pagan So, Julian tried to create a pagan alternative to the Christian church. alternative to the Christian church. alternative to the Christian church. According to his plans, high priests According to his plans, high priests According to his plans, high priests would act as bishops. Lower priests would act as bishops. Lower priests would act as bishops. Lower priests would act as presbyters and deacons. would act as presbyters and deacons. would act as presbyters and deacons. And social outreach would become a And social outreach would become a And social outreach would become a central part of everyone's religious central part of everyone's religious central part of everyone's religious duties. The emperor even made a hurried stab at The emperor even made a hurried stab at creating an overarching metaphysical creating an overarching metaphysical creating an overarching metaphysical philosophical framework for all these philosophical framework for all these philosophical framework for all these cults to live in together. cults to live in together. cults to live in together. But it was a hopeless cause because, But it was a hopeless cause because, But it was a hopeless cause because, first of all, the emperor did not have first of all, the emperor did not have first of all, the emperor did not have time to properly flesh out his ideas. time to properly flesh out his ideas. time to properly flesh out his ideas. Second, maybe he didn't have the Second, maybe he didn't have the Second, maybe he didn't have the intellectual chops to even pull it off intellectual chops to even pull it off intellectual chops to even pull it off had he had the time.

had he had the time. had he had the time. And third, was a position paper really And third, was a position paper really And third, was a position paper really going to suddenly bind together going to suddenly bind together going to suddenly bind together religious cults that had never had religious cults that had never had religious cults that had never had anything to do with each other? anything to do with each other? anything to do with each other? There was no such thing as capital P There was no such thing as capital P There was no such thing as capital P paganism. paganism. paganism. It's just a word that we use to describe It's just a word that we use to describe It's just a word that we use to describe a collection of practices and traditions a collection of practices and traditions a collection of practices and traditions that had all built up independently of that had all built up independently of that had all built up independently of each other over time. each other over time. each other over time. You can't just throw them all together You can't just throw them all together You can't just throw them all together and say, "Now, you're just one thing." and say, "Now, you're just one thing." and say, "Now, you're just one thing." Julian wanted the final fight to be a Julian wanted the final fight to be a Julian wanted the final fight to be a one-on-one affair. one-on-one affair. one-on-one affair. Christianity versus traditional Christianity versus traditional Christianity versus traditional polytheism. polytheism. polytheism. But the very nature of that polytheism But the very nature of that polytheism But the very nature of that polytheism precluded the emperor's vision from ever precluded the emperor's vision from ever precluded the emperor's vision from ever becoming a reality. becoming a reality. becoming a reality. It was always going to be Christianity It was always going to be Christianity It was always going to be Christianity versus a whole bunch of small, disunited versus a whole bunch of small, disunited versus a whole bunch of small, disunited cults. But whether it would have worked or not But whether it would have worked or not doesn't really matter. doesn't really matter. doesn't really matter. When I say Julian did not have the time When I say Julian did not have the time When I say Julian did not have the time to properly flesh out his ideas, I don't to properly flesh out his ideas, I don't to properly flesh out his ideas, I don't just mean that he was really busy and just mean that he was really busy and just mean that he was really busy and didn't have time to focus on philosophy.

didn't have time to focus on philosophy. didn't have time to focus on philosophy. As I'm sure you know, As I'm sure you know, As I'm sure you know, Julian is about to die and leave all of Julian is about to die and leave all of Julian is about to die and leave all of this work unfinished. this work unfinished. this work unfinished. However, it would not be his war with However, it would not be his war with However, it would not be his war with Christianity that would bring him down, Christianity that would bring him down, Christianity that would bring him down, but rather his far more mundane and but rather his far more mundane and but rather his far more mundane and worldly war with Persia. Next week, the emperor will take to the Next week, the emperor will take to the field ready to score a victory against field ready to score a victory against field ready to score a victory against the Sassinids. the Sassinids. the Sassinids. But unfortunately, beyond score a But unfortunately, beyond score a But unfortunately, beyond score a victory, he didn't seem to have much victory, he didn't seem to have much victory, he didn't seem to have much strategic direction. strategic direction. strategic direction. What would a victory even look like? What would a victory even look like? What would a victory even look like? Did he want to sack the capital? Did he want to sack the capital? Did he want to sack the capital? Beat Shapur in a big battle? Beat Shapur in a big battle? Beat Shapur in a big battle? Remove Shapur from power completely? Remove Shapur from power completely? Remove Shapur from power completely? Conquer the whole of Persia? Conquer the whole of Persia? Conquer the whole of Persia? What? What? What? No one really knew what the ultimate No one really knew what the ultimate No one really knew what the ultimate objective was. objective was. objective was. And it may have been the case that And it may have been the case that And it may have been the case that Julian himself did not even know what Julian himself did not even know what Julian himself did not even know what the ultimate objective was. the ultimate objective was. the ultimate objective was. The emperor like to jump into things The emperor like to jump into things The emperor like to jump into things with both feet.

with both feet. with both feet. And once again, it appears that he And once again, it appears that he And once again, it appears that he really should have looked before he really should have looked before he really should have looked before he leaped.