01 Julius Caesar Part 1 - The Early Years To The Conquest Of Gaul

History of Julius Caesar by Jacob History of Julius Caesar by Jacob Abbott. Preface. Abbott. Preface. Abbott. Preface. It is the object of this series of It is the object of this series of It is the object of this series of histories to present a clear, distinct, histories to present a clear, distinct, histories to present a clear, distinct, and connected narrative of the lives of and connected narrative of the lives of and connected narrative of the lives of those great personages who have in those great personages who have in those great personages who have in various ages of the world made various ages of the world made various ages of the world made themselves celebrated as leaders among themselves celebrated as leaders among themselves celebrated as leaders among mankind, and by the part they have taken mankind, and by the part they have taken mankind, and by the part they have taken in the public affairs of nations, have in the public affairs of nations, have in the public affairs of nations, have exerted the widest influence on the exerted the widest influence on the exerted the widest influence on the history of the human race. The end which history of the human race. The end which history of the human race. The end which the author has had in view is twofold. the author has had in view is twofold. the author has had in view is twofold. First, to communicate such information First, to communicate such information First, to communicate such information in respect to the subjects of his in respect to the subjects of his in respect to the subjects of his narratives, as is important for the narratives, as is important for the narratives, as is important for the general reader to possess, and secondly, general reader to possess, and secondly, general reader to possess, and secondly, to draw such moral lessons from the to draw such moral lessons from the to draw such moral lessons from the events described and the characters events described and the characters events described and the characters delineated, as they may legitimately delineated, as they may legitimately delineated, as they may legitimately teach to the people of the present age, teach to the people of the present age, teach to the people of the present age, though written in a direct and simple though written in a direct and simple though written in a direct and simple style, they are intended for and style, they are intended for and style, they are intended for and addressed to minds possessed of some addressed to minds possessed of some addressed to minds possessed of some considerable degree of maturity. For considerable degree of maturity. For considerable degree of maturity. For such minds only can fully appreciate the such minds only can fully appreciate the such minds only can fully appreciate the character and action which exhibits character and action which exhibits character and action which exhibits itself, as nearly all that is described itself, as nearly all that is described itself, as nearly all that is described in these volumes does, in close in these volumes does, in close in these volumes does, in close combination with the conduct and policy combination with the conduct and policy combination with the conduct and policy of governments and the great events of of governments and the great events of of governments and the great events of international history.

international history. international history. Chapter 1. Marius and Sila. Chapter 1. Marius and Sila. Chapter 1. Marius and Sila. There were three great European nations There were three great European nations There were three great European nations in ancient days, each of which furnished in ancient days, each of which furnished in ancient days, each of which furnished history with a hero. the Greeks, the history with a hero. the Greeks, the history with a hero. the Greeks, the Carthaginians, and the Romans. Alexander Carthaginians, and the Romans. Alexander Carthaginians, and the Romans. Alexander was the hero of the Greeks. He was king was the hero of the Greeks. He was king was the hero of the Greeks. He was king of Macedon, a country lying north of of Macedon, a country lying north of of Macedon, a country lying north of Greece proper. He headed an army of his Greece proper. He headed an army of his Greece proper. He headed an army of his countrymen, and made an excursion for countrymen, and made an excursion for countrymen, and made an excursion for conquest and glory into Asia. He made conquest and glory into Asia. He made conquest and glory into Asia. He made himself master of all that quarter of himself master of all that quarter of himself master of all that quarter of the globe, and reigned over it in the globe, and reigned over it in the globe, and reigned over it in Babylon, till he brought himself to an Babylon, till he brought himself to an Babylon, till he brought himself to an early grave by the excesses into which early grave by the excesses into which early grave by the excesses into which his boundless prosperity allured him. his boundless prosperity allured him. his boundless prosperity allured him. His fame rests on his triumphant success His fame rests on his triumphant success His fame rests on his triumphant success in building up for himself so vast an in building up for himself so vast an in building up for himself so vast an empire, and the admiration which his empire, and the admiration which his empire, and the admiration which his career has always excited among mankind career has always excited among mankind career has always excited among mankind is heightened by the consideration of is heightened by the consideration of is heightened by the consideration of his youth, and of the noble and generous his youth, and of the noble and generous his youth, and of the noble and generous impulses which strongly marked his impulses which strongly marked his impulses which strongly marked his character. The Carthaginian hero was character. The Carthaginian hero was character. The Carthaginian hero was Hannibal. We class the Carthaginians Hannibal. We class the Carthaginians Hannibal. We class the Carthaginians among the European nations of antiquity. among the European nations of antiquity. among the European nations of antiquity. For in respect to their origin, their For in respect to their origin, their For in respect to their origin, their civilization, and all their commercial civilization, and all their commercial civilization, and all their commercial and political relations, they belong to and political relations, they belong to and political relations, they belong to the European race. Though it is true the European race. Though it is true the European race. Though it is true that their capital was on the African that their capital was on the African that their capital was on the African side of the Mediterranean Sea. Hannibal side of the Mediterranean Sea. Hannibal side of the Mediterranean Sea. Hannibal was the great Carthaginian hero. He was the great Carthaginian hero. He was the great Carthaginian hero. He earned his fame by the energy and earned his fame by the energy and earned his fame by the energy and implacableness of his hate. The work of implacableness of his hate. The work of implacableness of his hate. The work of his life was to keep a vast empire in a his life was to keep a vast empire in a his life was to keep a vast empire in a state of continual anxiety and terror state of continual anxiety and terror state of continual anxiety and terror for 50 years. So that his claim to for 50 years. So that his claim to for 50 years. So that his claim to greatness and glory rests on the greatness and glory rests on the greatness and glory rests on the determination, the perseverance and the

determination, the perseverance and the determination, the perseverance and the success with which he fulfilled his success with which he fulfilled his success with which he fulfilled his function of being while he lived the function of being while he lived the function of being while he lived the terror of the world. The Roman hero was terror of the world. The Roman hero was terror of the world. The Roman hero was Caesar. He was born just 100 years Caesar. He was born just 100 years Caesar. He was born just 100 years before the Christian era. His renown before the Christian era. His renown before the Christian era. His renown does not depend, like that of Alexander, does not depend, like that of Alexander, does not depend, like that of Alexander, on foreign conquests, nor like that of on foreign conquests, nor like that of on foreign conquests, nor like that of Hannibal on the terrible energy of his Hannibal on the terrible energy of his Hannibal on the terrible energy of his aggressions upon foreign foes, but upon aggressions upon foreign foes, but upon aggressions upon foreign foes, but upon his protracted and dreadful contests his protracted and dreadful contests his protracted and dreadful contests with and ultimate triumphs over his with and ultimate triumphs over his with and ultimate triumphs over his rivals and competitors at home. When he rivals and competitors at home. When he rivals and competitors at home. When he appeared upon the stage, the Roman appeared upon the stage, the Roman appeared upon the stage, the Roman Empire already included nearly all of Empire already included nearly all of Empire already included nearly all of the world that was worth possessing. the world that was worth possessing. the world that was worth possessing. There were no more conquests to be made. There were no more conquests to be made. There were no more conquests to be made. Caesar did indeed enlarge in some degree Caesar did indeed enlarge in some degree Caesar did indeed enlarge in some degree the boundaries of the empire, but the the boundaries of the empire, but the the boundaries of the empire, but the main question in his day was who should main question in his day was who should main question in his day was who should possess the power which preceding possess the power which preceding possess the power which preceding conquerors had acquired. The Roman conquerors had acquired. The Roman conquerors had acquired. The Roman Empire, as it existed in those days, Empire, as it existed in those days, Empire, as it existed in those days, must not be conceived of by the reader must not be conceived of by the reader must not be conceived of by the reader as united together under one compact and as united together under one compact and as united together under one compact and consolidated government. It was on the consolidated government. It was on the consolidated government. It was on the other hand a vast conjurer of nations other hand a vast conjurer of nations other hand a vast conjurer of nations widely dissimilar in every respect from widely dissimilar in every respect from widely dissimilar in every respect from each other speaking various languages each other speaking various languages each other speaking various languages and having various customs and laws.

and having various customs and laws. and having various customs and laws. They were all however more or less They were all however more or less They were all however more or less dependent upon and connected with the dependent upon and connected with the dependent upon and connected with the great central power. Some of these great central power. Some of these great central power. Some of these countries were provinces and were countries were provinces and were countries were provinces and were governed by officers appointed and sent governed by officers appointed and sent governed by officers appointed and sent out by the authorities at Rome. These out by the authorities at Rome. These out by the authorities at Rome. These governors had to collect the taxes of governors had to collect the taxes of governors had to collect the taxes of their provinces and also to preside over their provinces and also to preside over their provinces and also to preside over and direct in many important respects and direct in many important respects and direct in many important respects the administration of justice. They had the administration of justice. They had the administration of justice. They had accordingly abundant opportunities to accordingly abundant opportunities to accordingly abundant opportunities to enrich themselves while thus in office enrich themselves while thus in office enrich themselves while thus in office by collecting more money than they paid by collecting more money than they paid by collecting more money than they paid over to the government at home and by over to the government at home and by over to the government at home and by taking bribes to favor the rich man's taking bribes to favor the rich man's taking bribes to favor the rich man's cause in court. Thus, the more wealthy cause in court. Thus, the more wealthy cause in court. Thus, the more wealthy and prosperous provinces were objects of and prosperous provinces were objects of and prosperous provinces were objects of great competition among aspirants for great competition among aspirants for great competition among aspirants for office at Rome. Leading men would get office at Rome. Leading men would get office at Rome. Leading men would get these appointments, and after remaining these appointments, and after remaining these appointments, and after remaining long enough in their provinces to long enough in their provinces to long enough in their provinces to acquire a fortune, would come back to acquire a fortune, would come back to acquire a fortune, would come back to Rome and expended in intrigues and Rome and expended in intrigues and Rome and expended in intrigues and maneuvers to obtain higher offices. maneuvers to obtain higher offices. maneuvers to obtain higher offices. Still, whenever there was any foreign Still, whenever there was any foreign Still, whenever there was any foreign war to be carried on with a distant war to be carried on with a distant war to be carried on with a distant nation or tribe, there was always a nation or tribe, there was always a nation or tribe, there was always a great eagerness among the military great eagerness among the military great eagerness among the military officers of the state to be appointed to officers of the state to be appointed to officers of the state to be appointed to the command. They each felt sure that the command. They each felt sure that the command. They each felt sure that they should conquer in the contest, and they should conquer in the contest, and they should conquer in the contest, and they could enrich themselves still more they could enrich themselves still more they could enrich themselves still more rapidly by the spoils of victory in war, rapidly by the spoils of victory in war, rapidly by the spoils of victory in war, than by extortion and bribes in the than by extortion and bribes in the than by extortion and bribes in the government of a province in peace. Then, government of a province in peace. Then, government of a province in peace. Then, besides, a victorious general coming besides, a victorious general coming besides, a victorious general coming back to Rome always found that his back to Rome always found that his back to Rome always found that his military renown added vastly to his military renown added vastly to his military renown added vastly to his influence and power in the city. He was influence and power in the city. He was influence and power in the city. He was welcomed with celebrations and triumphs.

welcomed with celebrations and triumphs. welcomed with celebrations and triumphs. The people flocked to see him and to The people flocked to see him and to The people flocked to see him and to shout his praise. He placed his trophies shout his praise. He placed his trophies shout his praise. He placed his trophies of victory in the temples and of victory in the temples and of victory in the temples and entertained the populace with games and entertained the populace with games and entertained the populace with games and shows and with combats of gladiators or shows and with combats of gladiators or shows and with combats of gladiators or of wild beasts which he had brought home of wild beasts which he had brought home of wild beasts which he had brought home with him for this purpose in the train with him for this purpose in the train with him for this purpose in the train of his army. While he was thus enjoying of his army. While he was thus enjoying of his army. While he was thus enjoying his triumph, his political enemies would his triumph, his political enemies would his triumph, his political enemies would be thrown into the background and into be thrown into the background and into be thrown into the background and into the shade, unless indeed some one of the shade, unless indeed some one of the shade, unless indeed some one of them might himself be earning the same them might himself be earning the same them might himself be earning the same honors in some other field to come back honors in some other field to come back honors in some other field to come back in due time and claim his share of power in due time and claim his share of power in due time and claim his share of power and celebrity in his turn. In this case, and celebrity in his turn. In this case, and celebrity in his turn. In this case, Rome would be sometimes distracted and Rome would be sometimes distracted and Rome would be sometimes distracted and rent by the conflicts and contentions of rent by the conflicts and contentions of rent by the conflicts and contentions of military rivals who had acquired powers military rivals who had acquired powers military rivals who had acquired powers too vast for all the civil influences of too vast for all the civil influences of too vast for all the civil influences of the republic to regulate or control. the republic to regulate or control. the republic to regulate or control. There had been two such rivals just There had been two such rivals just There had been two such rivals just before the time of Caesar who had filled before the time of Caesar who had filled before the time of Caesar who had filled the world with their quarrels. They were the world with their quarrels. They were the world with their quarrels. They were Marius and Sila. Their very names have Marius and Sila. Their very names have Marius and Sila. Their very names have been in all ages of the world since been in all ages of the world since been in all ages of the world since their day the symbols of rivalry and their day the symbols of rivalry and their day the symbols of rivalry and hate. They were the representatives hate. They were the representatives hate. They were the representatives respectively of the two great parties respectively of the two great parties respectively of the two great parties into which the Roman state like every into which the Roman state like every into which the Roman state like every other community in which the population other community in which the population other community in which the population at large have any voice in governing has at large have any voice in governing has at large have any voice in governing has always been and probably always will be always been and probably always will be always been and probably always will be divided. The upper and the lower or as divided. The upper and the lower or as divided. The upper and the lower or as they were called in those days the they were called in those days the they were called in those days the patrician and the plebeian. Sila was the patrician and the plebeian. Sila was the patrician and the plebeian. Sila was the patrician. The higher and more patrician. The higher and more patrician. The higher and more aristocratic portions of the community aristocratic portions of the community aristocratic portions of the community were on his side. Marius was the were on his side. Marius was the were on his side. Marius was the favorite of the plebeian masses. In the

favorite of the plebeian masses. In the favorite of the plebeian masses. In the contests, however, which they waged with contests, however, which they waged with contests, however, which they waged with each other, they did not trust to the each other, they did not trust to the each other, they did not trust to the mere influence of votes. They relied mere influence of votes. They relied mere influence of votes. They relied much more upon the soldiers they could much more upon the soldiers they could much more upon the soldiers they could gather under their respective standards gather under their respective standards gather under their respective standards and upon their power of intimidating by and upon their power of intimidating by and upon their power of intimidating by means of them the Roman assemblies. means of them the Roman assemblies. means of them the Roman assemblies. There was a war to be waged with There was a war to be waged with There was a war to be waged with Mithrates, a very powerful Aiatic Mithrates, a very powerful Aiatic Mithrates, a very powerful Aiatic monarch, which promised great monarch, which promised great monarch, which promised great opportunities for acquiring fame and opportunities for acquiring fame and opportunities for acquiring fame and plunder. Sila was appointed to the plunder. Sila was appointed to the plunder. Sila was appointed to the command. While he was absent, however, command. While he was absent, however, command. While he was absent, however, upon some campaign in Italy, Marius upon some campaign in Italy, Marius upon some campaign in Italy, Marius contrived to have the decision reversed contrived to have the decision reversed contrived to have the decision reversed and the command transferred to him. Two and the command transferred to him. Two and the command transferred to him. Two officers called tribunes were sent to officers called tribunes were sent to officers called tribunes were sent to Sila's camp to inform him of the change. Sila's camp to inform him of the change. Sila's camp to inform him of the change. Sila killed the officers for daring to Sila killed the officers for daring to Sila killed the officers for daring to bring him such a message and began bring him such a message and began bring him such a message and began immediately to march toward Rome. In immediately to march toward Rome. In immediately to march toward Rome. In retaliation for the murder of the retaliation for the murder of the retaliation for the murder of the tribunes, the party of Marius in the tribunes, the party of Marius in the tribunes, the party of Marius in the city killed some of Sila's prominent city killed some of Sila's prominent city killed some of Sila's prominent friends there, and a general alarm friends there, and a general alarm friends there, and a general alarm spread itself throughout the population. spread itself throughout the population. spread itself throughout the population. The Senate, which was a sort of House of The Senate, which was a sort of House of The Senate, which was a sort of House of Lords, embodying mainly the power and Lords, embodying mainly the power and Lords, embodying mainly the power and influence of the Petrician party, and influence of the Petrician party, and influence of the Petrician party, and was of course on Sila's side, sent out was of course on Sila's side, sent out was of course on Sila's side, sent out to him when he had arrived within a few to him when he had arrived within a few to him when he had arrived within a few miles of the city, urging him to come no miles of the city, urging him to come no miles of the city, urging him to come no further. He pretended to comply. He further. He pretended to comply. He further. He pretended to comply. He marked out the ground for a camp, but he marked out the ground for a camp, but he marked out the ground for a camp, but he did not. on that account materially did not. on that account materially did not. on that account materially delay his march. The next morning he was delay his march. The next morning he was delay his march. The next morning he was in possession of the city. The friends in possession of the city. The friends in possession of the city. The friends of Marius attempted to resist him by of Marius attempted to resist him by of Marius attempted to resist him by throwing stones upon his troops from the throwing stones upon his troops from the throwing stones upon his troops from the roofs of the houses. Sila ordered every roofs of the houses. Sila ordered every roofs of the houses. Sila ordered every house from which these symptoms of

house from which these symptoms of house from which these symptoms of resistance appeared to be set on fire. resistance appeared to be set on fire. resistance appeared to be set on fire. Thus, the whole population of a vast and Thus, the whole population of a vast and Thus, the whole population of a vast and wealthy city were thrown into a wealthy city were thrown into a wealthy city were thrown into a condition of extreme danger and terror condition of extreme danger and terror condition of extreme danger and terror by the conflicts of two great bands of by the conflicts of two great bands of by the conflicts of two great bands of armed men, each claiming to be their armed men, each claiming to be their armed men, each claiming to be their friends. friends. friends. Marius was conquered in this struggle Marius was conquered in this struggle Marius was conquered in this struggle and fled for his life. Many of the and fled for his life. Many of the and fled for his life. Many of the friends whom he left behind were killed. friends whom he left behind were killed. friends whom he left behind were killed. The Senate were assembled, and at Sila's The Senate were assembled, and at Sila's The Senate were assembled, and at Sila's orders, a decree was passed, declaring orders, a decree was passed, declaring orders, a decree was passed, declaring Marius a public enemy, and offering a Marius a public enemy, and offering a Marius a public enemy, and offering a reward to anyone who would bring his reward to anyone who would bring his reward to anyone who would bring his head back to Rome. Marius fled, head back to Rome. Marius fled, head back to Rome. Marius fled, friendless and alone, to the southward, friendless and alone, to the southward, friendless and alone, to the southward, hunted everywhere by men who were eager hunted everywhere by men who were eager hunted everywhere by men who were eager to get the reward offered for his head. to get the reward offered for his head. to get the reward offered for his head. After various romantic adventures and After various romantic adventures and After various romantic adventures and narrow escapes, he succeeded in making narrow escapes, he succeeded in making narrow escapes, he succeeded in making his way across the Mediterranean Sea, his way across the Mediterranean Sea, his way across the Mediterranean Sea, and found at last a refuge and a hut and found at last a refuge and a hut and found at last a refuge and a hut among the ruins of Carthage. He was an among the ruins of Carthage. He was an among the ruins of Carthage. He was an old man, being now over 70 years of age. old man, being now over 70 years of age. old man, being now over 70 years of age. Of course, Sila thought that his great Of course, Sila thought that his great Of course, Sila thought that his great rival and enemy was now finally disposed rival and enemy was now finally disposed rival and enemy was now finally disposed of, and he accordingly began to make of, and he accordingly began to make of, and he accordingly began to make preparations for his Aiatic campaign. He preparations for his Aiatic campaign. He preparations for his Aiatic campaign. He raised his army, built and equipped a raised his army, built and equipped a raised his army, built and equipped a fleet, and went away. As soon as he was fleet, and went away. As soon as he was fleet, and went away. As soon as he was gone, Marius's friends in the city began gone, Marius's friends in the city began gone, Marius's friends in the city began to come forth, and to take measures for to come forth, and to take measures for to come forth, and to take measures for reinstating themselves in power. Marius reinstating themselves in power. Marius reinstating themselves in power. Marius returned too from Africa and soon returned too from Africa and soon returned too from Africa and soon gathered about him a large army. Being gathered about him a large army. Being gathered about him a large army. Being the friend, as he pretended, of the the friend, as he pretended, of the the friend, as he pretended, of the lower classes of society, he collected lower classes of society, he collected lower classes of society, he collected vast multitudes of revolted slaves,

vast multitudes of revolted slaves, vast multitudes of revolted slaves, outlaws, and other desperados, and outlaws, and other desperados, and outlaws, and other desperados, and advanced toward Rome. He assumed himself advanced toward Rome. He assumed himself advanced toward Rome. He assumed himself the dress and air and savage demeanor of the dress and air and savage demeanor of the dress and air and savage demeanor of his followers. His countenance had been his followers. His countenance had been his followers. His countenance had been rendered haggarded and cadaavverous, rendered haggarded and cadaavverous, rendered haggarded and cadaavverous, partly by the influence of exposures, partly by the influence of exposures, partly by the influence of exposures, hardships, and suffering upon his hardships, and suffering upon his hardships, and suffering upon his advanced age, and partly by the stern advanced age, and partly by the stern advanced age, and partly by the stern and moody plans, and determinations of and moody plans, and determinations of and moody plans, and determinations of revenge, which his mind was perpetually revenge, which his mind was perpetually revenge, which his mind was perpetually revolving. He listened to the revolving. He listened to the revolving. He listened to the deputations which the Roman Senate sent deputations which the Roman Senate sent deputations which the Roman Senate sent out to him from time to time, as he out to him from time to time, as he out to him from time to time, as he advanced toward the city, but refused to advanced toward the city, but refused to advanced toward the city, but refused to make any terms. He moved forward with make any terms. He moved forward with make any terms. He moved forward with all the outward deliberation and all the outward deliberation and all the outward deliberation and calmness suitable to his years, while calmness suitable to his years, while calmness suitable to his years, while all the ferocity of a tiger was burning all the ferocity of a tiger was burning all the ferocity of a tiger was burning within. within. within. As soon as he had gained possession of As soon as he had gained possession of As soon as he had gained possession of the city, he began his work of the city, he began his work of the city, he began his work of destruction. He first beheaded one of destruction. He first beheaded one of destruction. He first beheaded one of the consoles and ordered his head to be the consoles and ordered his head to be the consoles and ordered his head to be set up as a public spectacle in the most set up as a public spectacle in the most set up as a public spectacle in the most conspicuous place in the city. This was conspicuous place in the city. This was conspicuous place in the city. This was the beginning. All the prominent friends the beginning. All the prominent friends the beginning. All the prominent friends of Sila, men of the highest rank and of Sila, men of the highest rank and of Sila, men of the highest rank and station, were then killed wherever they station, were then killed wherever they station, were then killed wherever they could be found without sentence, without could be found without sentence, without could be found without sentence, without trial, without any other accusation even trial, without any other accusation even trial, without any other accusation even than the military decision of Marius than the military decision of Marius than the military decision of Marius that they were his enemies and must die.

that they were his enemies and must die. that they were his enemies and must die. For those against whom he felt any For those against whom he felt any For those against whom he felt any special animosity, he contrived some special animosity, he contrived some special animosity, he contrived some special mode of execution, one whose special mode of execution, one whose special mode of execution, one whose fate he wished particularly to signalize fate he wished particularly to signalize fate he wished particularly to signalize was thrown down from the Tarpian rock. was thrown down from the Tarpian rock. was thrown down from the Tarpian rock. The Tarpian rock was a precipice about The Tarpian rock was a precipice about The Tarpian rock was a precipice about 50 ft high, which is still to be seen in 50 ft high, which is still to be seen in 50 ft high, which is still to be seen in Rome, from which the worst of state Rome, from which the worst of state Rome, from which the worst of state criminals were sometimes thrown. They criminals were sometimes thrown. They criminals were sometimes thrown. They were taken up to the top by a stair, and were taken up to the top by a stair, and were taken up to the top by a stair, and were then hurled from the summit to die were then hurled from the summit to die were then hurled from the summit to die miserably, writhing in agony after their miserably, writhing in agony after their miserably, writhing in agony after their fall upon the rocks below. The Tarpian fall upon the rocks below. The Tarpian fall upon the rocks below. The Tarpian rock received its name from the ancient rock received its name from the ancient rock received its name from the ancient story of Tarpia. The tale is that Tarpia story of Tarpia. The tale is that Tarpia story of Tarpia. The tale is that Tarpia was a Roman girl who lived at a time in was a Roman girl who lived at a time in was a Roman girl who lived at a time in the earliest periods of the Roman the earliest periods of the Roman the earliest periods of the Roman history when the city was besieged by an history when the city was besieged by an history when the city was besieged by an army from one of the neighboring army from one of the neighboring army from one of the neighboring nations. Besides their shields, the nations. Besides their shields, the nations. Besides their shields, the story is that the soldiers had golden story is that the soldiers had golden story is that the soldiers had golden bracelets upon their arms. They wished bracelets upon their arms. They wished bracelets upon their arms. They wished Tarpia to open the gates and let them Tarpia to open the gates and let them Tarpia to open the gates and let them in. She promised to do so if they would in. She promised to do so if they would in. She promised to do so if they would give her their bracelets, but as she did give her their bracelets, but as she did give her their bracelets, but as she did not know the name of the shining not know the name of the shining not know the name of the shining ornaments, the language she used to ornaments, the language she used to ornaments, the language she used to designate them was, "Those things you designate them was, "Those things you designate them was, "Those things you have upon your arms." The soldiers have upon your arms." The soldiers have upon your arms." The soldiers exceeded to her terms. She opened the exceeded to her terms. She opened the exceeded to her terms. She opened the gates, and they, instead of giving her gates, and they, instead of giving her gates, and they, instead of giving her the bracelets, threw their shields upon the bracelets, threw their shields upon the bracelets, threw their shields upon her as they passed, until the poor girl her as they passed, until the poor girl her as they passed, until the poor girl was crushed down with them and was crushed down with them and was crushed down with them and destroyed. This was near the Tarpian destroyed. This was near the Tarpian destroyed. This was near the Tarpian rock, which afterward took her name. The rock, which afterward took her name. The rock, which afterward took her name. The rock is now found to be perforated by a rock is now found to be perforated by a rock is now found to be perforated by a great many subterranean passages, the great many subterranean passages, the great many subterranean passages, the remains probably of ancient quaries.

remains probably of ancient quaries. remains probably of ancient quaries. Some of these galleries are now walled Some of these galleries are now walled Some of these galleries are now walled up, others are open. And the people who up, others are open. And the people who up, others are open. And the people who live around the spot believe it is said live around the spot believe it is said live around the spot believe it is said to this day that Tarpia herself sits to this day that Tarpia herself sits to this day that Tarpia herself sits enchanted far in the interior of these enchanted far in the interior of these enchanted far in the interior of these caverns, covered with gold and jewels, caverns, covered with gold and jewels, caverns, covered with gold and jewels, but that whoever attempts to find her is but that whoever attempts to find her is but that whoever attempts to find her is fated by an irresistible destiny to lose fated by an irresistible destiny to lose fated by an irresistible destiny to lose his way, and he never returns. The last his way, and he never returns. The last his way, and he never returns. The last story is probably as true as the other. story is probably as true as the other. story is probably as true as the other. Marius continued his executions and Marius continued his executions and Marius continued his executions and massacres until the whole of Sila's massacres until the whole of Sila's massacres until the whole of Sila's party had been slain or put to flight. party had been slain or put to flight. party had been slain or put to flight. He made every effort to discover Sila's He made every effort to discover Sila's He made every effort to discover Sila's wife and child with a view to destroying wife and child with a view to destroying wife and child with a view to destroying them also, but they could not be found. them also, but they could not be found. them also, but they could not be found. Some friends of Sila, taking compassion Some friends of Sila, taking compassion Some friends of Sila, taking compassion on their innocence and helplessness, on their innocence and helplessness, on their innocence and helplessness, concealed them, and thus saved Marius concealed them, and thus saved Marius concealed them, and thus saved Marius from the commission of one intended from the commission of one intended from the commission of one intended crime. Marius was disappointed too in crime. Marius was disappointed too in crime. Marius was disappointed too in some other cases where men whom he had some other cases where men whom he had some other cases where men whom he had intended to kill destroyed themselves to intended to kill destroyed themselves to intended to kill destroyed themselves to baffle his vengeance. One shut himself baffle his vengeance. One shut himself baffle his vengeance. One shut himself up in a room with burning charcoal and up in a room with burning charcoal and up in a room with burning charcoal and was suffocated with the fumes. Another was suffocated with the fumes. Another was suffocated with the fumes. Another bled himself to death upon a public bled himself to death upon a public bled himself to death upon a public altar, calling down the judgments of the altar, calling down the judgments of the altar, calling down the judgments of the god to whom he offered this dreadful god to whom he offered this dreadful god to whom he offered this dreadful sacrifice upon the head of the tyrant sacrifice upon the head of the tyrant sacrifice upon the head of the tyrant whose atrocious cruelty he was thus whose atrocious cruelty he was thus whose atrocious cruelty he was thus attempting to evade. By the time that attempting to evade. By the time that attempting to evade. By the time that Marius had got fairly established in his Marius had got fairly established in his Marius had got fairly established in his new position, and was completely master new position, and was completely master new position, and was completely master of Rome, and the city had begun to of Rome, and the city had begun to of Rome, and the city had begun to recover a little from the shock and recover a little from the shock and recover a little from the shock and consternation produced by his consternation produced by his consternation produced by his executions, he fell sick. He was executions, he fell sick. He was executions, he fell sick. He was attacked with an acute disease of great attacked with an acute disease of great attacked with an acute disease of great violence. The attack was perhaps

violence. The attack was perhaps violence. The attack was perhaps produced, and was certainly aggravated produced, and was certainly aggravated produced, and was certainly aggravated by the great mental excitements through by the great mental excitements through by the great mental excitements through which he had passed during his exile, which he had passed during his exile, which he had passed during his exile, and in the entire change of fortune and in the entire change of fortune and in the entire change of fortune which had attended his return, from which had attended his return, from which had attended his return, from being a wretched fugitive, hiding for being a wretched fugitive, hiding for being a wretched fugitive, hiding for his life among gloomy and desolate his life among gloomy and desolate his life among gloomy and desolate ruins, he found himself suddenly ruins, he found himself suddenly ruins, he found himself suddenly transferred to the mastery of the world. transferred to the mastery of the world. transferred to the mastery of the world. His mind was excited too in respect to His mind was excited too in respect to His mind was excited too in respect to Sila, whom he had not yet reached or Sila, whom he had not yet reached or Sila, whom he had not yet reached or subdued, but who was still prosecuting subdued, but who was still prosecuting subdued, but who was still prosecuting his war against Mithridates. his war against Mithridates. his war against Mithridates. Marius had had him pronounced by the Marius had had him pronounced by the Marius had had him pronounced by the Senate an enemy to his country, and was Senate an enemy to his country, and was Senate an enemy to his country, and was meditating plans to reach him in his meditating plans to reach him in his meditating plans to reach him in his distant province, considering his distant province, considering his distant province, considering his triumph incomplete as long as his great triumph incomplete as long as his great triumph incomplete as long as his great rival was at liberty and alive. The rival was at liberty and alive. The rival was at liberty and alive. The sickness cut short these plans, but it sickness cut short these plans, but it sickness cut short these plans, but it only inflamed to double violence the only inflamed to double violence the only inflamed to double violence the excitement and the agitations which excitement and the agitations which excitement and the agitations which attended them. As the dying tyrant attended them. As the dying tyrant attended them. As the dying tyrant tossed restlessly upon his bed, it was tossed restlessly upon his bed, it was tossed restlessly upon his bed, it was plain that the delirious ravings which plain that the delirious ravings which plain that the delirious ravings which he began soon to utter were excited by he began soon to utter were excited by he began soon to utter were excited by the same sentiments of insatiable the same sentiments of insatiable the same sentiments of insatiable ambition and ferocious hate, whose ambition and ferocious hate, whose ambition and ferocious hate, whose calmer dictates he had obeyed when well.

calmer dictates he had obeyed when well. calmer dictates he had obeyed when well. He imagined that he had succeeded in He imagined that he had succeeded in He imagined that he had succeeded in supplanting Sila in his command and that supplanting Sila in his command and that supplanting Sila in his command and that he was himself in Asia at the head of he was himself in Asia at the head of he was himself in Asia at the head of his armies. Impressed with this idea, he his armies. Impressed with this idea, he his armies. Impressed with this idea, he stared wildly around. He called aloud stared wildly around. He called aloud stared wildly around. He called aloud the name of Mithrates. He shouted orders the name of Mithrates. He shouted orders the name of Mithrates. He shouted orders to imaginary troops. He struggled to to imaginary troops. He struggled to to imaginary troops. He struggled to break away from the restraints which the break away from the restraints which the break away from the restraints which the attendants about his bedside imposed, to attendants about his bedside imposed, to attendants about his bedside imposed, to attack the phantom foes which haunted attack the phantom foes which haunted attack the phantom foes which haunted him in his dreams. This continued for him in his dreams. This continued for him in his dreams. This continued for several days, and when at last nature several days, and when at last nature several days, and when at last nature was exhausted by the violence of these was exhausted by the violence of these was exhausted by the violence of these peroxisms of frenzy, the vital powers peroxisms of frenzy, the vital powers peroxisms of frenzy, the vital powers which had been for 70 long years which had been for 70 long years which had been for 70 long years spending their strength in deeds of spending their strength in deeds of spending their strength in deeds of selfishness, cruelty, and hatred, found selfishness, cruelty, and hatred, found selfishness, cruelty, and hatred, found their work done, and sunk to revive no their work done, and sunk to revive no their work done, and sunk to revive no more. Marius left a son of the same name more. Marius left a son of the same name more. Marius left a son of the same name with himself, who attempted to retain with himself, who attempted to retain with himself, who attempted to retain his father's power. But Sila, having his father's power. But Sila, having his father's power. But Sila, having brought his war with Mithrates to a brought his war with Mithrates to a brought his war with Mithrates to a conclusion, was now on his return from conclusion, was now on his return from conclusion, was now on his return from Asia, and it was very evident that a Asia, and it was very evident that a Asia, and it was very evident that a terrible conflict was about to ensue. terrible conflict was about to ensue. terrible conflict was about to ensue. Sila advanced triumphantly through the Sila advanced triumphantly through the Sila advanced triumphantly through the country, while Marius the Younger and country, while Marius the Younger and country, while Marius the Younger and his partisans concentrated their forces his partisans concentrated their forces his partisans concentrated their forces about the city and prepared for defense.

about the city and prepared for defense. about the city and prepared for defense. The people of the city were divided, the The people of the city were divided, the The people of the city were divided, the aristocratic faction adhering to the aristocratic faction adhering to the aristocratic faction adhering to the cause of Sila, while the democratic cause of Sila, while the democratic cause of Sila, while the democratic influences sided with Marius. influences sided with Marius. influences sided with Marius. Political parties rise and fall in Political parties rise and fall in Political parties rise and fall in almost all ages of the world in almost all ages of the world in almost all ages of the world in alternate fluctuations like those of the alternate fluctuations like those of the alternate fluctuations like those of the tides. The faction of Marius had been tides. The faction of Marius had been tides. The faction of Marius had been for some time in the ascendancy, and it for some time in the ascendancy, and it for some time in the ascendancy, and it was now its turn to fall. Sil found, was now its turn to fall. Sil found, was now its turn to fall. Sil found, therefore, as he advanced, everything therefore, as he advanced, everything therefore, as he advanced, everything favorable to the restoration of his own favorable to the restoration of his own favorable to the restoration of his own party to power. He destroyed the armies party to power. He destroyed the armies party to power. He destroyed the armies which came out to oppose him, he shut up which came out to oppose him, he shut up which came out to oppose him, he shut up the young Marius in a city not far from the young Marius in a city not far from the young Marius in a city not far from Rome, where he had endeavored to find Rome, where he had endeavored to find Rome, where he had endeavored to find shelter and protection, and then shelter and protection, and then shelter and protection, and then advanced himself, and took possession of advanced himself, and took possession of advanced himself, and took possession of the city. There he caused to be enacted the city. There he caused to be enacted the city. There he caused to be enacted again the horrid scenes of massacre and again the horrid scenes of massacre and again the horrid scenes of massacre and murder which Marius had perpetrated murder which Marius had perpetrated murder which Marius had perpetrated before. Going, however, as much beyond before. Going, however, as much beyond before. Going, however, as much beyond the example which he followed, as men the example which he followed, as men the example which he followed, as men usually do in the commission of crime, usually do in the commission of crime, usually do in the commission of crime, he gave out lists of the names of men he gave out lists of the names of men he gave out lists of the names of men whom he wished to have destroyed. And whom he wished to have destroyed. And whom he wished to have destroyed. And these unhappy victims of his revenge these unhappy victims of his revenge these unhappy victims of his revenge were to be hunted out by bands of were to be hunted out by bands of were to be hunted out by bands of reckless soldiers in their dwellings or reckless soldiers in their dwellings or reckless soldiers in their dwellings or in the places of public resort in the in the places of public resort in the in the places of public resort in the city and dispatched by the sword city and dispatched by the sword city and dispatched by the sword wherever they could be found. The scenes wherever they could be found. The scenes wherever they could be found. The scenes which these deeds created in a vast and which these deeds created in a vast and which these deeds created in a vast and populous city can scarcely be conceived populous city can scarcely be conceived populous city can scarcely be conceived of by those who have never witnessed the of by those who have never witnessed the of by those who have never witnessed the horrors produced by the massacres of horrors produced by the massacres of horrors produced by the massacres of civil war. Sila himself went through civil war. Sila himself went through civil war. Sila himself went through with this work in the most cool and with this work in the most cool and with this work in the most cool and unconcerned manner, as if he were

unconcerned manner, as if he were unconcerned manner, as if he were performing the most ordinary duties of performing the most ordinary duties of performing the most ordinary duties of an officer of state. He called the an officer of state. He called the an officer of state. He called the Senate together one day, and while he Senate together one day, and while he Senate together one day, and while he was addressing them, the attention of was addressing them, the attention of was addressing them, the attention of the assembly was suddenly distracted by the assembly was suddenly distracted by the assembly was suddenly distracted by the noise of outcries and screams in the the noise of outcries and screams in the the noise of outcries and screams in the neighboring streets from those who were neighboring streets from those who were neighboring streets from those who were suffering military execution there. The suffering military execution there. The suffering military execution there. The senators started with horror at the senators started with horror at the senators started with horror at the sound. Sila, with an airir of great sound. Sila, with an airir of great sound. Sila, with an airir of great composure and unconcern, directed the composure and unconcern, directed the composure and unconcern, directed the members to listen to him, and to pay no members to listen to him, and to pay no members to listen to him, and to pay no attention to what was passing elsewhere. attention to what was passing elsewhere. attention to what was passing elsewhere. The sounds that they heard were, he The sounds that they heard were, he The sounds that they heard were, he said, only some correction which was said, only some correction which was said, only some correction which was bestowed by his orders on certain bestowed by his orders on certain bestowed by his orders on certain disturbers of the public peace. disturbers of the public peace. disturbers of the public peace. Sila's orders for the execution of those Sila's orders for the execution of those Sila's orders for the execution of those who had taken an active part against him who had taken an active part against him who had taken an active part against him were not confined to Rome. They went to were not confined to Rome. They went to were not confined to Rome. They went to the neighboring cities and to distant the neighboring cities and to distant the neighboring cities and to distant provinces, carrying terror and distress provinces, carrying terror and distress provinces, carrying terror and distress everywhere. Still dreadful as these everywhere. Still dreadful as these everywhere. Still dreadful as these evils were, it is possible for us, in evils were, it is possible for us, in evils were, it is possible for us, in the conceptions which we form, to the conceptions which we form, to the conceptions which we form, to overrate the extent of them. In reading overrate the extent of them. In reading overrate the extent of them. In reading the history of the Roman Empire during the history of the Roman Empire during the history of the Roman Empire during the civil wars of Marius and Sila, one the civil wars of Marius and Sila, one the civil wars of Marius and Sila, one might easily imagine that the whole might easily imagine that the whole might easily imagine that the whole population of the country was organized population of the country was organized population of the country was organized into the two contending armies, and were into the two contending armies, and were into the two contending armies, and were employed wholly in the work of fighting employed wholly in the work of fighting employed wholly in the work of fighting with and massacring each other. But with and massacring each other. But with and massacring each other. But nothing like this can be true. It is nothing like this can be true. It is nothing like this can be true. It is obviously but a small part, after all, obviously but a small part, after all, obviously but a small part, after all, of an extended community that can be of an extended community that can be of an extended community that can be ever actively and personally engaged in ever actively and personally engaged in ever actively and personally engaged in these deeds of violence and blood. Man these deeds of violence and blood. Man these deeds of violence and blood. Man is not naturally a ferocious wild beast.

is not naturally a ferocious wild beast. is not naturally a ferocious wild beast. On the contrary, he loves ordinarily to On the contrary, he loves ordinarily to On the contrary, he loves ordinarily to live in peace and quietness, to till his live in peace and quietness, to till his live in peace and quietness, to till his lands and tend his flocks, and to enjoy lands and tend his flocks, and to enjoy lands and tend his flocks, and to enjoy the blessings of peace and repose. It is the blessings of peace and repose. It is the blessings of peace and repose. It is comparatively but a small number in any comparatively but a small number in any comparatively but a small number in any age of the world and in any nation whose age of the world and in any nation whose age of the world and in any nation whose passions of ambition, hatred or revenge passions of ambition, hatred or revenge passions of ambition, hatred or revenge become so strong as that they love become so strong as that they love become so strong as that they love bloodshed and war. But these few, when bloodshed and war. But these few, when bloodshed and war. But these few, when they once get weapons into their hands, they once get weapons into their hands, they once get weapons into their hands, trample recklessly and mercilessly upon trample recklessly and mercilessly upon trample recklessly and mercilessly upon the rest. One ferocious human tiger with the rest. One ferocious human tiger with the rest. One ferocious human tiger with a spear or a bayonet to brandish will a spear or a bayonet to brandish will a spear or a bayonet to brandish will tyrannize as he pleases over a hundred tyrannize as he pleases over a hundred tyrannize as he pleases over a hundred quiet men who are armed only with quiet men who are armed only with quiet men who are armed only with shepherd's crooks and whose only desire shepherd's crooks and whose only desire shepherd's crooks and whose only desire is to live in peace with their wives and is to live in peace with their wives and is to live in peace with their wives and their children. their children. their children. Thus, while Marius and Sila, with some h Thus, while Marius and Sila, with some h Thus, while Marius and Sila, with some h 100,000 armed and reckless followers, 100,000 armed and reckless followers, 100,000 armed and reckless followers, were carrying terror and dismay wherever were carrying terror and dismay wherever were carrying terror and dismay wherever they went, there were many millions of they went, there were many millions of they went, there were many millions of herdsmen and husbandmen in the Roman herdsmen and husbandmen in the Roman herdsmen and husbandmen in the Roman world, who were dwelling in all the world, who were dwelling in all the world, who were dwelling in all the peace and quietness they could command, peace and quietness they could command, peace and quietness they could command, improving with their peaceful industry improving with their peaceful industry improving with their peaceful industry every acre where corn would ripen or every acre where corn would ripen or every acre where corn would ripen or grass grow. It was by taxing and grass grow. It was by taxing and grass grow. It was by taxing and plundering the proceeds of this industry plundering the proceeds of this industry plundering the proceeds of this industry that the generals and soldiers, the that the generals and soldiers, the that the generals and soldiers, the consils and pritors and proconsulsils consils and pritors and proconsulsils consils and pritors and proconsulsils and protors filled their treasuries and and protors filled their treasuries and and protors filled their treasuries and fed their troops and paid the artisans fed their troops and paid the artisans fed their troops and paid the artisans for fabricating their arms. With these for fabricating their arms. With these for fabricating their arms. With these avails they built the magnificent avails they built the magnificent avails they built the magnificent edififices of Rome and adorned its edififices of Rome and adorned its edififices of Rome and adorned its environs with sumptuous villas. As they environs with sumptuous villas. As they environs with sumptuous villas. As they had the power and the arms in their had the power and the arms in their had the power and the arms in their hands, the peaceful and the industrious

hands, the peaceful and the industrious hands, the peaceful and the industrious had no alternative but to submit. They had no alternative but to submit. They had no alternative but to submit. They went on as well as they could with their went on as well as they could with their went on as well as they could with their labors, bearing patiently every labors, bearing patiently every labors, bearing patiently every interruption, returning again to till interruption, returning again to till interruption, returning again to till their fields after the desolating march their fields after the desolating march their fields after the desolating march of the army had passed by, and repairing of the army had passed by, and repairing of the army had passed by, and repairing the injuries of violence and the losses the injuries of violence and the losses the injuries of violence and the losses sustained by plunder without useless sustained by plunder without useless sustained by plunder without useless repining. They looked upon an armed repining. They looked upon an armed repining. They looked upon an armed government as a necessary and inevitable government as a necessary and inevitable government as a necessary and inevitable affliction of humanity, and submitted to affliction of humanity, and submitted to affliction of humanity, and submitted to its destructive violence as they would its destructive violence as they would its destructive violence as they would submit to an earthquake or a pestilence. submit to an earthquake or a pestilence. submit to an earthquake or a pestilence. The tillers of the soil manage better in The tillers of the soil manage better in The tillers of the soil manage better in this country at the present day. They this country at the present day. They this country at the present day. They have the power in their own hands, and have the power in their own hands, and have the power in their own hands, and they watch very narrowly to prevent the they watch very narrowly to prevent the they watch very narrowly to prevent the organization of such hordes of armed organization of such hordes of armed organization of such hordes of armed desperadoos as have held the peaceful desperadoos as have held the peaceful desperadoos as have held the peaceful inhabitants of Europe in terror from the inhabitants of Europe in terror from the inhabitants of Europe in terror from the earliest periods down to the present earliest periods down to the present earliest periods down to the present day. day. day. When Sila returned to Rome and took When Sila returned to Rome and took When Sila returned to Rome and took possession of the supreme power there, possession of the supreme power there, possession of the supreme power there, in looking over the lists of public men, in looking over the lists of public men, in looking over the lists of public men, there was one whom he did not know at there was one whom he did not know at there was one whom he did not know at first what to do with. It was the young first what to do with. It was the young first what to do with. It was the young Julius Caesar, the subject of this Julius Caesar, the subject of this Julius Caesar, the subject of this history. Caesar was by birth patrician, history. Caesar was by birth patrician, history. Caesar was by birth patrician, having descended from a long line of having descended from a long line of having descended from a long line of noble ancestors. There had been before noble ancestors. There had been before noble ancestors. There had been before his day a great many Caesars who had his day a great many Caesars who had his day a great many Caesars who had held the highest offices of the state, held the highest offices of the state, held the highest offices of the state, and many of them had been celebrated in and many of them had been celebrated in and many of them had been celebrated in history. He naturally, therefore, history. He naturally, therefore, history. He naturally, therefore, belonged to Sila's side, as Sila was a belonged to Sila's side, as Sila was a belonged to Sila's side, as Sila was a representative of the patrician representative of the patrician representative of the patrician interest. But then Caesar had personally interest. But then Caesar had personally interest. But then Caesar had personally been inclined toward the party of been inclined toward the party of been inclined toward the party of Marius. The elder Marius had married his Marius. The elder Marius had married his Marius. The elder Marius had married his aunt, and besides, Caesar himself had

aunt, and besides, Caesar himself had aunt, and besides, Caesar himself had married the daughter of Sa, who had been married the daughter of Sa, who had been married the daughter of Sa, who had been the most efficient and powerful of the most efficient and powerful of the most efficient and powerful of Marius's co-agers and friends. Caesar Marius's co-agers and friends. Caesar Marius's co-agers and friends. Caesar was at this time a very young man, and was at this time a very young man, and was at this time a very young man, and he was of an ardent and reckless he was of an ardent and reckless he was of an ardent and reckless character, though he had thus far taken character, though he had thus far taken character, though he had thus far taken no active part in public affairs. Sila no active part in public affairs. Sila no active part in public affairs. Sila overlooked him for a time, but at length overlooked him for a time, but at length overlooked him for a time, but at length was about to put his name on the list of was about to put his name on the list of was about to put his name on the list of the prescribed. Some of the nobles who the prescribed. Some of the nobles who the prescribed. Some of the nobles who were friends both of Sila and of Caesar were friends both of Sila and of Caesar were friends both of Sila and of Caesar too interceded for the young man. Sila too interceded for the young man. Sila too interceded for the young man. Sila yielded to their request or rather yielded to their request or rather yielded to their request or rather suspended his decision and sent orders suspended his decision and sent orders suspended his decision and sent orders to Caesar to repudiate his wife, the to Caesar to repudiate his wife, the to Caesar to repudiate his wife, the daughter of Sa. Her name was Cornelia. daughter of Sa. Her name was Cornelia. daughter of Sa. Her name was Cornelia. Caesar absolutely refused to repudiate Caesar absolutely refused to repudiate Caesar absolutely refused to repudiate his wife. He was influenced in this his wife. He was influenced in this his wife. He was influenced in this decision partly by affection for decision partly by affection for decision partly by affection for Cornelia and partly by a sort of stern Cornelia and partly by a sort of stern Cornelia and partly by a sort of stern and indomitable insubmissiveness which and indomitable insubmissiveness which and indomitable insubmissiveness which formed from his earliest years a formed from his earliest years a formed from his earliest years a prominent trait in his character and prominent trait in his character and prominent trait in his character and which led him during all his life to which led him during all his life to which led him during all his life to brave every possible danger rather than brave every possible danger rather than brave every possible danger rather than allow himself to be controlled. Caesar allow himself to be controlled. Caesar allow himself to be controlled. Caesar knew very well that when this his knew very well that when this his knew very well that when this his refusal should be reported to Sila, the refusal should be reported to Sila, the refusal should be reported to Sila, the next order would be for his destruction.

next order would be for his destruction. next order would be for his destruction. He accordingly fled. Sila deprived him He accordingly fled. Sila deprived him He accordingly fled. Sila deprived him of his titles and offices, confiscated of his titles and offices, confiscated of his titles and offices, confiscated his wife's fortune and his own his wife's fortune and his own his wife's fortune and his own patrimonial estate, and put his name patrimonial estate, and put his name patrimonial estate, and put his name upon the list of the public enemies. upon the list of the public enemies. upon the list of the public enemies. Thus, Caesar became a fugitive and an Thus, Caesar became a fugitive and an Thus, Caesar became a fugitive and an exile. The adventures which befell him exile. The adventures which befell him exile. The adventures which befell him in his wanderings will be described in in his wanderings will be described in in his wanderings will be described in the following chapter. the following chapter. the following chapter. Sila was now in the possession of Sila was now in the possession of Sila was now in the possession of absolute power. He was master of Rome absolute power. He was master of Rome absolute power. He was master of Rome and of all the countries over which Rome and of all the countries over which Rome and of all the countries over which Rome held sway. Still, he was nominally not a held sway. Still, he was nominally not a held sway. Still, he was nominally not a magistrate, but only a general, magistrate, but only a general, magistrate, but only a general, returning victoriously from his aiatic returning victoriously from his aiatic returning victoriously from his aiatic campaign, and putting to death somewhat campaign, and putting to death somewhat campaign, and putting to death somewhat irregularly, it is true, by a sort of irregularly, it is true, by a sort of irregularly, it is true, by a sort of martial law, persons whom he found, as martial law, persons whom he found, as martial law, persons whom he found, as he said, disturbing the public peace. he said, disturbing the public peace. he said, disturbing the public peace. After having thus effectually disposed After having thus effectually disposed After having thus effectually disposed of the power of his enemies, he laid of the power of his enemies, he laid of the power of his enemies, he laid aside ostensibly the government of the aside ostensibly the government of the aside ostensibly the government of the sword, and submitted himself and his sword, and submitted himself and his sword, and submitted himself and his future measures to the control of law. future measures to the control of law. future measures to the control of law. He placed himself ostensibly at the He placed himself ostensibly at the He placed himself ostensibly at the disposition of the city. They chose him disposition of the city. They chose him disposition of the city. They chose him dictator which was investing him with dictator which was investing him with dictator which was investing him with absolute and unlimited power. He absolute and unlimited power. He absolute and unlimited power. He remained on this the highest pinnacle of remained on this the highest pinnacle of remained on this the highest pinnacle of worldly ambition a short time and then worldly ambition a short time and then worldly ambition a short time and then resigned his power and devoted the resigned his power and devoted the resigned his power and devoted the remainder of his days to literary remainder of his days to literary remainder of his days to literary pursuits and pleasures. Monster as he pursuits and pleasures. Monster as he pursuits and pleasures. Monster as he was in the cruelties which he inflicted was in the cruelties which he inflicted was in the cruelties which he inflicted upon his political foes, he was upon his political foes, he was upon his political foes, he was intellectually of a refined and intellectually of a refined and intellectually of a refined and cultivated mind, and felt an ardent cultivated mind, and felt an ardent cultivated mind, and felt an ardent interest in the promotion of literature interest in the promotion of literature interest in the promotion of literature and the arts.

and the arts. and the arts. The quarrel between Marius and Sila, in The quarrel between Marius and Sila, in The quarrel between Marius and Sila, in respect to everything which can make respect to everything which can make respect to everything which can make such a contest great, stands in the such a contest great, stands in the such a contest great, stands in the estimation of mankind, as the greatest estimation of mankind, as the greatest estimation of mankind, as the greatest personal quarrel which the history of personal quarrel which the history of personal quarrel which the history of the world has ever recorded. Its origin the world has ever recorded. Its origin the world has ever recorded. Its origin was in the simple personal rivalry of was in the simple personal rivalry of was in the simple personal rivalry of two ambitious men. It involved in its two ambitious men. It involved in its two ambitious men. It involved in its consequences the peace and happiness of consequences the peace and happiness of consequences the peace and happiness of the world. In their reckless struggles, the world. In their reckless struggles, the world. In their reckless struggles, the fierce combatants trampled on the fierce combatants trampled on the fierce combatants trampled on everything that came in their way and everything that came in their way and everything that came in their way and destroyed mercilessly each in his turn destroyed mercilessly each in his turn destroyed mercilessly each in his turn all that opposed them. Mankind have all that opposed them. Mankind have all that opposed them. Mankind have always execrated their crimes, but have always execrated their crimes, but have always execrated their crimes, but have never ceased to admire the frightful and never ceased to admire the frightful and never ceased to admire the frightful and almost superhuman energy with which they almost superhuman energy with which they almost superhuman energy with which they committed them. End of chapter 1. Chapter 2 of History of Julius Caesar. Chapter 2 of History of Julius Caesar. This is a LibriVox recording. All This is a LibriVox recording. All This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public LibriVox recordings are in the public LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to domain. For more information or to domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit librivox.org.

volunteer, please visit librivox.org. volunteer, please visit librivox.org. org. Recording by Kathy Barrett. History org. Recording by Kathy Barrett. History org. Recording by Kathy Barrett. History of Julius Caesar by Jacob Abbott. of Julius Caesar by Jacob Abbott. of Julius Caesar by Jacob Abbott. Chapter 2. Caesar's early years. Chapter 2. Caesar's early years. Chapter 2. Caesar's early years. Caesar does not seem to have been much Caesar does not seem to have been much Caesar does not seem to have been much disheartened and depressed by his disheartened and depressed by his disheartened and depressed by his misfortunes. He possessed in his early misfortunes. He possessed in his early misfortunes. He possessed in his early life more than the usual share of life more than the usual share of life more than the usual share of buoyancy and light-heartedness of youth, buoyancy and light-heartedness of youth, buoyancy and light-heartedness of youth, and he went away from Rome to enter and he went away from Rome to enter and he went away from Rome to enter perhaps upon years of exile and perhaps upon years of exile and perhaps upon years of exile and wandering, with a determination to face wandering, with a determination to face wandering, with a determination to face boldly, and to brave the evils and boldly, and to brave the evils and boldly, and to brave the evils and dangers which surrounded him, and not to dangers which surrounded him, and not to dangers which surrounded him, and not to succumb to them. Sometimes they who succumb to them. Sometimes they who succumb to them. Sometimes they who become great in their mature years are become great in their mature years are become great in their mature years are thoughtful, grave, and sedate when thoughtful, grave, and sedate when thoughtful, grave, and sedate when young. It was not so, however, with young. It was not so, however, with young. It was not so, however, with Caesar. He was of a very gay and lively Caesar. He was of a very gay and lively Caesar. He was of a very gay and lively disposition. He was tall and handsome in disposition. He was tall and handsome in disposition. He was tall and handsome in his person, fascinating in his manners, his person, fascinating in his manners, his person, fascinating in his manners, and fond of society, as people always and fond of society, as people always and fond of society, as people always are, who know or who suppose that they are, who know or who suppose that they are, who know or who suppose that they shine in it. He had seemed, in a word, shine in it. He had seemed, in a word, shine in it. He had seemed, in a word, during his residence at Rome, wholly during his residence at Rome, wholly during his residence at Rome, wholly intent upon the pleasures of a gay and intent upon the pleasures of a gay and intent upon the pleasures of a gay and joyous life, and upon the personal joyous life, and upon the personal joyous life, and upon the personal observation which his rank, his wealth, observation which his rank, his wealth, observation which his rank, his wealth, his agreeable manners, and his position his agreeable manners, and his position his agreeable manners, and his position in society secured for him. In fact, in society secured for him. In fact, in society secured for him. In fact, they who observed and studied his they who observed and studied his they who observed and studied his character in these early years thought character in these early years thought character in these early years thought that although his situation was very that although his situation was very that although his situation was very favorable for acquiring power and favorable for acquiring power and favorable for acquiring power and renown, he would never feel any strong renown, he would never feel any strong renown, he would never feel any strong degree of ambition to avail himself of degree of ambition to avail himself of degree of ambition to avail himself of its advantages. He was too much its advantages. He was too much its advantages. He was too much interested, they thought, in personal interested, they thought, in personal interested, they thought, in personal pleasures ever to become great, either pleasures ever to become great, either pleasures ever to become great, either as a military commander or a statesman.

as a military commander or a statesman. as a military commander or a statesman. Sila, however, thought differently. He Sila, however, thought differently. He Sila, however, thought differently. He had penetration enough to perceive had penetration enough to perceive had penetration enough to perceive beneath all the gaity and love of beneath all the gaity and love of beneath all the gaity and love of pleasure which characterized Caesar's pleasure which characterized Caesar's pleasure which characterized Caesar's youthful life the germs of a sterner and youthful life the germs of a sterner and youthful life the germs of a sterner and more aspiring spirit which he was very more aspiring spirit which he was very more aspiring spirit which he was very sorry to see was likely to expend its sorry to see was likely to expend its sorry to see was likely to expend its future energies in hostility to him. By future energies in hostility to him. By future energies in hostility to him. By refusing to submit to Sila's commands, refusing to submit to Sila's commands, refusing to submit to Sila's commands, Caesar had in effect thrown himself Caesar had in effect thrown himself Caesar had in effect thrown himself entirely upon the other party and would entirely upon the other party and would entirely upon the other party and would be of course in future identified with be of course in future identified with be of course in future identified with them. Sila consequently looked upon him them. Sila consequently looked upon him them. Sila consequently looked upon him now as a confirmed and settled enemy. now as a confirmed and settled enemy. now as a confirmed and settled enemy. Some friends of Caesar among the Some friends of Caesar among the Some friends of Caesar among the Petrician families interceded on his Petrician families interceded on his Petrician families interceded on his behalf with Sila again after he had fled behalf with Sila again after he had fled behalf with Sila again after he had fled from Rome. They wished Sila to pardon from Rome. They wished Sila to pardon from Rome. They wished Sila to pardon him, saying that he was a mere boy and him, saying that he was a mere boy and him, saying that he was a mere boy and could do him no harm. Sila shook his could do him no harm. Sila shook his could do him no harm. Sila shook his head, saying that young as he was, he head, saying that young as he was, he head, saying that young as he was, he saw in him indications of a future power saw in him indications of a future power saw in him indications of a future power which he thought was more to be dreaded which he thought was more to be dreaded which he thought was more to be dreaded than that of many Mariuses. than that of many Mariuses. than that of many Mariuses. One reason which led Sila to form this One reason which led Sila to form this One reason which led Sila to form this opinion of Caesar was that the young opinion of Caesar was that the young opinion of Caesar was that the young nobleman, with all his love of gay and nobleman, with all his love of gay and nobleman, with all his love of gay and pleasure, had not neglected his studies, pleasure, had not neglected his studies, pleasure, had not neglected his studies, but had taken great pains to perfect but had taken great pains to perfect but had taken great pains to perfect himself in such intellectual pursuits as himself in such intellectual pursuits as himself in such intellectual pursuits as ambitious men who looked forward to ambitious men who looked forward to ambitious men who looked forward to political influence and ascendancy were political influence and ascendancy were political influence and ascendancy were accustomed to prosecute in those days.

accustomed to prosecute in those days. accustomed to prosecute in those days. He had studied the Greek language and He had studied the Greek language and He had studied the Greek language and read the works of Greek historians and read the works of Greek historians and read the works of Greek historians and he attended lectures on philosophy and he attended lectures on philosophy and he attended lectures on philosophy and rhetoric and was obviously interested rhetoric and was obviously interested rhetoric and was obviously interested deeply in acquiring power as a public deeply in acquiring power as a public deeply in acquiring power as a public speaker. To write and speak well gave a speaker. To write and speak well gave a speaker. To write and speak well gave a public man great influence in those public man great influence in those public man great influence in those days. Many of the measures of the days. Many of the measures of the days. Many of the measures of the government were determined by the action government were determined by the action government were determined by the action of great assemblies of the free of great assemblies of the free of great assemblies of the free citizens, which action was itself in a citizens, which action was itself in a citizens, which action was itself in a great measure controlled by the herangs great measure controlled by the herangs great measure controlled by the herangs of orators who had such powers of voice of orators who had such powers of voice of orators who had such powers of voice and such qualities of mind as enabled and such qualities of mind as enabled and such qualities of mind as enabled them to gain the attention and sway the them to gain the attention and sway the them to gain the attention and sway the opinions of large bodies of men. It must opinions of large bodies of men. It must opinions of large bodies of men. It must not be supposed, however, that this not be supposed, however, that this not be supposed, however, that this popular power was shared by all the popular power was shared by all the popular power was shared by all the inhabitants of the city. At one time inhabitants of the city. At one time inhabitants of the city. At one time when the population of the city was when the population of the city was when the population of the city was about three millions, the number of free about three millions, the number of free about three millions, the number of free citizens was only 300,000. The rest were citizens was only 300,000. The rest were citizens was only 300,000. The rest were laborers, artisans, and slaves who had laborers, artisans, and slaves who had laborers, artisans, and slaves who had no voice in public affairs. The free no voice in public affairs. The free no voice in public affairs. The free citizens held very frequent public citizens held very frequent public citizens held very frequent public assemblies. There were various squares assemblies. There were various squares assemblies. There were various squares and open spaces in the city where such and open spaces in the city where such and open spaces in the city where such assemblies were convened and where assemblies were convened and where assemblies were convened and where courts of justice were held. The Roman courts of justice were held. The Roman courts of justice were held. The Roman name for such a square was forum. There name for such a square was forum. There name for such a square was forum. There was one which was distinguished above was one which was distinguished above was one which was distinguished above all the rest and was called emphatically all the rest and was called emphatically all the rest and was called emphatically the forum. It was a magnificent square the forum. It was a magnificent square the forum. It was a magnificent square surrounded by splendid edififices and surrounded by splendid edififices and surrounded by splendid edififices and ornamented by sculptures and statues ornamented by sculptures and statues ornamented by sculptures and statues without number. There were ranges of without number. There were ranges of without number. There were ranges of porticos along the sides where the porticos along the sides where the porticos along the sides where the people were sheltered from the weather people were sheltered from the weather people were sheltered from the weather when necessary, though it is seldom that when necessary, though it is seldom that when necessary, though it is seldom that there is any necessity for shelter under

there is any necessity for shelter under there is any necessity for shelter under an Italian sky. In this area and under an Italian sky. In this area and under an Italian sky. In this area and under these porticos the people held their these porticos the people held their these porticos the people held their assemblies and here courts of justice assemblies and here courts of justice assemblies and here courts of justice were accustomed to sit. The forum was were accustomed to sit. The forum was were accustomed to sit. The forum was ornamented continually with new ornamented continually with new ornamented continually with new monuments, temples, statues, and columns monuments, temples, statues, and columns monuments, temples, statues, and columns by successful generals returning in by successful generals returning in by successful generals returning in triumph from foreign campaigns, and by triumph from foreign campaigns, and by triumph from foreign campaigns, and by proconsuls and pritors coming back proconsuls and pritors coming back proconsuls and pritors coming back enriched from their provinces until it enriched from their provinces until it enriched from their provinces until it was fairly choked up with its was fairly choked up with its was fairly choked up with its architectural magnificence, and it had architectural magnificence, and it had architectural magnificence, and it had at last to be partially cleared again, at last to be partially cleared again, at last to be partially cleared again, as one would thin out too dense a as one would thin out too dense a as one would thin out too dense a forest, in order to make room for the forest, in order to make room for the forest, in order to make room for the assemblies which it was its main assemblies which it was its main assemblies which it was its main function to contain. function to contain. function to contain. The people of Rome had of course no The people of Rome had of course no The people of Rome had of course no printed books and yet they were mentally printed books and yet they were mentally printed books and yet they were mentally cultivated and refined and were cultivated and refined and were cultivated and refined and were qualified for a very high appreciation qualified for a very high appreciation qualified for a very high appreciation of intellectual pursuits and pleasures. of intellectual pursuits and pleasures. of intellectual pursuits and pleasures. In the absence therefore of all In the absence therefore of all In the absence therefore of all facilities for private reading, the facilities for private reading, the facilities for private reading, the forum became the great central point of forum became the great central point of forum became the great central point of attraction. The same kind of interest attraction. The same kind of interest attraction. The same kind of interest which in our day finds its gratification which in our day finds its gratification which in our day finds its gratification in reading volumes of printed history in reading volumes of printed history in reading volumes of printed history quietly at home or in silently perusing quietly at home or in silently perusing quietly at home or in silently perusing the columns of newspapers and magazines the columns of newspapers and magazines the columns of newspapers and magazines in libraries and reading rooms where a in libraries and reading rooms where a in libraries and reading rooms where a whisper is seldom heard. In Caesar's day whisper is seldom heard. In Caesar's day whisper is seldom heard. In Caesar's day brought everybody to the forum to listen brought everybody to the forum to listen brought everybody to the forum to listen to historical heranges or political to historical heranges or political to historical heranges or political discussions or forensic arguments in the discussions or forensic arguments in the discussions or forensic arguments in the midst of noisy crowds. Here all tidings midst of noisy crowds. Here all tidings midst of noisy crowds. Here all tidings centered. Here all questions were centered. Here all questions were centered. Here all questions were discussed and all great elections held.

discussed and all great elections held. discussed and all great elections held. Here were waged those ceaseless Here were waged those ceaseless Here were waged those ceaseless conflicts of ambition and struggles of conflicts of ambition and struggles of conflicts of ambition and struggles of power on which the fate of nations and power on which the fate of nations and power on which the fate of nations and sometimes the welfare of almost half sometimes the welfare of almost half sometimes the welfare of almost half mankind depended. Of course, every mankind depended. Of course, every mankind depended. Of course, every ambitious man who aspired to an ambitious man who aspired to an ambitious man who aspired to an ascendancy over his fellow men wished to ascendancy over his fellow men wished to ascendancy over his fellow men wished to make his voice heard in the forum. To make his voice heard in the forum. To make his voice heard in the forum. To calm the boisterous tumult there, and to calm the boisterous tumult there, and to calm the boisterous tumult there, and to hold, as some of the Roman orators could hold, as some of the Roman orators could hold, as some of the Roman orators could do, the vast assemblies in silent and do, the vast assemblies in silent and do, the vast assemblies in silent and breathless attention was a power as breathless attention was a power as breathless attention was a power as delightful in its exercise as it was delightful in its exercise as it was delightful in its exercise as it was glorious in its fame. Caesar had felt glorious in its fame. Caesar had felt glorious in its fame. Caesar had felt this ambition, and had devoted himself this ambition, and had devoted himself this ambition, and had devoted himself very earnestly to the study of oratory. very earnestly to the study of oratory. very earnestly to the study of oratory. His teacher was Appalonius, a His teacher was Appalonius, a His teacher was Appalonius, a philosopher and rhetoric from Roads. philosopher and rhetoric from Roads. philosopher and rhetoric from Roads. Roads is a Grecian island near the Roads is a Grecian island near the Roads is a Grecian island near the southwestern coast of Asia Minor. southwestern coast of Asia Minor. southwestern coast of Asia Minor. Appalonius was a teacher of great Appalonius was a teacher of great Appalonius was a teacher of great celebrity, and Caesar became a very able celebrity, and Caesar became a very able celebrity, and Caesar became a very able writer and speaker under his writer and speaker under his writer and speaker under his instructions. His time and attention instructions. His time and attention instructions. His time and attention were in fact strangely divided between were in fact strangely divided between were in fact strangely divided between the highest and noblest intellectual the highest and noblest intellectual the highest and noblest intellectual avocations and the lowest sensual avocations and the lowest sensual avocations and the lowest sensual pleasures of a gay and dissipated life.

pleasures of a gay and dissipated life. pleasures of a gay and dissipated life. The coming of Sila had however The coming of Sila had however The coming of Sila had however interrupted all, and after receiving the interrupted all, and after receiving the interrupted all, and after receiving the dictator's command to give up his wife dictator's command to give up his wife dictator's command to give up his wife and abandon the Maran faction, and and abandon the Maran faction, and and abandon the Maran faction, and determining to disobey it, he fled determining to disobey it, he fled determining to disobey it, he fled suddenly from Rome, as was stated at the suddenly from Rome, as was stated at the suddenly from Rome, as was stated at the close of the last chapter at midnight, close of the last chapter at midnight, close of the last chapter at midnight, and in disguise. He was sick, too, at and in disguise. He was sick, too, at and in disguise. He was sick, too, at the time, with an intermittent fever. the time, with an intermittent fever. the time, with an intermittent fever. The peroxism returned once in 3 or 4 The peroxism returned once in 3 or 4 The peroxism returned once in 3 or 4 days, leaving him in tolerable health days, leaving him in tolerable health days, leaving him in tolerable health during the interval. He went first into during the interval. He went first into during the interval. He went first into the country of the Seabines, northeast the country of the Seabines, northeast the country of the Seabines, northeast of Rome, where he wandered up and down, of Rome, where he wandered up and down, of Rome, where he wandered up and down, exposed continually to great dangers exposed continually to great dangers exposed continually to great dangers from those who knew that he was an from those who knew that he was an from those who knew that he was an object of the great dictator's object of the great dictator's object of the great dictator's displeasure, and who were sure of favor displeasure, and who were sure of favor displeasure, and who were sure of favor and of a reward if they could carry his and of a reward if they could carry his and of a reward if they could carry his head to Sila. He had to change his head to Sila. He had to change his head to Sila. He had to change his quarters every day, and to resort to quarters every day, and to resort to quarters every day, and to resort to every possible mode of concealment. He every possible mode of concealment. He every possible mode of concealment. He was, however, at last discovered and was, however, at last discovered and was, however, at last discovered and seized by a centurion. A centurion was a seized by a centurion. A centurion was a seized by a centurion. A centurion was a commander of a hundred men. His rank and commander of a hundred men. His rank and commander of a hundred men. His rank and his position, therefore, corresponded his position, therefore, corresponded his position, therefore, corresponded somewhat with those of a captain in a somewhat with those of a captain in a somewhat with those of a captain in a modern army. Caesar was not much modern army. Caesar was not much modern army. Caesar was not much disturbed at this accident. He offered disturbed at this accident. He offered disturbed at this accident. He offered the centurion a bribe sufficient to the centurion a bribe sufficient to the centurion a bribe sufficient to induce him to give up his prisoner, and induce him to give up his prisoner, and induce him to give up his prisoner, and so escaped.

so escaped. so escaped. The two ancient historians, whose The two ancient historians, whose The two ancient historians, whose records contain nearly all the records contain nearly all the records contain nearly all the particulars of the early life of Caesar, particulars of the early life of Caesar, particulars of the early life of Caesar, which are now known, give somewhat which are now known, give somewhat which are now known, give somewhat contradictory accounts of the adventures contradictory accounts of the adventures contradictory accounts of the adventures which befell him during his subsequent which befell him during his subsequent which befell him during his subsequent wanderings. They relate in general the wanderings. They relate in general the wanderings. They relate in general the same incidents, but in such different same incidents, but in such different same incidents, but in such different connections that the precise connections that the precise connections that the precise chronological order of the events which chronological order of the events which chronological order of the events which occurred cannot now be ascertained. At occurred cannot now be ascertained. At occurred cannot now be ascertained. At all events Caesar, finding that he was all events Caesar, finding that he was all events Caesar, finding that he was no longer safe in the vicinity of Rome, no longer safe in the vicinity of Rome, no longer safe in the vicinity of Rome, moved gradually to the eastward, moved gradually to the eastward, moved gradually to the eastward, attended by a few followers until he attended by a few followers until he attended by a few followers until he reached the sea, and there he embarked reached the sea, and there he embarked reached the sea, and there he embarked on board a ship to leave his native land on board a ship to leave his native land on board a ship to leave his native land altogether. altogether. altogether. After various adventures and wanderings, After various adventures and wanderings, After various adventures and wanderings, he found himself at length in Asia he found himself at length in Asia he found himself at length in Asia Minor, and he made his way at last to Minor, and he made his way at last to Minor, and he made his way at last to the kingdom of Bethnia on the northern the kingdom of Bethnia on the northern the kingdom of Bethnia on the northern shore. The name of the king of Bethnia shore. The name of the king of Bethnia shore. The name of the king of Bethnia was Nikomedes. Caesar joined himself to was Nikomedes. Caesar joined himself to was Nikomedes. Caesar joined himself to Ncomdy's court and entered into his Ncomdy's court and entered into his Ncomdy's court and entered into his service. In the meantime, Sila had service. In the meantime, Sila had service. In the meantime, Sila had ceased to pursue him and ultimately ceased to pursue him and ultimately ceased to pursue him and ultimately granted him a pardon, but whether before granted him a pardon, but whether before granted him a pardon, but whether before or after this time is not now to be or after this time is not now to be or after this time is not now to be ascertained. At all events, Caesar ascertained. At all events, Caesar ascertained. At all events, Caesar became interested in the scenes and became interested in the scenes and became interested in the scenes and enjoyments of Nikcomdy's court and enjoyments of Nikcomdy's court and enjoyments of Nikcomdy's court and allowed the time to pass away without allowed the time to pass away without allowed the time to pass away without forming any plans for returning to Rome.

forming any plans for returning to Rome. forming any plans for returning to Rome. On the opposite side of Asia Minor, that On the opposite side of Asia Minor, that On the opposite side of Asia Minor, that is on the southern shore, there was a is on the southern shore, there was a is on the southern shore, there was a wild and mountainous region called wild and mountainous region called wild and mountainous region called Cissia. The great chain of mountains Cissia. The great chain of mountains Cissia. The great chain of mountains called Taurus approaches here very near called Taurus approaches here very near called Taurus approaches here very near to the sea. And the steep confirmations to the sea. And the steep confirmations to the sea. And the steep confirmations of the land which in the interior of the land which in the interior of the land which in the interior produce lofty ranges and summits and produce lofty ranges and summits and produce lofty ranges and summits and dark valleys and ravines form along the dark valleys and ravines form along the dark valleys and ravines form along the line of the shore capes and promontories line of the shore capes and promontories line of the shore capes and promontories bounded by precipitous sides and with bounded by precipitous sides and with bounded by precipitous sides and with deep bays and harbors between them. The deep bays and harbors between them. The deep bays and harbors between them. The people of Cissia were accordingly half people of Cissia were accordingly half people of Cissia were accordingly half sailors, half mountaineers. They built sailors, half mountaineers. They built sailors, half mountaineers. They built swift galleys and made excursions in swift galleys and made excursions in swift galleys and made excursions in great force over the Mediterranean Sea great force over the Mediterranean Sea great force over the Mediterranean Sea for conquest and plunder. They would for conquest and plunder. They would for conquest and plunder. They would capture single ships and sometimes even capture single ships and sometimes even capture single ships and sometimes even whole fleets of merchantmen. They were whole fleets of merchantmen. They were whole fleets of merchantmen. They were even strong enough on many occasions to even strong enough on many occasions to even strong enough on many occasions to land and take possession of a harbor and land and take possession of a harbor and land and take possession of a harbor and a town and hold it often for a a town and hold it often for a a town and hold it often for a considerable time against all the considerable time against all the considerable time against all the efforts of the neighboring powers to efforts of the neighboring powers to efforts of the neighboring powers to dislodge them. In case, however, their dislodge them. In case, however, their dislodge them. In case, however, their enemies became at any time too strong enemies became at any time too strong enemies became at any time too strong for them, they would retreat to their for them, they would retreat to their for them, they would retreat to their harbors, which were so defended by the harbors, which were so defended by the harbors, which were so defended by the fortresses which guarded them, and by fortresses which guarded them, and by fortresses which guarded them, and by the desperate bravery of the garrisons, the desperate bravery of the garrisons, the desperate bravery of the garrisons, that the pursuers generally did not dare that the pursuers generally did not dare that the pursuers generally did not dare to attempt to force their way in. And to attempt to force their way in. And to attempt to force their way in. And if, in any case, a town or a port was if, in any case, a town or a port was if, in any case, a town or a port was taken, the indomitable savages would taken, the indomitable savages would taken, the indomitable savages would continue their retreat to the fastnesses continue their retreat to the fastnesses continue their retreat to the fastnesses of the mountains, where it was utterly of the mountains, where it was utterly of the mountains, where it was utterly useless to attempt to follow them. But useless to attempt to follow them. But useless to attempt to follow them. But with all their prowess and skill as with all their prowess and skill as with all their prowess and skill as naval combatants and their hardyhood as naval combatants and their hardyhood as naval combatants and their hardyhood as mountaineers, the Cicians lacked one

mountaineers, the Cicians lacked one mountaineers, the Cicians lacked one thing which is very essential in every thing which is very essential in every thing which is very essential in every nation to an honorable military fame. nation to an honorable military fame. nation to an honorable military fame. They had no poets or historians of their They had no poets or historians of their They had no poets or historians of their own, so that the story of their deeds own, so that the story of their deeds own, so that the story of their deeds had to be told to posterity by their had to be told to posterity by their had to be told to posterity by their enemies. enemies. enemies. If they had been able to narrate their If they had been able to narrate their If they had been able to narrate their own exploits, they would have figured own exploits, they would have figured own exploits, they would have figured perhaps upon the page of history as a perhaps upon the page of history as a perhaps upon the page of history as a small but brave and efficient maritime small but brave and efficient maritime small but brave and efficient maritime power, pursuing for many years a power, pursuing for many years a power, pursuing for many years a glorious career of conquest and glorious career of conquest and glorious career of conquest and acquiring imperishable renown by their acquiring imperishable renown by their acquiring imperishable renown by their enterprise and success. As it was, the enterprise and success. As it was, the enterprise and success. As it was, the Romans, their enemies, described their Romans, their enemies, described their Romans, their enemies, described their deeds and gave them their designation. deeds and gave them their designation. deeds and gave them their designation. They called them robbers and pirates. They called them robbers and pirates. They called them robbers and pirates. And robbers and pirates they must And robbers and pirates they must And robbers and pirates they must forever remain. forever remain. forever remain. And it is in fact very likely true that And it is in fact very likely true that And it is in fact very likely true that the Celician commanders did not pursue the Celician commanders did not pursue the Celician commanders did not pursue their conquests and commit their their conquests and commit their their conquests and commit their depradations on the rights and the depradations on the rights and the depradations on the rights and the property of others in quite so property of others in quite so property of others in quite so systematic and methodical a manner as systematic and methodical a manner as systematic and methodical a manner as some other conquering states have done. some other conquering states have done. some other conquering states have done. They probably seized private property a They probably seized private property a They probably seized private property a little more unceremoniously than is little more unceremoniously than is little more unceremoniously than is customary, though all belligerent customary, though all belligerent customary, though all belligerent nations, even in these Christian ages of nations, even in these Christian ages of nations, even in these Christian ages of the world, feel at liberty to seize and the world, feel at liberty to seize and the world, feel at liberty to seize and confiscate private property when they confiscate private property when they confiscate private property when they find it afloat at sea, while by a find it afloat at sea, while by a find it afloat at sea, while by a strange inconsistency, they respect it strange inconsistency, they respect it strange inconsistency, they respect it on the land. The Celician pirates on the land. The Celician pirates on the land. The Celician pirates considered themselves at war with all considered themselves at war with all considered themselves at war with all mankind, and whatever merchandise they mankind, and whatever merchandise they mankind, and whatever merchandise they found passing from port to port along found passing from port to port along found passing from port to port along the shores of the Mediterranean, they the shores of the Mediterranean, they the shores of the Mediterranean, they considered lawful spoil. They considered lawful spoil. They considered lawful spoil. They intercepted the corn which was going

intercepted the corn which was going intercepted the corn which was going from Sicily to Rome, and filled their from Sicily to Rome, and filled their from Sicily to Rome, and filled their own granaries with it. They got rich own granaries with it. They got rich own granaries with it. They got rich merchandise from the ships of merchandise from the ships of merchandise from the ships of Alexandria, which brought sometimes gold Alexandria, which brought sometimes gold Alexandria, which brought sometimes gold and gems and costly fabrics from the and gems and costly fabrics from the and gems and costly fabrics from the east. And they obtained often large sums east. And they obtained often large sums east. And they obtained often large sums of money by seizing men of distinction of money by seizing men of distinction of money by seizing men of distinction and wealth who were continually passing and wealth who were continually passing and wealth who were continually passing to and fro between Italy and Greece and to and fro between Italy and Greece and to and fro between Italy and Greece and holding them for a ransom. holding them for a ransom. holding them for a ransom. They were particularly pleased to get They were particularly pleased to get They were particularly pleased to get possession in this way of Roman generals possession in this way of Roman generals possession in this way of Roman generals and officers of state who were going out and officers of state who were going out and officers of state who were going out to take the command of armies or who to take the command of armies or who to take the command of armies or who were returning from their provinces with were returning from their provinces with were returning from their provinces with the wealth which they had accumulated the wealth which they had accumulated the wealth which they had accumulated there. there. there. Many expeditions were fitted out and Many expeditions were fitted out and Many expeditions were fitted out and many naval commanders were commissioned many naval commanders were commissioned many naval commanders were commissioned to suppress and subdue these common to suppress and subdue these common to suppress and subdue these common enemies of mankind as the Romans called enemies of mankind as the Romans called enemies of mankind as the Romans called them. At one time, while a distinguished them. At one time, while a distinguished them. At one time, while a distinguished general named Antonius was in pursuit of general named Antonius was in pursuit of general named Antonius was in pursuit of them at the head of a fleet, a party of them at the head of a fleet, a party of them at the head of a fleet, a party of the pirates made a descent upon the the pirates made a descent upon the the pirates made a descent upon the Italian coast south of Rome at Nenum, Italian coast south of Rome at Nenum, Italian coast south of Rome at Nenum, where the ancient patrimonial mansion of where the ancient patrimonial mansion of where the ancient patrimonial mansion of this very Antonius was situated and took this very Antonius was situated and took this very Antonius was situated and took away several members of his family as away several members of his family as away several members of his family as captives, and so compelled him to ransom captives, and so compelled him to ransom captives, and so compelled him to ransom them by paying a very large sum of them by paying a very large sum of them by paying a very large sum of money. The pirates grew bolder and money. The pirates grew bolder and money. The pirates grew bolder and bolder in proportion to their success.

bolder in proportion to their success. bolder in proportion to their success. They finally almost stopped all They finally almost stopped all They finally almost stopped all intercourse between Italy and Greece, intercourse between Italy and Greece, intercourse between Italy and Greece, neither the merchants daring to expose neither the merchants daring to expose neither the merchants daring to expose their merchandise, nor the passengers, their merchandise, nor the passengers, their merchandise, nor the passengers, their persons, to such dangers. They their persons, to such dangers. They their persons, to such dangers. They then approached nearer and nearer to then approached nearer and nearer to then approached nearer and nearer to Rome, and at last actually entered the Rome, and at last actually entered the Rome, and at last actually entered the Tyber, and surprised and carried off a Tyber, and surprised and carried off a Tyber, and surprised and carried off a Roman fleet, which was anchored there. Roman fleet, which was anchored there. Roman fleet, which was anchored there. Caesar himself fell into the hands of Caesar himself fell into the hands of Caesar himself fell into the hands of these pirates at some time during the these pirates at some time during the these pirates at some time during the period of his wanderings. period of his wanderings. period of his wanderings. The pirates captured the ship in which The pirates captured the ship in which The pirates captured the ship in which he was sailing near Pharmarmacusa, a he was sailing near Pharmarmacusa, a he was sailing near Pharmarmacusa, a small island in the northeastern part of small island in the northeastern part of small island in the northeastern part of the Aian Sea. He was not at this time in the Aian Sea. He was not at this time in the Aian Sea. He was not at this time in the destitute condition in which he had the destitute condition in which he had the destitute condition in which he had found himself on leaving Rome, but was found himself on leaving Rome, but was found himself on leaving Rome, but was traveling with attendance suitable to traveling with attendance suitable to traveling with attendance suitable to his rank, and in such a style and manner his rank, and in such a style and manner his rank, and in such a style and manner as at once made it evident to the as at once made it evident to the as at once made it evident to the pirates that he was a man of pirates that he was a man of pirates that he was a man of distinction. They accordingly held him distinction. They accordingly held him distinction. They accordingly held him for ransom, and in the meantime, until for ransom, and in the meantime, until for ransom, and in the meantime, until he could take measures for raising the he could take measures for raising the he could take measures for raising the money, they kept him a prisoner on board money, they kept him a prisoner on board money, they kept him a prisoner on board the vessel which had captured him. the vessel which had captured him. the vessel which had captured him. In this situation, Caesar, though In this situation, Caesar, though In this situation, Caesar, though entirely in the power, and at the mercy entirely in the power, and at the mercy entirely in the power, and at the mercy of his lawless capttors, assumed such an of his lawless capttors, assumed such an of his lawless capttors, assumed such an air of superiority and command in all air of superiority and command in all air of superiority and command in all his intercourse with them, as it first his intercourse with them, as it first his intercourse with them, as it first awakened their astonishment, then awakened their astonishment, then awakened their astonishment, then excited their admiration, and ended in excited their admiration, and ended in excited their admiration, and ended in almost subjecting them to his will. He almost subjecting them to his will. He almost subjecting them to his will. He asked them what they demanded for his asked them what they demanded for his asked them what they demanded for his ransom. They said 20 talents, which was ransom. They said 20 talents, which was ransom. They said 20 talents, which was quite a large amount. A talent itself quite a large amount. A talent itself quite a large amount. A talent itself being a considerable sum of money.

being a considerable sum of money. being a considerable sum of money. Caesar laughed at this demand and told Caesar laughed at this demand and told Caesar laughed at this demand and told them it was plain that they did not know them it was plain that they did not know them it was plain that they did not know who he was. He would give them 50 who he was. He would give them 50 who he was. He would give them 50 talents. He then sent away his talents. He then sent away his talents. He then sent away his attendants to the shore with orders to attendants to the shore with orders to attendants to the shore with orders to proceed to certain cities where he was proceed to certain cities where he was proceed to certain cities where he was known in order to procure the money, known in order to procure the money, known in order to procure the money, retaining only a physician and two retaining only a physician and two retaining only a physician and two servants for himself. While his servants for himself. While his servants for himself. While his messengers were gone, he remained on messengers were gone, he remained on messengers were gone, he remained on board the ship of his capttors, assuming board the ship of his capttors, assuming board the ship of his capttors, assuming in every respect the air and manner of in every respect the air and manner of in every respect the air and manner of their master. When he wished to sleep, their master. When he wished to sleep, their master. When he wished to sleep, if they made a noise which disturbed if they made a noise which disturbed if they made a noise which disturbed him, he sent them orders to be still. He him, he sent them orders to be still. He him, he sent them orders to be still. He joined them in their sports and joined them in their sports and joined them in their sports and diversions on the deck, surpassing them diversions on the deck, surpassing them diversions on the deck, surpassing them in their feats, and taking the direction in their feats, and taking the direction in their feats, and taking the direction of everything as if he were their of everything as if he were their of everything as if he were their acknowledged leader. He wrote orations acknowledged leader. He wrote orations acknowledged leader. He wrote orations and verses which he read to them, and if and verses which he read to them, and if and verses which he read to them, and if his wild auditors did not appear to his wild auditors did not appear to his wild auditors did not appear to appreciate the literary excellence of appreciate the literary excellence of appreciate the literary excellence of his compositions, he told them that they his compositions, he told them that they his compositions, he told them that they were stupid fools without any taste, were stupid fools without any taste, were stupid fools without any taste, adding by way of apology that nothing adding by way of apology that nothing adding by way of apology that nothing better could be expected of such better could be expected of such better could be expected of such barbarians. barbarians. barbarians. The pirates asked him one day what he The pirates asked him one day what he The pirates asked him one day what he should do to them, if he should ever at should do to them, if he should ever at should do to them, if he should ever at any future time take them prisoners.

any future time take them prisoners. any future time take them prisoners. Caesar said that he would crucify every Caesar said that he would crucify every Caesar said that he would crucify every one of them. one of them. one of them. The ransom money at length arrived. The ransom money at length arrived. The ransom money at length arrived. Caesar paid it to the pirates and they Caesar paid it to the pirates and they Caesar paid it to the pirates and they faithful to their covenant sent him in a faithful to their covenant sent him in a faithful to their covenant sent him in a boat to the land. He was put ashore on boat to the land. He was put ashore on boat to the land. He was put ashore on the coast of Asia Minor. He proceeded the coast of Asia Minor. He proceeded the coast of Asia Minor. He proceeded immediately to Myitus, the nearest port, immediately to Myitus, the nearest port, immediately to Myitus, the nearest port, equipped a small fleet there, and put to equipped a small fleet there, and put to equipped a small fleet there, and put to sea. He sailed at once to the roadstead sea. He sailed at once to the roadstead sea. He sailed at once to the roadstead where the pirates had been lying, and where the pirates had been lying, and where the pirates had been lying, and found them still at anchor there in found them still at anchor there in found them still at anchor there in perfect security. He attacked them, perfect security. He attacked them, perfect security. He attacked them, seized their ships, recovered his ransom seized their ships, recovered his ransom seized their ships, recovered his ransom money, and took the men all prisoners. money, and took the men all prisoners. money, and took the men all prisoners. He conveyed his captives to the land, He conveyed his captives to the land, He conveyed his captives to the land, and there fulfilled his threat that he and there fulfilled his threat that he and there fulfilled his threat that he would crucify them by cutting their would crucify them by cutting their would crucify them by cutting their throats and nailing their dead bodies to throats and nailing their dead bodies to throats and nailing their dead bodies to crosses which his men erected for the crosses which his men erected for the crosses which his men erected for the purpose along the shore. purpose along the shore. purpose along the shore. During his absence from Rome, Caesar During his absence from Rome, Caesar During his absence from Rome, Caesar went to roads, where his former went to roads, where his former went to roads, where his former preceptor resided, and he continued to preceptor resided, and he continued to preceptor resided, and he continued to pursue there for some time his former pursue there for some time his former pursue there for some time his former studies. He looked forward still to studies. He looked forward still to studies. He looked forward still to appearing one day in the Roman forum. In appearing one day in the Roman forum. In appearing one day in the Roman forum. In fact, he began to receive messages from fact, he began to receive messages from fact, he began to receive messages from his friends at home that they thought it his friends at home that they thought it his friends at home that they thought it would be safe for him to return. Sila would be safe for him to return. Sila would be safe for him to return. Sila had gradually withdrawn from power and had gradually withdrawn from power and had gradually withdrawn from power and finally had died. The aristocratical finally had died. The aristocratical finally had died. The aristocratical party were indeed still in the party were indeed still in the party were indeed still in the ascendancy, but the party of Marius had ascendancy, but the party of Marius had ascendancy, but the party of Marius had begun to recover a little from the total begun to recover a little from the total begun to recover a little from the total overthrow with which Sila's return and overthrow with which Sila's return and overthrow with which Sila's return and his terrible military vengeance had his terrible military vengeance had his terrible military vengeance had overwhelmed them. Caesar himself, overwhelmed them. Caesar himself, overwhelmed them. Caesar himself, therefore, they thought, might, with therefore, they thought, might, with therefore, they thought, might, with prudent management, be safe in returning prudent management, be safe in returning prudent management, be safe in returning to Rome. He returned, but not to be

to Rome. He returned, but not to be to Rome. He returned, but not to be prudent or cautious. There was no prudent or cautious. There was no prudent or cautious. There was no element of prudence or caution in his element of prudence or caution in his element of prudence or caution in his character. As soon as he arrived, he character. As soon as he arrived, he character. As soon as he arrived, he openly espoused the Popular Party. His openly espoused the Popular Party. His openly espoused the Popular Party. His first public act was to arraign the first public act was to arraign the first public act was to arraign the governor of the great province of governor of the great province of governor of the great province of Macedonia through which he had passed on Macedonia through which he had passed on Macedonia through which he had passed on his way to Bethnia. It was a console his way to Bethnia. It was a console his way to Bethnia. It was a console whom he thus impeached, and a strong whom he thus impeached, and a strong whom he thus impeached, and a strong partisan of Silus. His name was partisan of Silus. His name was partisan of Silus. His name was Dalabella. The people were astonished at Dalabella. The people were astonished at Dalabella. The people were astonished at his daring in thus raising the standard his daring in thus raising the standard his daring in thus raising the standard of resistance to Sila's power. of resistance to Sila's power. of resistance to Sila's power. Indirectly, it is true, but nonetheless, Indirectly, it is true, but nonetheless, Indirectly, it is true, but nonetheless, really on that account. When the trial really on that account. When the trial really on that account. When the trial came on, and Caesar appeared at the came on, and Caesar appeared at the came on, and Caesar appeared at the forum, he gained great applause by the forum, he gained great applause by the forum, he gained great applause by the vigor and force of his oratory. There vigor and force of his oratory. There vigor and force of his oratory. There was of course a very strong and general was of course a very strong and general was of course a very strong and general interest felt in the case. The people interest felt in the case. The people interest felt in the case. The people all seeming to understand that in this all seeming to understand that in this all seeming to understand that in this attack on Dalabella, Caesar was attack on Dalabella, Caesar was attack on Dalabella, Caesar was appearing as their champion and their appearing as their champion and their appearing as their champion and their hopes were revived at having at last hopes were revived at having at last hopes were revived at having at last found a leader capable of succeeding found a leader capable of succeeding found a leader capable of succeeding Marius and building up their cause Marius and building up their cause Marius and building up their cause again. Doabella was abley defended by again. Doabella was abley defended by again. Doabella was abley defended by orators on the other side and was of orators on the other side and was of orators on the other side and was of course acquitted for the power of Sila's course acquitted for the power of Sila's course acquitted for the power of Sila's party was still supreme. All Rome, party was still supreme. All Rome, party was still supreme. All Rome, however, was aroused and excited by the however, was aroused and excited by the however, was aroused and excited by the boldness of Caesar's attack, and by the boldness of Caesar's attack, and by the boldness of Caesar's attack, and by the extraordinary ability which he avinced extraordinary ability which he avinced extraordinary ability which he avinced in his mode of conducting it. He became, in his mode of conducting it. He became, in his mode of conducting it. He became, in fact, at once one of the most in fact, at once one of the most in fact, at once one of the most conspicuous and prominent men in the conspicuous and prominent men in the conspicuous and prominent men in the city. Encouraged by his success, and the city. Encouraged by his success, and the city. Encouraged by his success, and the applauses which he received, and feeling applauses which he received, and feeling applauses which he received, and feeling every day a greater and greater every day a greater and greater every day a greater and greater consciousness of power, he began to consciousness of power, he began to consciousness of power, he began to assume more and more openly the

assume more and more openly the assume more and more openly the character of the leader of the popular character of the leader of the popular character of the leader of the popular party. He devoted himself to public party. He devoted himself to public party. He devoted himself to public speaking in the forum both before speaking in the forum both before speaking in the forum both before popular assemblies and in the courts of popular assemblies and in the courts of popular assemblies and in the courts of justice where he was employed a great justice where he was employed a great justice where he was employed a great deal as an advocate to defend those who deal as an advocate to defend those who deal as an advocate to defend those who were accused of political crimes. The were accused of political crimes. The were accused of political crimes. The people considering him as their rising people considering him as their rising people considering him as their rising champion were predisposed to regard champion were predisposed to regard champion were predisposed to regard everything that he did with favor and everything that he did with favor and everything that he did with favor and there was really a great intellectual there was really a great intellectual there was really a great intellectual power displayed in his orations and power displayed in his orations and power displayed in his orations and heranges. He acquired, in a word, great heranges. He acquired, in a word, great heranges. He acquired, in a word, great celebrity by his boldness and energy, celebrity by his boldness and energy, celebrity by his boldness and energy, and his boldness and energy were and his boldness and energy were and his boldness and energy were themselves increased in their turn, as themselves increased in their turn, as themselves increased in their turn, as he felt the strength of his position he felt the strength of his position he felt the strength of his position increase with his growing celebrity. increase with his growing celebrity. increase with his growing celebrity. At length, the wife of Marius, who was At length, the wife of Marius, who was At length, the wife of Marius, who was Caesar's aunt, died. She had lived in Caesar's aunt, died. She had lived in Caesar's aunt, died. She had lived in obscurity since her husband's obscurity since her husband's obscurity since her husband's prescription and death, his party having prescription and death, his party having prescription and death, his party having been put down so effectually that it was been put down so effectually that it was been put down so effectually that it was dangerous to appear to be her friend. dangerous to appear to be her friend. dangerous to appear to be her friend. Caesar, however, made preparations for a Caesar, however, made preparations for a Caesar, however, made preparations for a magnificent funeral for her. There was a magnificent funeral for her. There was a magnificent funeral for her. There was a place in the forum, a sort of pulpit place in the forum, a sort of pulpit place in the forum, a sort of pulpit where public orators were accustomed to where public orators were accustomed to where public orators were accustomed to stand in addressing the assembly on stand in addressing the assembly on stand in addressing the assembly on great occasions. This pulpit was adorned great occasions. This pulpit was adorned great occasions. This pulpit was adorned with the brazen beaks of ships which had with the brazen beaks of ships which had with the brazen beaks of ships which had been taken by the Romans in former wars.

been taken by the Romans in former wars. been taken by the Romans in former wars. The name of such a beak was Rostramm, in The name of such a beak was Rostramm, in The name of such a beak was Rostramm, in the plural, Rostra. The pulpit was the plural, Rostra. The pulpit was the plural, Rostra. The pulpit was itself, therefore called the Rostra, itself, therefore called the Rostra, itself, therefore called the Rostra, that is the beaks. and the people were that is the beaks. and the people were that is the beaks. and the people were addressed from it on great public addressed from it on great public addressed from it on great public occasions. Caesar pronounced a splendid occasions. Caesar pronounced a splendid occasions. Caesar pronounced a splendid panageric upon the wife of Marius at panageric upon the wife of Marius at panageric upon the wife of Marius at this her funeral from the rostra in the this her funeral from the rostra in the this her funeral from the rostra in the presence of a vast concourse of presence of a vast concourse of presence of a vast concourse of spectators and he had the boldness to spectators and he had the boldness to spectators and he had the boldness to bring out and display to the people bring out and display to the people bring out and display to the people certain household images of Marius which certain household images of Marius which certain household images of Marius which had been concealed from view ever since had been concealed from view ever since had been concealed from view ever since his death. Producing them again on such his death. Producing them again on such his death. Producing them again on such an occasion was enulling so far as a an occasion was enulling so far as a an occasion was enulling so far as a public ortor could do it the sentence of public ortor could do it the sentence of public ortor could do it the sentence of condemnation which Sila and the condemnation which Sila and the condemnation which Sila and the Petrician party had pronounced against Petrician party had pronounced against Petrician party had pronounced against him and bringing him forward again as him and bringing him forward again as him and bringing him forward again as entitled to public admiration and entitled to public admiration and entitled to public admiration and applause. The patrician partisans who applause. The patrician partisans who applause. The patrician partisans who were present attempted to rebuke this were present attempted to rebuke this were present attempted to rebuke this bold maneuver with expressions of bold maneuver with expressions of bold maneuver with expressions of disappribbation, but these expressions disappribbation, but these expressions disappribbation, but these expressions were drowned in the loud and long were drowned in the loud and long were drowned in the loud and long continued bursts of applause with which continued bursts of applause with which continued bursts of applause with which the great mass of the assembled the great mass of the assembled the great mass of the assembled multitude hailed and sanctioned it. The multitude hailed and sanctioned it. The multitude hailed and sanctioned it. The experiment was very bold and very experiment was very bold and very experiment was very bold and very hazardous, but it was triumphantly hazardous, but it was triumphantly hazardous, but it was triumphantly successful.

successful. successful. A short time after this, Caesar had A short time after this, Caesar had A short time after this, Caesar had another opportunity for delivering a another opportunity for delivering a another opportunity for delivering a funeral oration. It was in the case of funeral oration. It was in the case of funeral oration. It was in the case of his own wife, the daughter of Sa, who his own wife, the daughter of Sa, who his own wife, the daughter of Sa, who had been the colleague and co-ager of had been the colleague and co-ager of had been the colleague and co-ager of Marius during the days of his power. It Marius during the days of his power. It Marius during the days of his power. It was not usual to pronounce such was not usual to pronounce such was not usual to pronounce such panagerics upon Roman ladies unless they panagerics upon Roman ladies unless they panagerics upon Roman ladies unless they had attained to an advanced age. Caesar, had attained to an advanced age. Caesar, had attained to an advanced age. Caesar, however, was disposed to make the case however, was disposed to make the case however, was disposed to make the case of his own wife an exception to the of his own wife an exception to the of his own wife an exception to the ordinary rule. He saw in the occasion an ordinary rule. He saw in the occasion an ordinary rule. He saw in the occasion an opportunity to give a new impulse to the opportunity to give a new impulse to the opportunity to give a new impulse to the popular cause and to make further popular cause and to make further popular cause and to make further progress in gaining the popular favor. progress in gaining the popular favor. progress in gaining the popular favor. The experiment was successful in this The experiment was successful in this The experiment was successful in this instance too. The people were pleased at instance too. The people were pleased at instance too. The people were pleased at the apparent affection which his action the apparent affection which his action the apparent affection which his action evinced, and as Cornelia was the evinced, and as Cornelia was the evinced, and as Cornelia was the daughter of SA, he had opportunity under daughter of SA, he had opportunity under daughter of SA, he had opportunity under pretext of praising the birth and pretext of praising the birth and pretext of praising the birth and parentage of the deceased to lod the men parentage of the deceased to lod the men parentage of the deceased to lod the men whom Sila's party had outlawed and whom Sila's party had outlawed and whom Sila's party had outlawed and destroyed. In a word, the patrician destroyed. In a word, the patrician destroyed. In a word, the patrician party saw with anxiety and dread that party saw with anxiety and dread that party saw with anxiety and dread that Caesar was rapidly consolidating and Caesar was rapidly consolidating and Caesar was rapidly consolidating and organizing and bringing back to its organizing and bringing back to its organizing and bringing back to its pristine strength and vigor a party pristine strength and vigor a party pristine strength and vigor a party whose restoration to power would of whose restoration to power would of whose restoration to power would of course involve their own political and course involve their own political and course involve their own political and perhaps personal ruin.

perhaps personal ruin. perhaps personal ruin. Caesar began soon to receive Caesar began soon to receive Caesar began soon to receive appointments to public office and thus appointments to public office and thus appointments to public office and thus rapidly increased his influence in rapidly increased his influence in rapidly increased his influence in power. Public officers and candidates power. Public officers and candidates power. Public officers and candidates for office were accustomed in those days for office were accustomed in those days for office were accustomed in those days to expend great sums of money in shows to expend great sums of money in shows to expend great sums of money in shows and spectacles to amuse the people. and spectacles to amuse the people. and spectacles to amuse the people. Caesar went beyond all limits in these Caesar went beyond all limits in these Caesar went beyond all limits in these expenditures. He brought gladiators from expenditures. He brought gladiators from expenditures. He brought gladiators from distant provinces and trained them at distant provinces and trained them at distant provinces and trained them at great expense to fight in the enormous great expense to fight in the enormous great expense to fight in the enormous amphitheaters of the city in the midst amphitheaters of the city in the midst amphitheaters of the city in the midst of vast assemblies of men. Wild beasts of vast assemblies of men. Wild beasts of vast assemblies of men. Wild beasts were procured also from the forests of were procured also from the forests of were procured also from the forests of Africa and brought over in great numbers Africa and brought over in great numbers Africa and brought over in great numbers under his direction that the people under his direction that the people under his direction that the people might be entertained by their combats might be entertained by their combats might be entertained by their combats with captives taken in war who were with captives taken in war who were with captives taken in war who were reserved for this dreadful fate. Caesar reserved for this dreadful fate. Caesar reserved for this dreadful fate. Caesar gave also splendid entertainments of the gave also splendid entertainments of the gave also splendid entertainments of the most luxurious and costly character and most luxurious and costly character and most luxurious and costly character and he mingled with his guests at these he mingled with his guests at these he mingled with his guests at these entertainments and with the people at entertainments and with the people at entertainments and with the people at large on other occasions in so large on other occasions in so large on other occasions in so complacent and courteous a manner as to complacent and courteous a manner as to complacent and courteous a manner as to gain universal favor. He soon by these gain universal favor. He soon by these gain universal favor. He soon by these means not only exhausted all his own means not only exhausted all his own means not only exhausted all his own pecuniary resources but plunged himself pecuniary resources but plunged himself pecuniary resources but plunged himself enormously into debt. It was not enormously into debt. It was not enormously into debt. It was not difficult for such a man in those days difficult for such a man in those days difficult for such a man in those days to procure an almost unlimited credit to procure an almost unlimited credit to procure an almost unlimited credit for such purposes as these. For everyone for such purposes as these. For everyone for such purposes as these. For everyone knew that if he finally succeeded in knew that if he finally succeeded in knew that if he finally succeeded in placing himself by means of the placing himself by means of the placing himself by means of the popularity thus acquired in stations of popularity thus acquired in stations of popularity thus acquired in stations of power, he could soon indemnify himself power, he could soon indemnify himself power, he could soon indemnify himself and all others who had aided him. the and all others who had aided him. the and all others who had aided him. the peaceful merchants and artisans and peaceful merchants and artisans and peaceful merchants and artisans and husbandmen of the distant provinces over husbandmen of the distant provinces over husbandmen of the distant provinces over which he expected to rule would yield

which he expected to rule would yield which he expected to rule would yield the revenues necessary to fill the the revenues necessary to fill the the revenues necessary to fill the treasuries thus exhausted. Still, treasuries thus exhausted. Still, treasuries thus exhausted. Still, Caesar's expenditures were so lavish, Caesar's expenditures were so lavish, Caesar's expenditures were so lavish, and the debts he incurred were so and the debts he incurred were so and the debts he incurred were so enormous that those who had not the most enormous that those who had not the most enormous that those who had not the most unbounded confidence in his capacity and unbounded confidence in his capacity and unbounded confidence in his capacity and his powers believed him irretrievably his powers believed him irretrievably his powers believed him irretrievably ruined. The particulars, however, of ruined. The particulars, however, of ruined. The particulars, however, of these difficulties and the manner in these difficulties and the manner in these difficulties and the manner in which Caesar contrived to extricate which Caesar contrived to extricate which Caesar contrived to extricate himself from them will be more fully himself from them will be more fully himself from them will be more fully detailed in the next chapter, end of detailed in the next chapter, end of detailed in the next chapter, end of chapter 2. Chapter 3 of history of Julius Caesar. Chapter 3 of history of Julius Caesar. This is a LibriVox recording. All This is a LibriVox recording. All This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public LibriVox recordings are in the public LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to domain. For more information or to domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit librivox.org. volunteer, please visit librivox.org. volunteer, please visit librivox.org. Recording by Kathy Barrett. Recording by Kathy Barrett. Recording by Kathy Barrett. History of Julius Caesar by Jacob History of Julius Caesar by Jacob History of Julius Caesar by Jacob Abbott. Abbott. Abbott. Chapter 3. Advancement to the consil Chapter 3. Advancement to the consil Chapter 3. Advancement to the consil ship.

ship. ship. From this time, which was about 67 years From this time, which was about 67 years From this time, which was about 67 years before the birth of Christ, Caesar before the birth of Christ, Caesar before the birth of Christ, Caesar remained for 9 years generally at Rome, remained for 9 years generally at Rome, remained for 9 years generally at Rome, engaged there in a constant struggle for engaged there in a constant struggle for engaged there in a constant struggle for power. He was successful in these power. He was successful in these power. He was successful in these efforts, rising all the time from one efforts, rising all the time from one efforts, rising all the time from one position of influence and honor to position of influence and honor to position of influence and honor to another until he became altogether the another until he became altogether the another until he became altogether the most prominent and powerful man in the most prominent and powerful man in the most prominent and powerful man in the city. A great many incidents are city. A great many incidents are city. A great many incidents are recorded as attending these contests recorded as attending these contests recorded as attending these contests which illustrate in a very striking which illustrate in a very striking which illustrate in a very striking manner the strange mixture of rude manner the strange mixture of rude manner the strange mixture of rude violence and legal formality by which violence and legal formality by which violence and legal formality by which Rome was in those days governed. Many of Rome was in those days governed. Many of Rome was in those days governed. Many of the most important offices of the state the most important offices of the state the most important offices of the state depended upon the votes of the people. depended upon the votes of the people. depended upon the votes of the people. And as the people had very little And as the people had very little And as the people had very little opportunity to become acquainted with opportunity to become acquainted with opportunity to become acquainted with the real merits of the case in respect the real merits of the case in respect the real merits of the case in respect to questions of government, they gave to questions of government, they gave to questions of government, they gave their votes very much according to the their votes very much according to the their votes very much according to the personal popularity of the candidate. personal popularity of the candidate. personal popularity of the candidate. Public men had very little moral Public men had very little moral Public men had very little moral principle in those days, and they would principle in those days, and they would principle in those days, and they would accordingly resort to any means whatever accordingly resort to any means whatever accordingly resort to any means whatever to procure this personal popularity.

to procure this personal popularity. to procure this personal popularity. They who wanted office were accustomed They who wanted office were accustomed They who wanted office were accustomed to bribe influential men among the to bribe influential men among the to bribe influential men among the people to support them, sometimes by people to support them, sometimes by people to support them, sometimes by promising them subordinate offices, and promising them subordinate offices, and promising them subordinate offices, and sometimes by the direct donation of sums sometimes by the direct donation of sums sometimes by the direct donation of sums of money. And they would try to please of money. And they would try to please of money. And they would try to please the mass of the people who were too the mass of the people who were too the mass of the people who were too numerous to be paid with offices or with numerous to be paid with offices or with numerous to be paid with offices or with gold by shows and spectacles and gold by shows and spectacles and gold by shows and spectacles and entertainments of every kind which they entertainments of every kind which they entertainments of every kind which they would provide for their amusement. This would provide for their amusement. This would provide for their amusement. This practice seems to us very absurd, and we practice seems to us very absurd, and we practice seems to us very absurd, and we wonder that the Roman people should wonder that the Roman people should wonder that the Roman people should tolerate it, since it is evident that tolerate it, since it is evident that tolerate it, since it is evident that the means for defaying these expenses the means for defaying these expenses the means for defaying these expenses must come ultimately in some way or must come ultimately in some way or must come ultimately in some way or other from them. And yet, absurd as it other from them. And yet, absurd as it other from them. And yet, absurd as it seems, this sort of policy is not wholly seems, this sort of policy is not wholly seems, this sort of policy is not wholly disused, even in our day. The operas and disused, even in our day. The operas and disused, even in our day. The operas and the theaters and other similar the theaters and other similar the theaters and other similar establishments in France are sustained establishments in France are sustained establishments in France are sustained in part by the government, and the in part by the government, and the in part by the government, and the liberality and efficiency with which liberality and efficiency with which liberality and efficiency with which this is done forms in some degree the this is done forms in some degree the this is done forms in some degree the basis of the popularity of each basis of the popularity of each basis of the popularity of each succeeding administration. succeeding administration. succeeding administration. The plan is better systematized and The plan is better systematized and The plan is better systematized and regulated in our day, but it is in its regulated in our day, but it is in its regulated in our day, but it is in its nature substantially the same.

nature substantially the same. nature substantially the same. In fact, furnishing amusements for the In fact, furnishing amusements for the In fact, furnishing amusements for the people and also providing supplies for people and also providing supplies for people and also providing supplies for their wants as well as affording them their wants as well as affording them their wants as well as affording them protection were considered the protection were considered the protection were considered the legitimate objects of government in legitimate objects of government in legitimate objects of government in those days. It is very different at the those days. It is very different at the those days. It is very different at the present time and especially in this present time and especially in this present time and especially in this country. The whole community are now country. The whole community are now country. The whole community are now united in the desire to confine the united in the desire to confine the united in the desire to confine the functions of government within the functions of government within the functions of government within the narrowest possible limits such as to narrowest possible limits such as to narrowest possible limits such as to include only the preservation of public include only the preservation of public include only the preservation of public order and public safety. The people order and public safety. The people order and public safety. The people prefer to supply their own wants and to prefer to supply their own wants and to prefer to supply their own wants and to provide their own enjoyments rather than provide their own enjoyments rather than provide their own enjoyments rather than to invest government with the power to to invest government with the power to to invest government with the power to do it for them, knowing very well that do it for them, knowing very well that do it for them, knowing very well that on the latter plan the burdens they will on the latter plan the burdens they will on the latter plan the burdens they will have to bear, though concealed for a have to bear, though concealed for a have to bear, though concealed for a time, must be doubled in the end. It time, must be doubled in the end. It time, must be doubled in the end. It must not be forgotten, however, that must not be forgotten, however, that must not be forgotten, however, that there were some reasons in the days of there were some reasons in the days of there were some reasons in the days of the Romans for providing public the Romans for providing public the Romans for providing public amusements for the people on an extended amusements for the people on an extended amusements for the people on an extended scale which do not exist now. They had scale which do not exist now. They had scale which do not exist now. They had very few facilities then for the private very few facilities then for the private very few facilities then for the private and separate enjoyments of home, so that and separate enjoyments of home, so that and separate enjoyments of home, so that they were much more inclined than the they were much more inclined than the they were much more inclined than the people of this country are now, to seek people of this country are now, to seek people of this country are now, to seek pleasure abroad and in public. The pleasure abroad and in public. The pleasure abroad and in public. The climate, too, mild and genial nearly all climate, too, mild and genial nearly all climate, too, mild and genial nearly all the year, favored this. Then they were the year, favored this. Then they were the year, favored this. Then they were not interested, as men are now, in the not interested, as men are now, in the not interested, as men are now, in the pursuits and avocations of private pursuits and avocations of private pursuits and avocations of private industry. The people of Rome were not a industry. The people of Rome were not a industry. The people of Rome were not a community of merchants, manufacturers, community of merchants, manufacturers, community of merchants, manufacturers, and citizens, enriching themselves, and and citizens, enriching themselves, and and citizens, enriching themselves, and adding to the comforts and enjoyments of adding to the comforts and enjoyments of adding to the comforts and enjoyments of the rest of mankind by the products of the rest of mankind by the products of the rest of mankind by the products of their labor. They were supported in a their labor. They were supported in a their labor. They were supported in a great measure by the proceeds of the

great measure by the proceeds of the great measure by the proceeds of the tribute of foreign provinces, and by the tribute of foreign provinces, and by the tribute of foreign provinces, and by the plunder taken by the generals in the plunder taken by the generals in the plunder taken by the generals in the name of the state in foreign wars. From name of the state in foreign wars. From name of the state in foreign wars. From the same source too, foreign conquest, the same source too, foreign conquest, the same source too, foreign conquest, captives were brought home to be trained captives were brought home to be trained captives were brought home to be trained as gladiators to amuse them with their as gladiators to amuse them with their as gladiators to amuse them with their combats and statues and paintings to combats and statues and paintings to combats and statues and paintings to ornament the public buildings of the ornament the public buildings of the ornament the public buildings of the city. In the same manner, large city. In the same manner, large city. In the same manner, large quantities of corn which had been taken quantities of corn which had been taken quantities of corn which had been taken in the provinces were often distributed in the provinces were often distributed in the provinces were often distributed at Rome and sometimes even land itself at Rome and sometimes even land itself at Rome and sometimes even land itself in large tracts which had been in large tracts which had been in large tracts which had been confiscated by the state or otherwise confiscated by the state or otherwise confiscated by the state or otherwise taken from the original possessors was taken from the original possessors was taken from the original possessors was divided among the people. divided among the people. divided among the people. The laws enacted from time to time for The laws enacted from time to time for The laws enacted from time to time for this purpose were called agrarian laws, this purpose were called agrarian laws, this purpose were called agrarian laws, and the phrase afterward passed into a and the phrase afterward passed into a and the phrase afterward passed into a sort of proverb, in as much as plans sort of proverb, in as much as plans sort of proverb, in as much as plans proposed in modern times for proposed in modern times for proposed in modern times for consiliating the favor of the populace consiliating the favor of the populace consiliating the favor of the populace by sharing among them property belonging by sharing among them property belonging by sharing among them property belonging to the state or to the rich are to the state or to the rich are to the state or to the rich are designated by the name of agrarianism. designated by the name of agrarianism. designated by the name of agrarianism. Thus, Rome was a city supported in a Thus, Rome was a city supported in a Thus, Rome was a city supported in a great measure by the fruits of its great measure by the fruits of its great measure by the fruits of its conquests, that is, in a certain sense, conquests, that is, in a certain sense, conquests, that is, in a certain sense, by plunder. It was a vast community, by plunder. It was a vast community, by plunder. It was a vast community, most efficiently and admirably organized most efficiently and admirably organized most efficiently and admirably organized for this purpose, and yet it would not for this purpose, and yet it would not for this purpose, and yet it would not be perfectly just to designate the be perfectly just to designate the be perfectly just to designate the people simply as a band of robbers. They people simply as a band of robbers. They people simply as a band of robbers. They rendered in some sense an equivalent for rendered in some sense an equivalent for rendered in some sense an equivalent for what they took in establishing and what they took in establishing and what they took in establishing and enforcing a certain organization of enforcing a certain organization of enforcing a certain organization of society throughout the world and in society throughout the world and in society throughout the world and in preserving a sort of public order and preserving a sort of public order and preserving a sort of public order and peace. They built cities. They peace. They built cities. They peace. They built cities. They constructed aqueducts and roads. They

constructed aqueducts and roads. They constructed aqueducts and roads. They formed harbors and protected them by formed harbors and protected them by formed harbors and protected them by peers and by castles. They protected peers and by castles. They protected peers and by castles. They protected commerce and cultivated the arts and commerce and cultivated the arts and commerce and cultivated the arts and encouraged literature and enforced encouraged literature and enforced encouraged literature and enforced general quiet and peace among mankind general quiet and peace among mankind general quiet and peace among mankind allowing of no violence or war except allowing of no violence or war except allowing of no violence or war except what they themselves created. Thus they what they themselves created. Thus they what they themselves created. Thus they governed the world and they felt as all governed the world and they felt as all governed the world and they felt as all governors of mankind always do fully governors of mankind always do fully governors of mankind always do fully entitled to supply themselves with the entitled to supply themselves with the entitled to supply themselves with the comforts and conveniences of life in comforts and conveniences of life in comforts and conveniences of life in consideration of the service which they consideration of the service which they consideration of the service which they thus rendered. Of course, it was to be thus rendered. Of course, it was to be thus rendered. Of course, it was to be expected that they would sometimes expected that they would sometimes expected that they would sometimes quarrel amongst themselves about the quarrel amongst themselves about the quarrel amongst themselves about the spoils. Ambitious men were always spoils. Ambitious men were always spoils. Ambitious men were always arising, eager to obtain opportunities arising, eager to obtain opportunities arising, eager to obtain opportunities to make fresh conquests and to bring to make fresh conquests and to bring to make fresh conquests and to bring home new supplies. And those who were home new supplies. And those who were home new supplies. And those who were most successful in making the results of most successful in making the results of most successful in making the results of their conquests available in adding to their conquests available in adding to their conquests available in adding to the wealth and to the public enjoyments the wealth and to the public enjoyments the wealth and to the public enjoyments of the city would of course be most of the city would of course be most of the city would of course be most popular with the voters. Hence, popular with the voters. Hence, popular with the voters. Hence, extortion in the provinces and the most extortion in the provinces and the most extortion in the provinces and the most profuse and lavish expenditure in the profuse and lavish expenditure in the profuse and lavish expenditure in the city became the policy which every great city became the policy which every great city became the policy which every great man must pursue to rise to power.

man must pursue to rise to power. man must pursue to rise to power. Caesar entered into this policy with his Caesar entered into this policy with his Caesar entered into this policy with his whole soul, founding all his hopes of whole soul, founding all his hopes of whole soul, founding all his hopes of success upon the favor of the populace. success upon the favor of the populace. success upon the favor of the populace. Of course, he had many rivals and Of course, he had many rivals and Of course, he had many rivals and opponents among the patrician ranks and opponents among the patrician ranks and opponents among the patrician ranks and in the Senate, and they often impeded in the Senate, and they often impeded in the Senate, and they often impeded and thwarted his plans and measures for and thwarted his plans and measures for and thwarted his plans and measures for a time, though he always triumphed in a time, though he always triumphed in a time, though he always triumphed in the end. One of the first offices of the end. One of the first offices of the end. One of the first offices of importance to which he attained was that importance to which he attained was that importance to which he attained was that of Quistor, as it was called, which of Quistor, as it was called, which of Quistor, as it was called, which office called him away from Rome into office called him away from Rome into office called him away from Rome into the province of Spain, making him the the province of Spain, making him the the province of Spain, making him the second in command there. The officer second in command there. The officer second in command there. The officer first in command in the province was, in first in command in the province was, in first in command in the province was, in this instance, a pritor. During his this instance, a pritor. During his this instance, a pritor. During his absence in Spain, Caesar replenished in absence in Spain, Caesar replenished in absence in Spain, Caesar replenished in some degree his exhausted finances, but some degree his exhausted finances, but some degree his exhausted finances, but he soon became very much discontented he soon became very much discontented he soon became very much discontented with so subordinate a position. His with so subordinate a position. His with so subordinate a position. His discontent was greatly increased by his discontent was greatly increased by his discontent was greatly increased by his coming unexpectedly one day at a city coming unexpectedly one day at a city coming unexpectedly one day at a city then called Hades, the present Kadis, then called Hades, the present Kadis, then called Hades, the present Kadis, upon a statue of Alexander, which upon a statue of Alexander, which upon a statue of Alexander, which adorned one of the public edififices adorned one of the public edififices adorned one of the public edififices there. Alexander died when he was only there. Alexander died when he was only there. Alexander died when he was only about 30 years of age, having before about 30 years of age, having before about 30 years of age, having before that period made himself master of the that period made himself master of the that period made himself master of the world. Caesar was himself now about 35 world. Caesar was himself now about 35 world. Caesar was himself now about 35 years of age, and it made him very sad years of age, and it made him very sad years of age, and it made him very sad to reflect that though he had lived 5 to reflect that though he had lived 5 to reflect that though he had lived 5 years longer than Alexander, he had yet years longer than Alexander, he had yet years longer than Alexander, he had yet accomplished so little. He was thus far accomplished so little. He was thus far accomplished so little. He was thus far only the second in a province, while he only the second in a province, while he only the second in a province, while he burned with an insatiable ambition to be burned with an insatiable ambition to be burned with an insatiable ambition to be the first in Rome. The reflection made the first in Rome. The reflection made the first in Rome. The reflection made him so uneasy that he left his post him so uneasy that he left his post him so uneasy that he left his post before his time expired, and went back before his time expired, and went back before his time expired, and went back to Rome, forming on the way desperate

to Rome, forming on the way desperate to Rome, forming on the way desperate projects for getting power there. His projects for getting power there. His projects for getting power there. His rivals and enemies accused him of rivals and enemies accused him of rivals and enemies accused him of various schemes, more or less violent various schemes, more or less violent various schemes, more or less violent and treasonable in their nature, but how and treasonable in their nature, but how and treasonable in their nature, but how justly it is not now possible to justly it is not now possible to justly it is not now possible to ascertain. They alleged that one of his ascertain. They alleged that one of his ascertain. They alleged that one of his plans was to join some of the plans was to join some of the plans was to join some of the neighboring colonies whose inhabitants neighboring colonies whose inhabitants neighboring colonies whose inhabitants wished to be admitted to the freedom of wished to be admitted to the freedom of wished to be admitted to the freedom of the city and making common cause with the city and making common cause with the city and making common cause with them to raise an armed force and take them to raise an armed force and take them to raise an armed force and take possession of Rome. It was said that to possession of Rome. It was said that to possession of Rome. It was said that to prevent the accomplishment of this prevent the accomplishment of this prevent the accomplishment of this design, an army which they had raised design, an army which they had raised design, an army which they had raised for the purpose of an expedition against for the purpose of an expedition against for the purpose of an expedition against the Celician pirates was detained from the Celician pirates was detained from the Celician pirates was detained from its march and that Caesar, seeing that its march and that Caesar, seeing that its march and that Caesar, seeing that the government were on their guard the government were on their guard the government were on their guard against him, abandoned the plan. They against him, abandoned the plan. They against him, abandoned the plan. They also charged him with having formed also charged him with having formed also charged him with having formed after this a plan within the city for after this a plan within the city for after this a plan within the city for assassinating the senators in the Senate assassinating the senators in the Senate assassinating the senators in the Senate House and then usurping with his fellow House and then usurping with his fellow House and then usurping with his fellow conspirators the supreme power. Craas, conspirators the supreme power. Craas, conspirators the supreme power. Craas, who was a man of vast wealth and a great who was a man of vast wealth and a great who was a man of vast wealth and a great friend of Caesars's, was associated with friend of Caesars's, was associated with friend of Caesars's, was associated with him in this plot, and was to have been him in this plot, and was to have been him in this plot, and was to have been made dictator if it had succeeded. But made dictator if it had succeeded. But made dictator if it had succeeded. But notwithstanding the brilliant prize with notwithstanding the brilliant prize with notwithstanding the brilliant prize with which Caesar attempted to allure a which Caesar attempted to allure a which Caesar attempted to allure a crisis to the enterprise, his courage crisis to the enterprise, his courage crisis to the enterprise, his courage failed him when the time for action failed him when the time for action failed him when the time for action arrived. Courage and enterprise, in arrived. Courage and enterprise, in arrived. Courage and enterprise, in fact, ought not to be expected of the fact, ought not to be expected of the fact, ought not to be expected of the rich. They are the virtues of poverty.

rich. They are the virtues of poverty. rich. They are the virtues of poverty. Though the Senate were thus jealous and Though the Senate were thus jealous and Though the Senate were thus jealous and suspicious of Caesar, and were charging suspicious of Caesar, and were charging suspicious of Caesar, and were charging him continually with these criminal him continually with these criminal him continually with these criminal designs, the people were on his side, designs, the people were on his side, designs, the people were on his side, and the more he was hated by the great, and the more he was hated by the great, and the more he was hated by the great, the more strongly he became entrenched the more strongly he became entrenched the more strongly he became entrenched in the popular favor. They chose him in the popular favor. They chose him in the popular favor. They chose him eile. The Edile had the charge of the eile. The Edile had the charge of the eile. The Edile had the charge of the public edififices of the city, and of public edififices of the city, and of public edififices of the city, and of the game, spectacles, and shows which the game, spectacles, and shows which the game, spectacles, and shows which were exhibited in them. Caesar entered were exhibited in them. Caesar entered were exhibited in them. Caesar entered with great zeal into the discharge of with great zeal into the discharge of with great zeal into the discharge of the duties of this office. He made the duties of this office. He made the duties of this office. He made arrangements for the entertainment of arrangements for the entertainment of arrangements for the entertainment of the people on the most magnificent scale the people on the most magnificent scale the people on the most magnificent scale and made great additions and and made great additions and and made great additions and improvements to the public buildings, improvements to the public buildings, improvements to the public buildings, constructing porticos and piazas around constructing porticos and piazas around constructing porticos and piazas around the areas where his gladatorial shows the areas where his gladatorial shows the areas where his gladatorial shows and the combats with wild beasts were to and the combats with wild beasts were to and the combats with wild beasts were to be exhibited. He provided gladiators in be exhibited. He provided gladiators in be exhibited. He provided gladiators in such numbers and organized and arranged such numbers and organized and arranged such numbers and organized and arranged them in such a manner ostensibly for them in such a manner ostensibly for them in such a manner ostensibly for their training that his enemies among their training that his enemies among their training that his enemies among the nobility pretended to believe that the nobility pretended to believe that the nobility pretended to believe that he was intending to use them as an armed he was intending to use them as an armed he was intending to use them as an armed force against the government of the force against the government of the force against the government of the city. They accordingly made laws city. They accordingly made laws city. They accordingly made laws limiting and restricting the number of limiting and restricting the number of limiting and restricting the number of the gladiators to be employed. Caesar the gladiators to be employed. Caesar the gladiators to be employed. Caesar then exhibited his shows on the reduced then exhibited his shows on the reduced then exhibited his shows on the reduced scale which the new laws required, scale which the new laws required, scale which the new laws required, taking care that the people should taking care that the people should taking care that the people should understand to whom the responsibility understand to whom the responsibility understand to whom the responsibility for this reduction in the scale of their for this reduction in the scale of their for this reduction in the scale of their pleasures belonged. They, of course, pleasures belonged. They, of course, pleasures belonged. They, of course, murmured against the Senate, and Caesar murmured against the Senate, and Caesar murmured against the Senate, and Caesar stood higher in their favor than ever.

stood higher in their favor than ever. stood higher in their favor than ever. He was getting, however, by these means He was getting, however, by these means He was getting, however, by these means very deeply involved in debt, and in very deeply involved in debt, and in very deeply involved in debt, and in order partly to retrieve his fortunes in order partly to retrieve his fortunes in order partly to retrieve his fortunes in this respect, he made an attempt to have this respect, he made an attempt to have this respect, he made an attempt to have Egypt assigned to him as a province. Egypt assigned to him as a province. Egypt assigned to him as a province. Egypt was then an immensely rich and Egypt was then an immensely rich and Egypt was then an immensely rich and fertile country. It had, however, never fertile country. It had, however, never fertile country. It had, however, never been a Roman province. It was an been a Roman province. It was an been a Roman province. It was an independent kingdom in alliance with the independent kingdom in alliance with the independent kingdom in alliance with the Romans, and Caesar's proposal that it Romans, and Caesar's proposal that it Romans, and Caesar's proposal that it should be assigned to him as a province should be assigned to him as a province should be assigned to him as a province appeared very extraordinary. His pretext appeared very extraordinary. His pretext appeared very extraordinary. His pretext was that the people of Egypt had was that the people of Egypt had was that the people of Egypt had recently deposed and expelled their king recently deposed and expelled their king recently deposed and expelled their king and that consequently the Romans might and that consequently the Romans might and that consequently the Romans might properly take possession of it. The properly take possession of it. The properly take possession of it. The Senate, however, resisted this plan, Senate, however, resisted this plan, Senate, however, resisted this plan, either from jealousy of Caesar or from a either from jealousy of Caesar or from a either from jealousy of Caesar or from a sense of justice to Egypt, and after a sense of justice to Egypt, and after a sense of justice to Egypt, and after a violent contest, Caesar found himself violent contest, Caesar found himself violent contest, Caesar found himself compelled to give up the design. He compelled to give up the design. He compelled to give up the design. He felt, however, a strong degree of felt, however, a strong degree of felt, however, a strong degree of resentment against the Patrician party, resentment against the Patrician party, resentment against the Patrician party, who had thus thwarted his designs. who had thus thwarted his designs. who had thus thwarted his designs. Accordingly, in order to avenge himself Accordingly, in order to avenge himself Accordingly, in order to avenge himself upon them, he one night replaced certain upon them, he one night replaced certain upon them, he one night replaced certain statues and trophies of Marius in the statues and trophies of Marius in the statues and trophies of Marius in the capital, which had been taken down by capital, which had been taken down by capital, which had been taken down by order of Silo when he returned to power.

order of Silo when he returned to power. order of Silo when he returned to power. Marius, as will be recollected, had been Marius, as will be recollected, had been Marius, as will be recollected, had been the great champion of the popular party the great champion of the popular party the great champion of the popular party and the enemy of the Petricians. And at and the enemy of the Petricians. And at and the enemy of the Petricians. And at the time of his downfall, all the the time of his downfall, all the the time of his downfall, all the memorials of his power and greatness had memorials of his power and greatness had memorials of his power and greatness had been everywhere removed from Rome. and been everywhere removed from Rome. and been everywhere removed from Rome. and among them these statues and trophies among them these statues and trophies among them these statues and trophies which had been erected in the capital in which had been erected in the capital in which had been erected in the capital in commemoration of some former victories commemoration of some former victories commemoration of some former victories and had remained there until Sila's and had remained there until Sila's and had remained there until Sila's triumph when they were taken down and triumph when they were taken down and triumph when they were taken down and destroyed. Caesar now ordered new ones destroyed. Caesar now ordered new ones destroyed. Caesar now ordered new ones to be made far more magnificent than to be made far more magnificent than to be made far more magnificent than before. They were made secretly and put before. They were made secretly and put before. They were made secretly and put up in the night. His office as Edile up in the night. His office as Edile up in the night. His office as Edile gave him the necessary authority. The gave him the necessary authority. The gave him the necessary authority. The next morning, when the people saw these next morning, when the people saw these next morning, when the people saw these splendid monuments of their great splendid monuments of their great splendid monuments of their great favorite restored, the whole city was favorite restored, the whole city was favorite restored, the whole city was animated with excitement and joy. The animated with excitement and joy. The animated with excitement and joy. The Petricians, on the other hand, were Petricians, on the other hand, were Petricians, on the other hand, were filled with vexation and rage. Quote, filled with vexation and rage. Quote, filled with vexation and rage. Quote, here is a single officer, said they, who here is a single officer, said they, who here is a single officer, said they, who is attempting to restore by his is attempting to restore by his is attempting to restore by his individual authority what has been individual authority what has been individual authority what has been formally abolished by a decree of the formally abolished by a decree of the formally abolished by a decree of the Senate. He is trying to see how much we Senate. He is trying to see how much we Senate. He is trying to see how much we will bear. if he finds that we will will bear. if he finds that we will will bear. if he finds that we will submit to this, he will attempt bolder submit to this, he will attempt bolder submit to this, he will attempt bolder measures still." End quote. They measures still." End quote. They measures still." End quote. They accordingly commenced a movement to have accordingly commenced a movement to have accordingly commenced a movement to have the statues and trophies taken down the statues and trophies taken down the statues and trophies taken down again, but the people rallied in vast again, but the people rallied in vast again, but the people rallied in vast numbers in defense of them. They made numbers in defense of them. They made numbers in defense of them. They made the capital ring with their shouts of the capital ring with their shouts of the capital ring with their shouts of applause, and the Senate, finding their applause, and the Senate, finding their applause, and the Senate, finding their power insufficient to cope with so great power insufficient to cope with so great power insufficient to cope with so great a force, gave up the point, and Caesar a force, gave up the point, and Caesar a force, gave up the point, and Caesar gained the day.

gained the day. gained the day. Caesar had married another wife after Caesar had married another wife after Caesar had married another wife after the death of Cornelia. Her name was the death of Cornelia. Her name was the death of Cornelia. Her name was Pompea. He divorced Pompea about this Pompea. He divorced Pompea about this Pompea. He divorced Pompea about this time under very extraordinary time under very extraordinary time under very extraordinary circumstances. Among the other strange circumstances. Among the other strange circumstances. Among the other strange religious ceremonies and celebrations religious ceremonies and celebrations religious ceremonies and celebrations which were observed in those days was which were observed in those days was which were observed in those days was one called the celebration of the one called the celebration of the one called the celebration of the mysteries of the good goddess. This mysteries of the good goddess. This mysteries of the good goddess. This celebration was held by females alone, celebration was held by females alone, celebration was held by females alone, everything masculine being most everything masculine being most everything masculine being most carefully excluded. Even the pictures of carefully excluded. Even the pictures of carefully excluded. Even the pictures of men, if there were any, upon the walls men, if there were any, upon the walls men, if there were any, upon the walls of the house where the assembly was held of the house where the assembly was held of the house where the assembly was held were covered. The persons engaged spent were covered. The persons engaged spent were covered. The persons engaged spent the night together in music and dancing the night together in music and dancing the night together in music and dancing and various secret ceremonies, half and various secret ceremonies, half and various secret ceremonies, half pleasure, half worship, according to the pleasure, half worship, according to the pleasure, half worship, according to the ideas and customs of the time. The ideas and customs of the time. The ideas and customs of the time. The mysteries of the good goddess were to be mysteries of the good goddess were to be mysteries of the good goddess were to be celebrated one night at Caesar's house, celebrated one night at Caesar's house, celebrated one night at Caesar's house, he himself having, of course, withdrawn. he himself having, of course, withdrawn. he himself having, of course, withdrawn. In the middle of the night, the whole In the middle of the night, the whole In the middle of the night, the whole company in one of the apartments were company in one of the apartments were company in one of the apartments were thrown into consternation at finding thrown into consternation at finding thrown into consternation at finding that one of their number was a man. He that one of their number was a man. He that one of their number was a man. He had a smooth and youthful-looking face, had a smooth and youthful-looking face, had a smooth and youthful-looking face, and was very perfectly disguised in the and was very perfectly disguised in the and was very perfectly disguised in the dress of a female. He proved to be a dress of a female. He proved to be a dress of a female. He proved to be a certain claius, a very base and certain claius, a very base and certain claius, a very base and dissolute young man, though of great dissolute young man, though of great dissolute young man, though of great wealth and high connections. He had been wealth and high connections. He had been wealth and high connections. He had been admitted by a female slave of Pompeus, admitted by a female slave of Pompeus, admitted by a female slave of Pompeus, whom he had succeeded in bribing. It was whom he had succeeded in bribing. It was whom he had succeeded in bribing. It was suspected that it was with Pompea's suspected that it was with Pompea's suspected that it was with Pompea's concurrence. At any rate, Caesar concurrence. At any rate, Caesar concurrence. At any rate, Caesar immediately divorced his wife. The immediately divorced his wife. The immediately divorced his wife. The Senate ordered an inquiry into the Senate ordered an inquiry into the Senate ordered an inquiry into the affair, and after the other members of affair, and after the other members of affair, and after the other members of the household had given their testimony,

the household had given their testimony, the household had given their testimony, Caesar himself was called upon, but he Caesar himself was called upon, but he Caesar himself was called upon, but he had nothing to say. He knew nothing had nothing to say. He knew nothing had nothing to say. He knew nothing about it. They asked him then why he had about it. They asked him then why he had about it. They asked him then why he had divorced Pompea, unless he had some divorced Pompea, unless he had some divorced Pompea, unless he had some evidence for believing her guilty. He evidence for believing her guilty. He evidence for believing her guilty. He replied that a wife of Caesar must not replied that a wife of Caesar must not replied that a wife of Caesar must not only be without crime, but without only be without crime, but without only be without crime, but without suspicion. suspicion. suspicion. Claius was a very desperate and lawless Claius was a very desperate and lawless Claius was a very desperate and lawless character, and his subsequent history character, and his subsequent history character, and his subsequent history shows in a striking point of view the shows in a striking point of view the shows in a striking point of view the degree of violence and disorder which degree of violence and disorder which degree of violence and disorder which reigned in those times. He became reigned in those times. He became reigned in those times. He became involved in a bitter contention with involved in a bitter contention with involved in a bitter contention with another citizen whose name was Milo, and another citizen whose name was Milo, and another citizen whose name was Milo, and each gaining as many adherence as he each gaining as many adherence as he each gaining as many adherence as he could, at length drew almost the whole could, at length drew almost the whole could, at length drew almost the whole city into their quarrel. Whenever they city into their quarrel. Whenever they city into their quarrel. Whenever they went out, they were attended with armed went out, they were attended with armed went out, they were attended with armed bands which were continually in danger bands which were continually in danger bands which were continually in danger of coming into collision. The collision of coming into collision. The collision of coming into collision. The collision at last came. Quite a battle was fought at last came. Quite a battle was fought at last came. Quite a battle was fought and Claius was killed. This made the and Claius was killed. This made the and Claius was killed. This made the difficulty worse than it was before. difficulty worse than it was before. difficulty worse than it was before. Parties were formed and violent disputes Parties were formed and violent disputes Parties were formed and violent disputes arose on the question of bringing Milo arose on the question of bringing Milo arose on the question of bringing Milo to trial for the alleged murder. He was to trial for the alleged murder. He was to trial for the alleged murder. He was brought to trial at last, but so great brought to trial at last, but so great brought to trial at last, but so great was the public excitement that the was the public excitement that the was the public excitement that the consoles for the time surrounded and consoles for the time surrounded and consoles for the time surrounded and filled the whole forum with armed men filled the whole forum with armed men filled the whole forum with armed men while the trial was proceeding to ensure while the trial was proceeding to ensure while the trial was proceeding to ensure the safety of the court. In fact, the safety of the court. In fact, the safety of the court. In fact, violence mingled itself continually in violence mingled itself continually in violence mingled itself continually in those times with almost all public those times with almost all public those times with almost all public proceedings, whenever any special proceedings, whenever any special proceedings, whenever any special combination of circumstances occurred to combination of circumstances occurred to combination of circumstances occurred to awaken unusual excitement. At one time, awaken unusual excitement. At one time, awaken unusual excitement. At one time, when Caesar was in office, a very when Caesar was in office, a very when Caesar was in office, a very dangerous conspiracy was brought to dangerous conspiracy was brought to dangerous conspiracy was brought to light, which was headed by the notorious light, which was headed by the notorious light, which was headed by the notorious Cataline. It was directed chiefly

Cataline. It was directed chiefly Cataline. It was directed chiefly against the Senate and the higher against the Senate and the higher against the Senate and the higher departments of the government. It departments of the government. It departments of the government. It contemplated in fact their utter contemplated in fact their utter contemplated in fact their utter destruction and the establishment of an destruction and the establishment of an destruction and the establishment of an entirely new government on the ruins of entirely new government on the ruins of entirely new government on the ruins of the existing constitution. Caesar was the existing constitution. Caesar was the existing constitution. Caesar was himself accused of a participation in himself accused of a participation in himself accused of a participation in this plot. When it was discovered this plot. When it was discovered this plot. When it was discovered Cataline himself fled. Some of the other Cataline himself fled. Some of the other Cataline himself fled. Some of the other conspirators were however arrested and conspirators were however arrested and conspirators were however arrested and there was a long and very excited debate there was a long and very excited debate there was a long and very excited debate in the Senate on the question of their in the Senate on the question of their in the Senate on the question of their punishment. Some were for death. Caesar, punishment. Some were for death. Caesar, punishment. Some were for death. Caesar, however, very earnestly opposed this however, very earnestly opposed this however, very earnestly opposed this plan, recommending instead the plan, recommending instead the plan, recommending instead the confiscation of the estates of the confiscation of the estates of the confiscation of the estates of the conspirators and their imprisonment in conspirators and their imprisonment in conspirators and their imprisonment in some of the distant cities of Italy. The some of the distant cities of Italy. The some of the distant cities of Italy. The dispute grew very warm, Caesar urging dispute grew very warm, Caesar urging dispute grew very warm, Caesar urging his point with great perseverance and his point with great perseverance and his point with great perseverance and determination, and with a degree of determination, and with a degree of determination, and with a degree of violence, which threatened seriously to violence, which threatened seriously to violence, which threatened seriously to obstruct the proceedings, when a body of obstruct the proceedings, when a body of obstruct the proceedings, when a body of armed men, a sort of guard of honor, armed men, a sort of guard of honor, armed men, a sort of guard of honor, stationed there, gathered around him, stationed there, gathered around him, stationed there, gathered around him, and threatened him with their swords. and threatened him with their swords. and threatened him with their swords. Quite a scene of disorder and terror Quite a scene of disorder and terror Quite a scene of disorder and terror ensued. Some of the senators arose ensued. Some of the senators arose ensued. Some of the senators arose hastily and fled from the vicinity of hastily and fled from the vicinity of hastily and fled from the vicinity of Caesar's seat to avoid the danger.

Caesar's seat to avoid the danger. Caesar's seat to avoid the danger. Others, more courageous or more devoted Others, more courageous or more devoted Others, more courageous or more devoted in their attachment to him, gathered in their attachment to him, gathered in their attachment to him, gathered around him to protect him as far as they around him to protect him as far as they around him to protect him as far as they could by interposing their bodies could by interposing their bodies could by interposing their bodies between his person and the weapons of between his person and the weapons of between his person and the weapons of his asalants. Caesar soon left the his asalants. Caesar soon left the his asalants. Caesar soon left the Senate, and for a long time would return Senate, and for a long time would return Senate, and for a long time would return to it no more. to it no more. to it no more. Although Caesar was all this time on the Although Caesar was all this time on the Although Caesar was all this time on the whole rising in influence and power, whole rising in influence and power, whole rising in influence and power, there were still fluctuations in his there were still fluctuations in his there were still fluctuations in his fortune, and the tide sometimes for a fortune, and the tide sometimes for a fortune, and the tide sometimes for a short period went strongly against him. short period went strongly against him. short period went strongly against him. He was at one time, when greatly He was at one time, when greatly He was at one time, when greatly involved in debt, and embarrassed in all involved in debt, and embarrassed in all involved in debt, and embarrassed in all his affairs, a candidate for a very high his affairs, a candidate for a very high his affairs, a candidate for a very high office, that of Pontifix Maximus, or office, that of Pontifix Maximus, or office, that of Pontifix Maximus, or sovereign pontiff. The office of sovereign pontiff. The office of sovereign pontiff. The office of Pontifix was originally that of building Pontifix was originally that of building Pontifix was originally that of building and keeping custody of the bridges of and keeping custody of the bridges of and keeping custody of the bridges of the city. The name being derived from the city. The name being derived from the city. The name being derived from the Latin word pawns which signifies the Latin word pawns which signifies the Latin word pawns which signifies bridge. To this however had afterward bridge. To this however had afterward bridge. To this however had afterward been added the care of the temples and been added the care of the temples and been added the care of the temples and finally the regulation and control of finally the regulation and control of finally the regulation and control of the ceremonies of religion so that it the ceremonies of religion so that it the ceremonies of religion so that it came in the end to be an office of the came in the end to be an office of the came in the end to be an office of the highest dignity and honor. Caesar made highest dignity and honor. Caesar made highest dignity and honor. Caesar made the most desperate efforts to secure his the most desperate efforts to secure his the most desperate efforts to secure his election, resorting to such measures, election, resorting to such measures, election, resorting to such measures, expending such sums and involving expending such sums and involving expending such sums and involving himself in debt to such an extreme that himself in debt to such an extreme that himself in debt to such an extreme that if he failed, he would be irretrievably if he failed, he would be irretrievably if he failed, he would be irretrievably ruined. His mother, sympathizing with ruined. His mother, sympathizing with ruined. His mother, sympathizing with him in his anxiety, kissed him when he him in his anxiety, kissed him when he him in his anxiety, kissed him when he went away from the house on the morning went away from the house on the morning went away from the house on the morning of the election, and b him farewell with of the election, and b him farewell with of the election, and b him farewell with tears. He told her that he should come tears. He told her that he should come tears. He told her that he should come home that night to pontiff, or he should home that night to pontiff, or he should home that night to pontiff, or he should never come home at all. He succeeded in

never come home at all. He succeeded in never come home at all. He succeeded in gaining the election. gaining the election. gaining the election. At one time Caesar was actually deposed At one time Caesar was actually deposed At one time Caesar was actually deposed from a high office which he held by a from a high office which he held by a from a high office which he held by a decree of the Senate. He determined to decree of the Senate. He determined to decree of the Senate. He determined to disregard this decree and go on in the disregard this decree and go on in the disregard this decree and go on in the discharge of his office as usual. But discharge of his office as usual. But discharge of his office as usual. But the Senate, whose ascendancy was now, the Senate, whose ascendancy was now, the Senate, whose ascendancy was now, for some reason once more established, for some reason once more established, for some reason once more established, prepared to prevent him by force of prepared to prevent him by force of prepared to prevent him by force of arms. Caesar, finding that he was not arms. Caesar, finding that he was not arms. Caesar, finding that he was not sustained, gave up the contest, put off sustained, gave up the contest, put off sustained, gave up the contest, put off his robes of office, and went home. 2 his robes of office, and went home. 2 his robes of office, and went home. 2 days afterward a reaction occurred. A days afterward a reaction occurred. A days afterward a reaction occurred. A mass of the populace came together to mass of the populace came together to mass of the populace came together to his house and offered their assistance his house and offered their assistance his house and offered their assistance to restore his rights and vindicate his to restore his rights and vindicate his to restore his rights and vindicate his honor. Caesar, however, contrary to what honor. Caesar, however, contrary to what honor. Caesar, however, contrary to what everyone would have expected of him, everyone would have expected of him, everyone would have expected of him, exerted his influence to calm and quiet exerted his influence to calm and quiet exerted his influence to calm and quiet the mob, and then sent them away, the mob, and then sent them away, the mob, and then sent them away, remaining himself in private as before. remaining himself in private as before. remaining himself in private as before. The Senate had been alarmed at the first The Senate had been alarmed at the first The Senate had been alarmed at the first outbreak of the tumult, and a meeting outbreak of the tumult, and a meeting outbreak of the tumult, and a meeting had been suddenly convened to consider had been suddenly convened to consider had been suddenly convened to consider what measures to adopt in such a crisis. what measures to adopt in such a crisis. what measures to adopt in such a crisis. When, however, they found that Caesar When, however, they found that Caesar When, however, they found that Caesar had himself interposed, and by his own had himself interposed, and by his own had himself interposed, and by his own personal influence, had saved the city personal influence, had saved the city personal influence, had saved the city from the danger which threatened it, from the danger which threatened it, from the danger which threatened it, they were so strongly impressed with a they were so strongly impressed with a they were so strongly impressed with a sense of his forbearance and generosity, sense of his forbearance and generosity, sense of his forbearance and generosity, that they sent for him to come to the that they sent for him to come to the that they sent for him to come to the Senate House, and after formally Senate House, and after formally Senate House, and after formally expressing their thanks, they canled expressing their thanks, they canled expressing their thanks, they canled their former vote, and restored him to their former vote, and restored him to their former vote, and restored him to his office again. This change in the his office again. This change in the his office again. This change in the action of the Senate does not, however, action of the Senate does not, however, action of the Senate does not, however, necessarily indicate so great a change necessarily indicate so great a change necessarily indicate so great a change of individual sentiment as one might at of individual sentiment as one might at of individual sentiment as one might at first imagine. There was undoubtedly a

first imagine. There was undoubtedly a first imagine. There was undoubtedly a large minority who were averse to his large minority who were averse to his large minority who were averse to his being deposed in the first instance, but being deposed in the first instance, but being deposed in the first instance, but being outvoted, the decree of deposition being outvoted, the decree of deposition being outvoted, the decree of deposition was passed. Others were perhaps more or was passed. Others were perhaps more or was passed. Others were perhaps more or less doubtful. Caesar's generous less doubtful. Caesar's generous less doubtful. Caesar's generous forbearance in refusing the offered aid forbearance in refusing the offered aid forbearance in refusing the offered aid of the populace carried over a number of of the populace carried over a number of of the populace carried over a number of these sufficient to shift the majority these sufficient to shift the majority these sufficient to shift the majority and thus the action of the body was and thus the action of the body was and thus the action of the body was reversed. It is in this way that the reversed. It is in this way that the reversed. It is in this way that the sudden and apparently total changes in sudden and apparently total changes in sudden and apparently total changes in the action of deliberative assemblies the action of deliberative assemblies the action of deliberative assemblies which often take place and which would which often take place and which would which often take place and which would otherwise in some cases be almost otherwise in some cases be almost otherwise in some cases be almost incredible are to be explained. incredible are to be explained. incredible are to be explained. After this, Caesar became involved in After this, Caesar became involved in After this, Caesar became involved in another difficulty in consequence of the another difficulty in consequence of the another difficulty in consequence of the appearance of some definite and positive appearance of some definite and positive appearance of some definite and positive evidence that he was connected with evidence that he was connected with evidence that he was connected with Cataline in his famous conspiracy. One Cataline in his famous conspiracy. One Cataline in his famous conspiracy. One of the senators said that Cataline of the senators said that Cataline of the senators said that Cataline himself had informed him that Caesar was himself had informed him that Caesar was himself had informed him that Caesar was one of the accompllices of the plot. one of the accompllices of the plot. one of the accompllices of the plot. Another witness named Vetus laid an Another witness named Vetus laid an Another witness named Vetus laid an information against Caesar before a information against Caesar before a information against Caesar before a Roman magistrate and offered to produce Roman magistrate and offered to produce Roman magistrate and offered to produce Caesar's handwriting in proof of his Caesar's handwriting in proof of his Caesar's handwriting in proof of his participation in the conspirator's participation in the conspirator's participation in the conspirator's designs. Caesar was very much incensed, designs. Caesar was very much incensed, designs. Caesar was very much incensed, and his manner of vindicating himself and his manner of vindicating himself and his manner of vindicating himself from these serious charges was as from these serious charges was as from these serious charges was as singular as many of his other deeds. He singular as many of his other deeds. He singular as many of his other deeds. He arrested Vetus, and sentenced him to pay arrested Vetus, and sentenced him to pay arrested Vetus, and sentenced him to pay a heavy fine, and to be imprisoned, and a heavy fine, and to be imprisoned, and a heavy fine, and to be imprisoned, and he contrived also to expose him in the he contrived also to expose him in the he contrived also to expose him in the course of the proceedings to the mob in course of the proceedings to the mob in course of the proceedings to the mob in the forum, who were always ready to the forum, who were always ready to the forum, who were always ready to espouse Caesar's cause, and who on this espouse Caesar's cause, and who on this espouse Caesar's cause, and who on this occasion beat Vetius so unmercifully occasion beat Vetius so unmercifully occasion beat Vetius so unmercifully that he barely escaped with his life.

that he barely escaped with his life. that he barely escaped with his life. The magistrate too was thrown into The magistrate too was thrown into The magistrate too was thrown into prison for having dared to take an prison for having dared to take an prison for having dared to take an information against a superior officer. information against a superior officer. information against a superior officer. At last Caesar became so much involved At last Caesar became so much involved At last Caesar became so much involved in debt through the boundless in debt through the boundless in debt through the boundless extravagance of his expenditures that extravagance of his expenditures that extravagance of his expenditures that something must be done to replenish his something must be done to replenish his something must be done to replenish his exhausted finances. He had, however, by exhausted finances. He had, however, by exhausted finances. He had, however, by this time risen so high in official this time risen so high in official this time risen so high in official influence and power that he succeeded in influence and power that he succeeded in influence and power that he succeeded in having Spain assigned to him as his having Spain assigned to him as his having Spain assigned to him as his province, and he began to make province, and he began to make province, and he began to make preparations to proceed to it. His preparations to proceed to it. His preparations to proceed to it. His creditors, however, interposed, creditors, however, interposed, creditors, however, interposed, unwilling to let him go without giving unwilling to let him go without giving unwilling to let him go without giving them security. In this dilemma, Caesar them security. In this dilemma, Caesar them security. In this dilemma, Caesar succeeded in making an arrangement with succeeded in making an arrangement with succeeded in making an arrangement with Cassus, who has already been spoken of Cassus, who has already been spoken of Cassus, who has already been spoken of as a man of unbounded wealth and great as a man of unbounded wealth and great as a man of unbounded wealth and great ambition, but not possessed of any ambition, but not possessed of any ambition, but not possessed of any considerable degree of intellectual considerable degree of intellectual considerable degree of intellectual power. Craas consented to give the power. Craas consented to give the power. Craas consented to give the necessary security, with an necessary security, with an necessary security, with an understanding that Caesar was to repay understanding that Caesar was to repay understanding that Caesar was to repay him by exerting his political influence him by exerting his political influence him by exerting his political influence in his favor. So soon as this in his favor. So soon as this in his favor. So soon as this arrangement was made, Caesar set off in arrangement was made, Caesar set off in arrangement was made, Caesar set off in a sudden and private manner, as if he a sudden and private manner, as if he a sudden and private manner, as if he expected that otherwise some new expected that otherwise some new expected that otherwise some new difficulty would intervene.

difficulty would intervene. difficulty would intervene. He went to Spain by land, passing He went to Spain by land, passing He went to Spain by land, passing through Switzerland on the way. He through Switzerland on the way. He through Switzerland on the way. He stopped with his attendance one night at stopped with his attendance one night at stopped with his attendance one night at a very insignificant village of a very insignificant village of a very insignificant village of Shepherd's Huts among the mountains. Shepherd's Huts among the mountains. Shepherd's Huts among the mountains. Struck with the poverty and Struck with the poverty and Struck with the poverty and worthlessness of all they saw in this worthlessness of all they saw in this worthlessness of all they saw in this wretched hamlet, Caesar's friends were wretched hamlet, Caesar's friends were wretched hamlet, Caesar's friends were wondering whether the jealousy, rivalry, wondering whether the jealousy, rivalry, wondering whether the jealousy, rivalry, and ambition which reigned among men and ambition which reigned among men and ambition which reigned among men everywhere else in the world could find everywhere else in the world could find everywhere else in the world could find any footing there when Caesar told them any footing there when Caesar told them any footing there when Caesar told them that for his part he should rather that for his part he should rather that for his part he should rather choose to be first in such a village as choose to be first in such a village as choose to be first in such a village as that than the second at Rome. The story that than the second at Rome. The story that than the second at Rome. The story has been repeated a thousand times and has been repeated a thousand times and has been repeated a thousand times and told to every successive generation now told to every successive generation now told to every successive generation now for nearly 20 centuries as an for nearly 20 centuries as an for nearly 20 centuries as an illustration of the peculiar type and illustration of the peculiar type and illustration of the peculiar type and character of the ambition which controls character of the ambition which controls character of the ambition which controls such a soul as that of Caesar. such a soul as that of Caesar. such a soul as that of Caesar. Caesar was very successful in the Caesar was very successful in the Caesar was very successful in the administration of his province. That is administration of his province. That is administration of his province. That is to say, he returned in a short time with to say, he returned in a short time with to say, he returned in a short time with considerable military glory and with considerable military glory and with considerable military glory and with money enough to pay all his debts and money enough to pay all his debts and money enough to pay all his debts and furnish him with means for fresh furnish him with means for fresh furnish him with means for fresh electioneering. electioneering. electioneering. He now felt strong enough to aspire to He now felt strong enough to aspire to He now felt strong enough to aspire to the office of console, which was the the office of console, which was the the office of console, which was the highest office of the Roman state. When highest office of the Roman state. When highest office of the Roman state. When the line of kings had been deposed, the the line of kings had been deposed, the the line of kings had been deposed, the Romans had vested the supreme magistr Romans had vested the supreme magistr Romans had vested the supreme magistr who were chosen annually in a general who were chosen annually in a general who were chosen annually in a general election, the formalities of which were election, the formalities of which were election, the formalities of which were all very carefully arranged. The current all very carefully arranged. The current all very carefully arranged. The current of popular opinion was of course in of popular opinion was of course in of popular opinion was of course in Caesar's favor, but he had many powerful Caesar's favor, but he had many powerful Caesar's favor, but he had many powerful rivals and enemies among the great, who rivals and enemies among the great, who rivals and enemies among the great, who however hated and opposed each other as however hated and opposed each other as however hated and opposed each other as well as him. There was at that time a

well as him. There was at that time a well as him. There was at that time a very bitter feud between Pompei and very bitter feud between Pompei and very bitter feud between Pompei and Craas, each of them struggling for power Craas, each of them struggling for power Craas, each of them struggling for power against the efforts of the other. Pompei against the efforts of the other. Pompei against the efforts of the other. Pompei possessed great influence through his possessed great influence through his possessed great influence through his splendid abilities and his military splendid abilities and his military splendid abilities and his military renown. Craas, as has already been renown. Craas, as has already been renown. Craas, as has already been stated, was powerful through his wealth. stated, was powerful through his wealth. stated, was powerful through his wealth. Caesar, who had some influence with them Caesar, who had some influence with them Caesar, who had some influence with them both, now conceived the bold design of both, now conceived the bold design of both, now conceived the bold design of reconciling them, and then of availing reconciling them, and then of availing reconciling them, and then of availing himself of their united aid in himself of their united aid in himself of their united aid in accomplishing his own particular ends. accomplishing his own particular ends. accomplishing his own particular ends. He succeeded perfectly well in this He succeeded perfectly well in this He succeeded perfectly well in this management. He represented to them that management. He represented to them that management. He represented to them that by contending against each other, they by contending against each other, they by contending against each other, they only exhausted their own powers and only exhausted their own powers and only exhausted their own powers and strengthened the arms of their common strengthened the arms of their common strengthened the arms of their common enemies. He proposed to them to unite enemies. He proposed to them to unite enemies. He proposed to them to unite with one another and with him and thus with one another and with him and thus with one another and with him and thus make common cause to promote their make common cause to promote their make common cause to promote their common interest in advancement. They common interest in advancement. They common interest in advancement. They willingly exceeded to this plan and a willingly exceeded to this plan and a willingly exceeded to this plan and a triple league was accordingly formed in triple league was accordingly formed in triple league was accordingly formed in which they each bound themselves to which they each bound themselves to which they each bound themselves to promote by every means in his power the promote by every means in his power the promote by every means in his power the political elevation of the others and political elevation of the others and political elevation of the others and not to take any public step or adopt any not to take any public step or adopt any not to take any public step or adopt any measures without the concurrence of the measures without the concurrence of the measures without the concurrence of the three. Caesar faithfully observed the three. Caesar faithfully observed the three. Caesar faithfully observed the obligations of this league so long as he obligations of this league so long as he obligations of this league so long as he could use his two associates to promote could use his two associates to promote could use his two associates to promote his own ends, and then he abandoned it.

his own ends, and then he abandoned it. his own ends, and then he abandoned it. Having, however, completed this Having, however, completed this Having, however, completed this arrangement, he was now prepared to push arrangement, he was now prepared to push arrangement, he was now prepared to push vigorously his claims to be elected vigorously his claims to be elected vigorously his claims to be elected console. He associated with his own name console. He associated with his own name console. He associated with his own name that of Lucius, who was a man of great that of Lucius, who was a man of great that of Lucius, who was a man of great wealth, and who agreed to defay the wealth, and who agreed to defay the wealth, and who agreed to defay the expenses of the election for the sake of expenses of the election for the sake of expenses of the election for the sake of the honor of being console with Caesar. the honor of being console with Caesar. the honor of being console with Caesar. Caesar's enemies, however, knowing that Caesar's enemies, however, knowing that Caesar's enemies, however, knowing that they probably could not prevent his they probably could not prevent his they probably could not prevent his election, determined to concentrate election, determined to concentrate election, determined to concentrate their strength in the effort to prevent their strength in the effort to prevent their strength in the effort to prevent his having the colleague he desired. his having the colleague he desired. his having the colleague he desired. They made choice, therefore, of a They made choice, therefore, of a They made choice, therefore, of a certain Bibilus as their candidate. certain Bibilus as their candidate. certain Bibilus as their candidate. Bibilus had always been a political Bibilus had always been a political Bibilus had always been a political opponent of Caesars's, and they thought opponent of Caesars's, and they thought opponent of Caesars's, and they thought that by associating him with Caesar in that by associating him with Caesar in that by associating him with Caesar in the Supreme Magistr, the pride and the Supreme Magistr, the pride and the Supreme Magistr, the pride and ambition of their great adversary might ambition of their great adversary might ambition of their great adversary might be held somewhat in check. They be held somewhat in check. They be held somewhat in check. They accordingly made a contribution among accordingly made a contribution among accordingly made a contribution among themselves to enable Bibilus to expend themselves to enable Bibilus to expend themselves to enable Bibilus to expend as much money in bribery as Lucius and as much money in bribery as Lucius and as much money in bribery as Lucius and the canvas went on. It resulted in the the canvas went on. It resulted in the the canvas went on. It resulted in the election of Caesar and Bibilus. They election of Caesar and Bibilus. They election of Caesar and Bibilus. They entered upon the duties of their office. entered upon the duties of their office. entered upon the duties of their office. But Caesar almost entirely disregarding But Caesar almost entirely disregarding But Caesar almost entirely disregarding his colleague began to assume the whole his colleague began to assume the whole his colleague began to assume the whole power and proposed and carried measure power and proposed and carried measure power and proposed and carried measure after measure of the most extraordinary after measure of the most extraordinary after measure of the most extraordinary character, all aiming at the character, all aiming at the character, all aiming at the gratification of the populace. He was at gratification of the populace. He was at gratification of the populace. He was at first opposed violently both by Bibilus first opposed violently both by Bibilus first opposed violently both by Bibilus and by many leading members of the and by many leading members of the and by many leading members of the Senate, especially by Kato, a stern and Senate, especially by Kato, a stern and Senate, especially by Kato, a stern and inflexible patriot whom neither fear of inflexible patriot whom neither fear of inflexible patriot whom neither fear of danger nor hope of reward could move danger nor hope of reward could move danger nor hope of reward could move from what he regarded his duty. But from what he regarded his duty. But from what he regarded his duty. But Caesar was now getting strong enough to Caesar was now getting strong enough to Caesar was now getting strong enough to put down the opposition which he

put down the opposition which he put down the opposition which he encountered without much scruple as to encountered without much scruple as to encountered without much scruple as to the means. He ordered Ko on one occasion the means. He ordered Ko on one occasion the means. He ordered Ko on one occasion to be arrested in the Senate and sent to to be arrested in the Senate and sent to to be arrested in the Senate and sent to prison. Another influential member of prison. Another influential member of prison. Another influential member of the Senate rose and was going out with the Senate rose and was going out with the Senate rose and was going out with him. Caesar asked him where he was him. Caesar asked him where he was him. Caesar asked him where he was going. He said he was going with Kato. going. He said he was going with Kato. going. He said he was going with Kato. He would rather, he said, be with Kato He would rather, he said, be with Kato He would rather, he said, be with Kato in prison than in the Senate with in prison than in the Senate with in prison than in the Senate with Caesar. Caesar treated Bibilus also with Caesar. Caesar treated Bibilus also with Caesar. Caesar treated Bibilus also with so much neglect and assumed so entirely so much neglect and assumed so entirely so much neglect and assumed so entirely the whole control of the consular power the whole control of the consular power the whole control of the consular power to the utter exclusion of his colleague to the utter exclusion of his colleague to the utter exclusion of his colleague that Bibilus at last, completely that Bibilus at last, completely that Bibilus at last, completely discouraged and chagrined, abandoned all discouraged and chagrined, abandoned all discouraged and chagrined, abandoned all pretention to official authority. pretention to official authority. pretention to official authority. retired to his house and shut himself up retired to his house and shut himself up retired to his house and shut himself up in perfect seclusion, leaving Caesar to in perfect seclusion, leaving Caesar to in perfect seclusion, leaving Caesar to his own way. It was customary among the his own way. It was customary among the his own way. It was customary among the Romans in their historical and narrative Romans in their historical and narrative Romans in their historical and narrative writings to designate the successive writings to designate the successive writings to designate the successive years not by a numerical date as with years not by a numerical date as with years not by a numerical date as with us, but by the names of the consoles who us, but by the names of the consoles who us, but by the names of the consoles who held office in them. Thus, in the time held office in them. Thus, in the time held office in them. Thus, in the time of Caesar's consilship, the phrase would of Caesar's consilship, the phrase would of Caesar's consilship, the phrase would have been in the year of Caesar and have been in the year of Caesar and have been in the year of Caesar and Bibilus consils according to the Bibilus consils according to the Bibilus consils according to the ordinary usage. But the wags of the city ordinary usage. But the wags of the city ordinary usage. But the wags of the city in order to make sport of the in order to make sport of the in order to make sport of the assumptions of Caesar and the assumptions of Caesar and the assumptions of Caesar and the insignificance of Bibilus used to say in insignificance of Bibilus used to say in insignificance of Bibilus used to say in the year of Julius and Caesar consils the year of Julius and Caesar consils the year of Julius and Caesar consils rejecting the name of Bibilus altogether rejecting the name of Bibilus altogether rejecting the name of Bibilus altogether and taking the two names of Caesar to and taking the two names of Caesar to and taking the two names of Caesar to make out the necessary duality.

make out the necessary duality. make out the necessary duality. End of chapter 3. Chapter 4 of history of Julius Caesar. Chapter 4 of history of Julius Caesar. This is a LibriVox recording. All This is a LibriVox recording. All This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public LibriVox recordings are in the public LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to domain. For more information or to domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit librivox.org. volunteer, please visit librivox.org. volunteer, please visit librivox.org. Recording by Cathy Barrett. History of Recording by Cathy Barrett. History of Recording by Cathy Barrett. History of Julius Caesar by Jacob Abbott. Chapter Julius Caesar by Jacob Abbott. Chapter Julius Caesar by Jacob Abbott. Chapter 4. The conquest of Gaul. In attaining to 4. The conquest of Gaul. In attaining to 4. The conquest of Gaul. In attaining to the consil ship, Caesar had reached the the consil ship, Caesar had reached the the consil ship, Caesar had reached the highest point of elevation which it was highest point of elevation which it was highest point of elevation which it was possible to reach as a mere citizen of possible to reach as a mere citizen of possible to reach as a mere citizen of Rome. His ambition was however of course Rome. His ambition was however of course Rome. His ambition was however of course not satisfied. The only way to acquire not satisfied. The only way to acquire not satisfied. The only way to acquire higher distinction and to rise to higher higher distinction and to rise to higher higher distinction and to rise to higher power was to enter upon a career of power was to enter upon a career of power was to enter upon a career of foreign conquest. Caesar therefore foreign conquest. Caesar therefore foreign conquest. Caesar therefore aspired now to be a soldier. He aspired now to be a soldier. He aspired now to be a soldier. He accordingly obtained the command of an accordingly obtained the command of an accordingly obtained the command of an army and entered upon a course of army and entered upon a course of army and entered upon a course of military campaigns in the heart of military campaigns in the heart of military campaigns in the heart of Europe which he continued for 8 years. Europe which he continued for 8 years. Europe which he continued for 8 years. These eight years constitute one of the These eight years constitute one of the These eight years constitute one of the most important and strongly marked most important and strongly marked most important and strongly marked periods of his life. He was triumphantly periods of his life. He was triumphantly periods of his life. He was triumphantly successful in his military career and he successful in his military career and he successful in his military career and he made accordingly a vast accession to his made accordingly a vast accession to his made accordingly a vast accession to his celebrity and power in his own day by celebrity and power in his own day by celebrity and power in his own day by the results of his campaigns. He also the results of his campaigns. He also the results of his campaigns. He also wrote himself an account of his wrote himself an account of his wrote himself an account of his adventures during this period in which adventures during this period in which adventures during this period in which the events are recorded in so lucid and the events are recorded in so lucid and the events are recorded in so lucid and in so eloquent a manner that the in so eloquent a manner that the in so eloquent a manner that the narrations have continued to be read by narrations have continued to be read by narrations have continued to be read by every successive generation of scholars every successive generation of scholars every successive generation of scholars down to the present day and they have down to the present day and they have down to the present day and they have had a great influence in extending and had a great influence in extending and had a great influence in extending and perpetuating his fame. The principal

perpetuating his fame. The principal perpetuating his fame. The principal scenes of the exploits which Caesar scenes of the exploits which Caesar scenes of the exploits which Caesar performed during the period of this his performed during the period of this his performed during the period of this his first great military career were the first great military career were the first great military career were the north of Italy, Switzerland, France, north of Italy, Switzerland, France, north of Italy, Switzerland, France, Germany and England, a great tract of Germany and England, a great tract of Germany and England, a great tract of country nearly all of which he overran country nearly all of which he overran country nearly all of which he overran and conquered. A large portion of this and conquered. A large portion of this and conquered. A large portion of this territory was called Gaul in those days. territory was called Gaul in those days. territory was called Gaul in those days. The part on the Italian side of the Alps The part on the Italian side of the Alps The part on the Italian side of the Alps being named Sisalpine Gaul, while that being named Sisalpine Gaul, while that being named Sisalpine Gaul, while that which lay beyond was designated as which lay beyond was designated as which lay beyond was designated as transalpine. transalpine. transalpine. Transalpine Gaul was substantially what Transalpine Gaul was substantially what Transalpine Gaul was substantially what is now France. There was a part of is now France. There was a part of is now France. There was a part of Transalpine Gaul which had been already Transalpine Gaul which had been already Transalpine Gaul which had been already conquered and reduced to a Roman conquered and reduced to a Roman conquered and reduced to a Roman province. It was called the province province. It was called the province province. It was called the province then and has retained the name with a then and has retained the name with a then and has retained the name with a slight change in orthography to the slight change in orthography to the slight change in orthography to the present day. It is now known as present day. It is now known as present day. It is now known as Provence. Provence. Provence. The countries which Caesar went to The countries which Caesar went to The countries which Caesar went to invade were occupied by various nations invade were occupied by various nations invade were occupied by various nations and tribes, many of which were well and tribes, many of which were well and tribes, many of which were well organized and warlike, and some of them organized and warlike, and some of them organized and warlike, and some of them were considerably civilized and wealthy. were considerably civilized and wealthy. were considerably civilized and wealthy. They had extended tracts of cultivated They had extended tracts of cultivated They had extended tracts of cultivated land, the slopes of the hills and the land, the slopes of the hills and the land, the slopes of the hills and the mountain sides being formed into green mountain sides being formed into green mountain sides being formed into green pastures which were covered with flocks pastures which were covered with flocks pastures which were covered with flocks of goats and sheep and herds of cattle, of goats and sheep and herds of cattle, of goats and sheep and herds of cattle, while the smoother and more level tracks while the smoother and more level tracks while the smoother and more level tracks were adorned with smiling vineyards and were adorned with smiling vineyards and were adorned with smiling vineyards and broadly extended fields of waving grain.

broadly extended fields of waving grain. broadly extended fields of waving grain. They had cities, forts, ships, and They had cities, forts, ships, and They had cities, forts, ships, and armies. Their manners and customs would armies. Their manners and customs would armies. Their manners and customs would be considered somewhat rude by modern be considered somewhat rude by modern be considered somewhat rude by modern nations, and some of their usages of war nations, and some of their usages of war nations, and some of their usages of war were half barbarian. For example, in one were half barbarian. For example, in one were half barbarian. For example, in one of the nations which Caesar encountered, of the nations which Caesar encountered, of the nations which Caesar encountered, he found, as he says in his narrative, a he found, as he says in his narrative, a he found, as he says in his narrative, a core of cavalry, as a constituent part core of cavalry, as a constituent part core of cavalry, as a constituent part of the army, in which to every horse of the army, in which to every horse of the army, in which to every horse there were two men, one the rider, and there were two men, one the rider, and there were two men, one the rider, and the other a sort of foot soldier and the other a sort of foot soldier and the other a sort of foot soldier and attendant. If the battle went against attendant. If the battle went against attendant. If the battle went against them and the squadron were put to their them and the squadron were put to their them and the squadron were put to their speed in a retreat, these footmen would speed in a retreat, these footmen would speed in a retreat, these footmen would cling to the mains of the horses, and cling to the mains of the horses, and cling to the mains of the horses, and then half running, half flying, they then half running, half flying, they then half running, half flying, they would be born along over the field, thus would be born along over the field, thus would be born along over the field, thus keeping always at the side of their keeping always at the side of their keeping always at the side of their comrades and escaping with them to a comrades and escaping with them to a comrades and escaping with them to a place of safety. But although the Romans place of safety. But although the Romans place of safety. But although the Romans were inclined to consider these nations were inclined to consider these nations were inclined to consider these nations as only half civilized, still there as only half civilized, still there as only half civilized, still there would be great glory, as Caesar thought, would be great glory, as Caesar thought, would be great glory, as Caesar thought, in subduing them, and probably great in subduing them, and probably great in subduing them, and probably great treasure would be secured in the treasure would be secured in the treasure would be secured in the conquest, both by the plunder and conquest, both by the plunder and conquest, both by the plunder and confiscation of governmental property, confiscation of governmental property, confiscation of governmental property, and by the tribute which would be and by the tribute which would be and by the tribute which would be collected in taxes from the people of collected in taxes from the people of collected in taxes from the people of the country subdued. Caesar accordingly the country subdued. Caesar accordingly the country subdued. Caesar accordingly placed himself at the head of an army of placed himself at the head of an army of placed himself at the head of an army of three Roman legions which he contrived three Roman legions which he contrived three Roman legions which he contrived by means of a great deal of political by means of a great deal of political by means of a great deal of political maneuvering and management to have maneuvering and management to have maneuvering and management to have raised and placed under his command. One raised and placed under his command. One raised and placed under his command. One of these legions which was called the of these legions which was called the of these legions which was called the 10th legion was his favorite core on 10th legion was his favorite core on 10th legion was his favorite core on account of the bravery and hardyhood account of the bravery and hardyhood account of the bravery and hardyhood which they often displayed. At the head which they often displayed. At the head which they often displayed. At the head of these legions, Caesar set out for of these legions, Caesar set out for of these legions, Caesar set out for Gaul. He was at this time not far from

Gaul. He was at this time not far from Gaul. He was at this time not far from 40 years of age. Caesar had no 40 years of age. Caesar had no 40 years of age. Caesar had no difficulty in finding pretext for making difficulty in finding pretext for making difficulty in finding pretext for making war upon any of these various nations war upon any of these various nations war upon any of these various nations that he might desire to subdue. They that he might desire to subdue. They that he might desire to subdue. They were, of course, frequently at war with were, of course, frequently at war with were, of course, frequently at war with each other, and there were at all times each other, and there were at all times each other, and there were at all times standing topics of controversy and standing topics of controversy and standing topics of controversy and unsettled disputes among them. Caesar unsettled disputes among them. Caesar unsettled disputes among them. Caesar had, therefore, only to draw near to the had, therefore, only to draw near to the had, therefore, only to draw near to the scene of contention, and then to take scene of contention, and then to take scene of contention, and then to take sides with one party or the other. It sides with one party or the other. It sides with one party or the other. It mattered little with which, for the mattered little with which, for the mattered little with which, for the affair almost always resulted in the end affair almost always resulted in the end affair almost always resulted in the end in his making himself master of both. in his making himself master of both. in his making himself master of both. The manner, however, in which this sort The manner, however, in which this sort The manner, however, in which this sort of operation was performed can best be of operation was performed can best be of operation was performed can best be illustrated by an example, and we will illustrated by an example, and we will illustrated by an example, and we will take for the purpose the case of Ario take for the purpose the case of Ario take for the purpose the case of Ario Vistus. Ario Vistus was a German king. Vistus. Ario Vistus was a German king. Vistus. Ario Vistus was a German king. He had been nominally a sort of ally of He had been nominally a sort of ally of He had been nominally a sort of ally of the Romans. He had extended his the Romans. He had extended his the Romans. He had extended his conquests across the Rine into Gaul, and conquests across the Rine into Gaul, and conquests across the Rine into Gaul, and he held some nations there as his he held some nations there as his he held some nations there as his tributaries. Among these, the Eidwans tributaries. Among these, the Eidwans tributaries. Among these, the Eidwans were a prominent party, and to simplify were a prominent party, and to simplify were a prominent party, and to simplify the account, we will take their name as the account, we will take their name as the account, we will take their name as the representative of all who were the representative of all who were the representative of all who were concerned. When Caesar came into the concerned. When Caesar came into the concerned. When Caesar came into the region of the Eid ones, he entered into region of the Eid ones, he entered into region of the Eid ones, he entered into some negotiations with them, in which some negotiations with them, in which some negotiations with them, in which they, as he alleges, asked his they, as he alleges, asked his they, as he alleges, asked his assistants to enable them to throw off assistants to enable them to throw off assistants to enable them to throw off the dominion of their German enemy. It the dominion of their German enemy. It the dominion of their German enemy. It is probable, in fact, that there was is probable, in fact, that there was is probable, in fact, that there was some proposition of this kind from them.

some proposition of this kind from them. some proposition of this kind from them. For Caesar had abundant means of For Caesar had abundant means of For Caesar had abundant means of inducing them to make it, if he was inducing them to make it, if he was inducing them to make it, if he was disposed, and the receiving of such a disposed, and the receiving of such a disposed, and the receiving of such a communication furnished the most obvious communication furnished the most obvious communication furnished the most obvious and plausible pretext to authorize and and plausible pretext to authorize and and plausible pretext to authorize and justify his interposition. justify his interposition. justify his interposition. Caesar accordingly sent a messenger Caesar accordingly sent a messenger Caesar accordingly sent a messenger across the rine to Ario Vistus, saying across the rine to Ario Vistus, saying across the rine to Ario Vistus, saying that he wished to have an interview with that he wished to have an interview with that he wished to have an interview with him on business of importance, and him on business of importance, and him on business of importance, and asking him to name a time which would be asking him to name a time which would be asking him to name a time which would be convenient to him for the interview, and convenient to him for the interview, and convenient to him for the interview, and also to appoint some place in Gaul where also to appoint some place in Gaul where also to appoint some place in Gaul where he would attend. To this, Ario Vistus he would attend. To this, Ario Vistus he would attend. To this, Ario Vistus replied that if he had himself any replied that if he had himself any replied that if he had himself any business with Caesar, he would have business with Caesar, he would have business with Caesar, he would have waited upon him to propose it, and in waited upon him to propose it, and in waited upon him to propose it, and in the same manner, if Caesar wished to see the same manner, if Caesar wished to see the same manner, if Caesar wished to see him, he must come into his own him, he must come into his own him, he must come into his own dominions. He said that it would not be dominions. He said that it would not be dominions. He said that it would not be safe for him to come into Gaul without safe for him to come into Gaul without safe for him to come into Gaul without an army and that it was not convenient an army and that it was not convenient an army and that it was not convenient for him to raise and equip an army for for him to raise and equip an army for for him to raise and equip an army for such a purpose at that time. Caesar sent such a purpose at that time. Caesar sent such a purpose at that time. Caesar sent again to Ario Vistus to say that since again to Ario Vistus to say that since again to Ario Vistus to say that since he was so unmindful of his obligations he was so unmindful of his obligations he was so unmindful of his obligations to the Roman people as to refuse an to the Roman people as to refuse an to the Roman people as to refuse an interview with him on business of common interview with him on business of common interview with him on business of common interest, he would state the particulars interest, he would state the particulars interest, he would state the particulars that he required of him. The Eidwins, he that he required of him. The Eidwins, he that he required of him. The Eidwins, he said, were now his allies and under his said, were now his allies and under his said, were now his allies and under his protection. And Ario Vistus must send protection. And Ario Vistus must send protection. And Ario Vistus must send back the hostages which he held from back the hostages which he held from back the hostages which he held from them, and bind himself henceforth not to them, and bind himself henceforth not to them, and bind himself henceforth not to send any more troops across the Rine, send any more troops across the Rine, send any more troops across the Rine, nor make war upon the Eid ones, or nor make war upon the Eid ones, or nor make war upon the Eid ones, or injure them in any way. If he complied injure them in any way. If he complied injure them in any way. If he complied with these terms, all would be well. If with these terms, all would be well. If with these terms, all would be well. If he did not, Caesar said that he should he did not, Caesar said that he should he did not, Caesar said that he should not himself disregard the just not himself disregard the just not himself disregard the just complaints of his allies. Arioistus had

complaints of his allies. Arioistus had complaints of his allies. Arioistus had no fear of Caesar. Caesar had in fact no fear of Caesar. Caesar had in fact no fear of Caesar. Caesar had in fact thus far not begun to acquire the thus far not begun to acquire the thus far not begun to acquire the military renown to which he afterwards military renown to which he afterwards military renown to which he afterwards attained. attained. attained. Ario Vistus had therefore no particular Ario Vistus had therefore no particular Ario Vistus had therefore no particular cause to dread his power. He sent him cause to dread his power. He sent him cause to dread his power. He sent him back word that he did not understand why back word that he did not understand why back word that he did not understand why Caesar should interfere between him and Caesar should interfere between him and Caesar should interfere between him and his conquered province. The Eid ones his conquered province. The Eid ones his conquered province. The Eid ones said he tried the fortune of war with me said he tried the fortune of war with me said he tried the fortune of war with me and were overcome and they must abide and were overcome and they must abide and were overcome and they must abide the issue. The Romans manage their the issue. The Romans manage their the issue. The Romans manage their conquered provinces as they judge proper conquered provinces as they judge proper conquered provinces as they judge proper without holding themselves accountable without holding themselves accountable without holding themselves accountable to anyone. I shall do the same with to anyone. I shall do the same with to anyone. I shall do the same with mine. All that I can say is that so long mine. All that I can say is that so long mine. All that I can say is that so long as the Eid ones submit peaceibly to my as the Eid ones submit peaceibly to my as the Eid ones submit peaceibly to my authority and pay their tribute, I shall authority and pay their tribute, I shall authority and pay their tribute, I shall not molest them. As to your threat that not molest them. As to your threat that not molest them. As to your threat that you shall not disregard their you shall not disregard their you shall not disregard their complaints, you must know that no one complaints, you must know that no one complaints, you must know that no one has ever made war upon me but to his own has ever made war upon me but to his own has ever made war upon me but to his own destruction, and if you wish to see how destruction, and if you wish to see how destruction, and if you wish to see how it will turn out in your case, you may it will turn out in your case, you may it will turn out in your case, you may make the experiment whenever you please. make the experiment whenever you please. make the experiment whenever you please. Both parties immediately prepared for Both parties immediately prepared for Both parties immediately prepared for war. Ario Vistus, instead of waiting to war. Ario Vistus, instead of waiting to war. Ario Vistus, instead of waiting to be attacked, assembled his army, crossed be attacked, assembled his army, crossed be attacked, assembled his army, crossed the Rine, and advanced into the the Rine, and advanced into the the Rine, and advanced into the territories from which Caesar had territories from which Caesar had territories from which Caesar had undertaken to exclude him. As Caesar, undertaken to exclude him. As Caesar, undertaken to exclude him. As Caesar, however, began to make his arrangements however, began to make his arrangements however, began to make his arrangements for putting his army in motion to meet for putting his army in motion to meet for putting his army in motion to meet his approaching enemy, there began to his approaching enemy, there began to his approaching enemy, there began to circulate throughout the camp such circulate throughout the camp such circulate throughout the camp such extraordinary stories of the terrible extraordinary stories of the terrible extraordinary stories of the terrible strength and courage of the German strength and courage of the German strength and courage of the German soldiery as to produce a very general soldiery as to produce a very general soldiery as to produce a very general panic. So great at length became the panic. So great at length became the panic. So great at length became the anxiety and alarm that even the officers anxiety and alarm that even the officers anxiety and alarm that even the officers were wholly dejected and discouraged.

were wholly dejected and discouraged. were wholly dejected and discouraged. And as for the men, they were on the And as for the men, they were on the And as for the men, they were on the very eve of mutiny. When Caesar very eve of mutiny. When Caesar very eve of mutiny. When Caesar understood this state of things, he understood this state of things, he understood this state of things, he called an assembly of the troops and called an assembly of the troops and called an assembly of the troops and made an address to them. He told them made an address to them. He told them made an address to them. He told them that he was astonished to learn to what that he was astonished to learn to what that he was astonished to learn to what an extent an unworthy despondency and an extent an unworthy despondency and an extent an unworthy despondency and fear had taken possession of their fear had taken possession of their fear had taken possession of their minds, and how little confidence they minds, and how little confidence they minds, and how little confidence they reposed in him, their general. And then reposed in him, their general. And then reposed in him, their general. And then after some further remarks about the after some further remarks about the after some further remarks about the duty of a soldier to be ready to go duty of a soldier to be ready to go duty of a soldier to be ready to go wherever his commander leads him, and wherever his commander leads him, and wherever his commander leads him, and presenting also some considerations in presenting also some considerations in presenting also some considerations in respect to the German troops with which respect to the German troops with which respect to the German troops with which they were going to contend in order to they were going to contend in order to they were going to contend in order to show them that they had no cause to show them that they had no cause to show them that they had no cause to fear. He ended by saying that he had not fear. He ended by saying that he had not fear. He ended by saying that he had not been fully decided as to the time of been fully decided as to the time of been fully decided as to the time of marching, but that now he had concluded marching, but that now he had concluded marching, but that now he had concluded to give orders for setting out the next to give orders for setting out the next to give orders for setting out the next morning at 3:00, that he might learn as morning at 3:00, that he might learn as morning at 3:00, that he might learn as soon as possible who were too cowardly soon as possible who were too cowardly soon as possible who were too cowardly to follow him. He would go himself, he to follow him. He would go himself, he to follow him. He would go himself, he said, if he was attended by the 10th said, if he was attended by the 10th said, if he was attended by the 10th Legion alone. He was sure that they Legion alone. He was sure that they Legion alone. He was sure that they would not shrink from any undertaking in would not shrink from any undertaking in would not shrink from any undertaking in which he led the way. The soldiers, which he led the way. The soldiers, which he led the way. The soldiers, moved partly by shame, partly by the moved partly by shame, partly by the moved partly by shame, partly by the decisive and commanding tone which their decisive and commanding tone which their decisive and commanding tone which their general assumed, and partly reassured by general assumed, and partly reassured by general assumed, and partly reassured by the courage and confidence which he the courage and confidence which he the courage and confidence which he seemed to feel, laid aside their fears, seemed to feel, laid aside their fears, seemed to feel, laid aside their fears, and vied with each other henceforth in and vied with each other henceforth in and vied with each other henceforth in energy and aror. The armies approached energy and aror. The armies approached energy and aror. The armies approached each other. Ario Vistus sent to Caesar each other. Ario Vistus sent to Caesar each other. Ario Vistus sent to Caesar saying that now if he wished it he was saying that now if he wished it he was saying that now if he wished it he was ready for an interview. Caesar acceeded ready for an interview. Caesar acceeded ready for an interview. Caesar acceeded to the suggestion and the arrangements to the suggestion and the arrangements to the suggestion and the arrangements for a conference were made. Each party for a conference were made. Each party for a conference were made. Each party as usual in such cases taking every as usual in such cases taking every as usual in such cases taking every precaution to guard against the precaution to guard against the precaution to guard against the treachery of the other. Between the two

treachery of the other. Between the two treachery of the other. Between the two camps there was a rising ground in the camps there was a rising ground in the camps there was a rising ground in the middle of an open plane where it was middle of an open plane where it was middle of an open plane where it was decided that the conference should be decided that the conference should be decided that the conference should be held. Ario Vistus proposed that neither held. Ario Vistus proposed that neither held. Ario Vistus proposed that neither party should bring any foot soldiers to party should bring any foot soldiers to party should bring any foot soldiers to the place of meeting but cavalry alone the place of meeting but cavalry alone the place of meeting but cavalry alone and that these bodies of cavalry brought and that these bodies of cavalry brought and that these bodies of cavalry brought by the respective generals should remain by the respective generals should remain by the respective generals should remain at the foot of the eminence on either at the foot of the eminence on either at the foot of the eminence on either side while Caesar and Ario Vistus side while Caesar and Ario Vistus side while Caesar and Ario Vistus themselves attended each by only 10 themselves attended each by only 10 themselves attended each by only 10 followers on horseback should ascend it. followers on horseback should ascend it. followers on horseback should ascend it. This plan was exceeded to by Caesar and This plan was exceeded to by Caesar and This plan was exceeded to by Caesar and a long conference was held in this way a long conference was held in this way a long conference was held in this way between the two generals as they sat between the two generals as they sat between the two generals as they sat upon their horses on the summit of the upon their horses on the summit of the upon their horses on the summit of the hill. hill. hill. The two generals in their discussion The two generals in their discussion The two generals in their discussion only repeated in substance what they had only repeated in substance what they had only repeated in substance what they had said in their embassages before and made said in their embassages before and made said in their embassages before and made no progress toward coming to an no progress toward coming to an no progress toward coming to an understanding. At length Caesar closed understanding. At length Caesar closed understanding. At length Caesar closed the conference and withdrew. Some days the conference and withdrew. Some days the conference and withdrew. Some days afterward Ario Vistus sent a request to afterward Ario Vistus sent a request to afterward Ario Vistus sent a request to Caesar asking that he would appoint Caesar asking that he would appoint Caesar asking that he would appoint another interview or else that he would another interview or else that he would another interview or else that he would depute one of his officers to proceed to depute one of his officers to proceed to depute one of his officers to proceed to Arioistus' camp and receive a Arioistus' camp and receive a Arioistus' camp and receive a communication which he wished to make to communication which he wished to make to communication which he wished to make to him. Caesar concluded not to grant him. Caesar concluded not to grant him. Caesar concluded not to grant another interview, and he did not think another interview, and he did not think another interview, and he did not think it prudent to send any one of his it prudent to send any one of his it prudent to send any one of his principal officers as an ambassador for principal officers as an ambassador for principal officers as an ambassador for fear that he might be treacherously fear that he might be treacherously fear that he might be treacherously seized and held as a hostage. He seized and held as a hostage. He seized and held as a hostage. He accordingly sent an ordinary messenger accordingly sent an ordinary messenger accordingly sent an ordinary messenger accompanied by one or two men. These men accompanied by one or two men. These men accompanied by one or two men. These men were all seized and put in irons as soon were all seized and put in irons as soon were all seized and put in irons as soon as they reached the camp of Ario Vistus, as they reached the camp of Ario Vistus, as they reached the camp of Ario Vistus, and Caesar now prepared in earnest for and Caesar now prepared in earnest for and Caesar now prepared in earnest for giving his enemy battle.

giving his enemy battle. giving his enemy battle. He proved himself as skillful and He proved himself as skillful and He proved himself as skillful and efficient in arranging and managing the efficient in arranging and managing the efficient in arranging and managing the combat as he had been sagacious and combat as he had been sagacious and combat as he had been sagacious and adroidit in the negotiations which adroidit in the negotiations which adroidit in the negotiations which preceded it. Several days were spent in preceded it. Several days were spent in preceded it. Several days were spent in maneuvers and movements by which each maneuvers and movements by which each maneuvers and movements by which each party endeavored to gain some advantage party endeavored to gain some advantage party endeavored to gain some advantage over the other in respect to their over the other in respect to their over the other in respect to their position in the approaching struggle. position in the approaching struggle. position in the approaching struggle. When at length the combat came, Caesar When at length the combat came, Caesar When at length the combat came, Caesar and his legions were entirely and and his legions were entirely and and his legions were entirely and triumphantly successful. The Germans triumphantly successful. The Germans triumphantly successful. The Germans were put totally to flight. Their were put totally to flight. Their were put totally to flight. Their baggage and stores were all seized, and baggage and stores were all seized, and baggage and stores were all seized, and the troops themselves fled in dismay by the troops themselves fled in dismay by the troops themselves fled in dismay by all the roads which led back to the all the roads which led back to the all the roads which led back to the rine. And there those who succeeded in rine. And there those who succeeded in rine. And there those who succeeded in escaping death from the Romans who escaping death from the Romans who escaping death from the Romans who pursued them all the way, embarked in pursued them all the way, embarked in pursued them all the way, embarked in boats and upon rafts, and returned to boats and upon rafts, and returned to boats and upon rafts, and returned to their homes. Ario Vistus himself found a their homes. Ario Vistus himself found a their homes. Ario Vistus himself found a small boat in which, with one or two small boat in which, with one or two small boat in which, with one or two followers, he succeeded in getting followers, he succeeded in getting followers, he succeeded in getting across the stream. across the stream. across the stream. A Caesar at the head of a body of his A Caesar at the head of a body of his A Caesar at the head of a body of his troops, was pursuing the enemy in this troops, was pursuing the enemy in this troops, was pursuing the enemy in this their flight. He overtook one party who their flight. He overtook one party who their flight. He overtook one party who had a prisoner with them, confined by had a prisoner with them, confined by had a prisoner with them, confined by iron chains fastened to his limbs, and iron chains fastened to his limbs, and iron chains fastened to his limbs, and whom they were hurrying rapidly along.

whom they were hurrying rapidly along. whom they were hurrying rapidly along. This prisoner proved to be the messenger This prisoner proved to be the messenger This prisoner proved to be the messenger that Caesar had sent to Ario Vistus' that Caesar had sent to Ario Vistus' that Caesar had sent to Ario Vistus' camp, and whom he had, as Caesar camp, and whom he had, as Caesar camp, and whom he had, as Caesar alleges, treacherously detained. Of alleges, treacherously detained. Of alleges, treacherously detained. Of course, he was overjoyed to be course, he was overjoyed to be course, he was overjoyed to be recaptured and set at liberty. The men recaptured and set at liberty. The men recaptured and set at liberty. The men said that three times they had drawn said that three times they had drawn said that three times they had drawn lots to see whether they should burn him lots to see whether they should burn him lots to see whether they should burn him alive then, or reserve the pleasure for alive then, or reserve the pleasure for alive then, or reserve the pleasure for a future occasion, and that every time a future occasion, and that every time a future occasion, and that every time the lot had resulted in his favor. The the lot had resulted in his favor. The the lot had resulted in his favor. The consequence of this victory was that consequence of this victory was that consequence of this victory was that Caesar's authority was established Caesar's authority was established Caesar's authority was established triumphantly over all that part of Gaul triumphantly over all that part of Gaul triumphantly over all that part of Gaul which he had thus freed from Arioistus' which he had thus freed from Arioistus' which he had thus freed from Arioistus' sway. Other parts of the country too sway. Other parts of the country too sway. Other parts of the country too were pervaded by the fame of his were pervaded by the fame of his were pervaded by the fame of his exploits, and the people everywhere exploits, and the people everywhere exploits, and the people everywhere began to consider what action it would began to consider what action it would began to consider what action it would be incumbent upon them to take in be incumbent upon them to take in be incumbent upon them to take in respect to the new military power which respect to the new military power which respect to the new military power which had appeared so suddenly among them. had appeared so suddenly among them. had appeared so suddenly among them. Some nations determined to submit Some nations determined to submit Some nations determined to submit without resistance and to seek the without resistance and to seek the without resistance and to seek the conqueror's alliance and protection. conqueror's alliance and protection. conqueror's alliance and protection. Others, more bold or more confident of Others, more bold or more confident of Others, more bold or more confident of their strength, began to form their strength, began to form their strength, began to form combinations and to arrange plans for combinations and to arrange plans for combinations and to arrange plans for resisting him. But whatever they did, resisting him. But whatever they did, resisting him. But whatever they did, the result in the end was the same.

the result in the end was the same. the result in the end was the same. Caesar's ascendancy was everywhere and Caesar's ascendancy was everywhere and Caesar's ascendancy was everywhere and always gaining ground. Of course, it is always gaining ground. Of course, it is always gaining ground. Of course, it is impossible in the compass of a single impossible in the compass of a single impossible in the compass of a single chapter, which is all that can be chapter, which is all that can be chapter, which is all that can be devoted to the subject in this volume, devoted to the subject in this volume, devoted to the subject in this volume, to give any regular narrative of the to give any regular narrative of the to give any regular narrative of the events of the eight years of Caesar's events of the eight years of Caesar's events of the eight years of Caesar's military career in Gaul. Marches, military career in Gaul. Marches, military career in Gaul. Marches, negotiations, battles, and victories negotiations, battles, and victories negotiations, battles, and victories mingled with and followed each other in mingled with and followed each other in mingled with and followed each other in a long succession, the particulars of a long succession, the particulars of a long succession, the particulars of which it would require a volume to which it would require a volume to which it would require a volume to detail. everything resulting most detail. everything resulting most detail. everything resulting most successfully for the increase of successfully for the increase of successfully for the increase of Caesar's power and the extension of his Caesar's power and the extension of his Caesar's power and the extension of his fame. Caesar gives in his narrative very fame. Caesar gives in his narrative very fame. Caesar gives in his narrative very extraordinary accounts of the customs extraordinary accounts of the customs extraordinary accounts of the customs and modes of life of some of the people and modes of life of some of the people and modes of life of some of the people that he encountered. There was one that he encountered. There was one that he encountered. There was one country for example in which all the country for example in which all the country for example in which all the lands were common and the whole lands were common and the whole lands were common and the whole structure of society was based on the structure of society was based on the structure of society was based on the plan of forming the community into one plan of forming the community into one plan of forming the community into one great marshall band. The nation was great marshall band. The nation was great marshall band. The nation was divided into a 100 canton, each divided into a 100 canton, each divided into a 100 canton, each containing 2,000 men capable of bearing containing 2,000 men capable of bearing containing 2,000 men capable of bearing arms. If these were all mustered into arms. If these were all mustered into arms. If these were all mustered into service together, they would form, of service together, they would form, of service together, they would form, of course, an army of 200,000 men. It was course, an army of 200,000 men. It was course, an army of 200,000 men. It was customary, however, to organize only one customary, however, to organize only one customary, however, to organize only one half of them into an army, while the half of them into an army, while the half of them into an army, while the rest remained at home to till the ground rest remained at home to till the ground rest remained at home to till the ground and tend the flocks and herds. These two and tend the flocks and herds. These two and tend the flocks and herds. These two great divisions interchanged their work great divisions interchanged their work great divisions interchanged their work every year, the soldiers becoming every year, the soldiers becoming every year, the soldiers becoming husbandmen and the husbandman soldiers.

husbandmen and the husbandman soldiers. husbandmen and the husbandman soldiers. Thus they all became equally inured to Thus they all became equally inured to Thus they all became equally inured to the hardships and dangers of the camp the hardships and dangers of the camp the hardships and dangers of the camp and to the more continuous but safer and to the more continuous but safer and to the more continuous but safer labors of agricultural toil. Their labors of agricultural toil. Their labors of agricultural toil. Their fields were devoted to pasturage more fields were devoted to pasturage more fields were devoted to pasturage more than to tillage, for flocks and herds than to tillage, for flocks and herds than to tillage, for flocks and herds could be driven from place to place, and could be driven from place to place, and could be driven from place to place, and thus more easily preserved from the thus more easily preserved from the thus more easily preserved from the depradations of enemies than fields of depradations of enemies than fields of depradations of enemies than fields of grain. The children grew up almost grain. The children grew up almost grain. The children grew up almost perfectly wild from infancy and hardened perfectly wild from infancy and hardened perfectly wild from infancy and hardened themselves by bathing in cold streams, themselves by bathing in cold streams, themselves by bathing in cold streams, wearing very little clothing, and making wearing very little clothing, and making wearing very little clothing, and making long hunting excursions among the long hunting excursions among the long hunting excursions among the mountains. The people had abundance of mountains. The people had abundance of mountains. The people had abundance of excellent horses, which the young men excellent horses, which the young men excellent horses, which the young men were accustomed from their earliest were accustomed from their earliest were accustomed from their earliest years to ride without saddle or bridal, years to ride without saddle or bridal, years to ride without saddle or bridal, the horses being trained to obey the horses being trained to obey the horses being trained to obey implicitly every command. So admirably implicitly every command. So admirably implicitly every command. So admirably disciplined were they that sometimes in disciplined were they that sometimes in disciplined were they that sometimes in battle the mounted men would leap from battle the mounted men would leap from battle the mounted men would leap from their horses and advance as foot their horses and advance as foot their horses and advance as foot soldiers to aid the other infantry, soldiers to aid the other infantry, soldiers to aid the other infantry, leaving the horses to stand until they leaving the horses to stand until they leaving the horses to stand until they returned. The horses would not move from returned. The horses would not move from returned. The horses would not move from the spot. The men, when the object for the spot. The men, when the object for the spot. The men, when the object for which they had dismounted was which they had dismounted was which they had dismounted was accomplished, would come back, spring to accomplished, would come back, spring to accomplished, would come back, spring to their seats again, and once more become their seats again, and once more become their seats again, and once more become a squadron of cavalry.

a squadron of cavalry. a squadron of cavalry. Although Caesar was very energetic and Although Caesar was very energetic and Although Caesar was very energetic and decided in the government of his army, decided in the government of his army, decided in the government of his army, he was extremely popular with his he was extremely popular with his he was extremely popular with his soldiers in all these campaigns. He soldiers in all these campaigns. He soldiers in all these campaigns. He exposed his men of course to a great exposed his men of course to a great exposed his men of course to a great many probations and hardships, but then many probations and hardships, but then many probations and hardships, but then he evinced in many cases such a he evinced in many cases such a he evinced in many cases such a willingness to bear his share of them willingness to bear his share of them willingness to bear his share of them that the men were very little inclined that the men were very little inclined that the men were very little inclined to complain. He moved at the head of the to complain. He moved at the head of the to complain. He moved at the head of the column when his troops were advancing on column when his troops were advancing on column when his troops were advancing on a march, generally on horseback, but a march, generally on horseback, but a march, generally on horseback, but often on foot. And Sutonius says that he often on foot. And Sutonius says that he often on foot. And Sutonius says that he used to go bareheaded on such occasions, used to go bareheaded on such occasions, used to go bareheaded on such occasions, whatever was the state of the weather, whatever was the state of the weather, whatever was the state of the weather, though it is difficult to see what the though it is difficult to see what the though it is difficult to see what the motive of this apparently needless motive of this apparently needless motive of this apparently needless exposure could be, unless it was for a exposure could be, unless it was for a exposure could be, unless it was for a fact, on some special or unusual fact, on some special or unusual fact, on some special or unusual occasion. Caesar would ford or swim occasion. Caesar would ford or swim occasion. Caesar would ford or swim rivers with his men whenever there was rivers with his men whenever there was rivers with his men whenever there was no other mode of transit, sometimes no other mode of transit, sometimes no other mode of transit, sometimes supported, it was said, by bags inflated supported, it was said, by bags inflated supported, it was said, by bags inflated with air and placed under his arms. At with air and placed under his arms. At with air and placed under his arms. At one time he built a bridge across the one time he built a bridge across the one time he built a bridge across the rine to enable his army to cross that rine to enable his army to cross that rine to enable his army to cross that river. This bridge was built with piles river. This bridge was built with piles river. This bridge was built with piles driven down into the sand which driven down into the sand which driven down into the sand which supported a flooring of timbers. Caesar, supported a flooring of timbers. Caesar, supported a flooring of timbers. Caesar, considering it quite an exploit thus to considering it quite an exploit thus to considering it quite an exploit thus to bridge the rine, wrote a minute account bridge the rine, wrote a minute account bridge the rine, wrote a minute account of the manner in which the work was of the manner in which the work was of the manner in which the work was constructed, and the description is constructed, and the description is constructed, and the description is almost exactly in accordance with the almost exactly in accordance with the almost exactly in accordance with the principles and usages of modern principles and usages of modern principles and usages of modern carpentry.

carpentry. carpentry. After the countries which were the scene After the countries which were the scene After the countries which were the scene of these conquests were pretty well of these conquests were pretty well of these conquests were pretty well subdued, Caesar established on some of subdued, Caesar established on some of subdued, Caesar established on some of the great routes of travel a system of the great routes of travel a system of the great routes of travel a system of posts. That is, he stationed supplies of posts. That is, he stationed supplies of posts. That is, he stationed supplies of horses at intervals from 10 to 20 m horses at intervals from 10 to 20 m horses at intervals from 10 to 20 m along the way, so that he himself or the along the way, so that he himself or the along the way, so that he himself or the officers of his army or any couriers who officers of his army or any couriers who officers of his army or any couriers who he might have occasion to send with he might have occasion to send with he might have occasion to send with dispatches could travel with great speed dispatches could travel with great speed dispatches could travel with great speed by finding a fresh horse ready at every by finding a fresh horse ready at every by finding a fresh horse ready at every stage. By this means he sometimes stage. By this means he sometimes stage. By this means he sometimes traveled himself a 100 miles in a day. traveled himself a 100 miles in a day. traveled himself a 100 miles in a day. This system thus adopted for military This system thus adopted for military This system thus adopted for military purposes in Caesar's time has been purposes in Caesar's time has been purposes in Caesar's time has been continued in almost all countries of continued in almost all countries of continued in almost all countries of Europe to the present age and is applied Europe to the present age and is applied Europe to the present age and is applied to traveling in carriages as well as on to traveling in carriages as well as on to traveling in carriages as well as on horseback. A family party purchase a horseback. A family party purchase a horseback. A family party purchase a carriage and arranging within it all the carriage and arranging within it all the carriage and arranging within it all the comforts and conveniences which they comforts and conveniences which they comforts and conveniences which they will require on the journey. They set will require on the journey. They set will require on the journey. They set out taking these post horses fresh at out taking these post horses fresh at out taking these post horses fresh at each village to draw them to the next. each village to draw them to the next. each village to draw them to the next. Thus they can go at any rate of speed Thus they can go at any rate of speed Thus they can go at any rate of speed which they desire instead of being which they desire instead of being which they desire instead of being limited in their movements by the powers limited in their movements by the powers limited in their movements by the powers of endurance of one set of animals as of endurance of one set of animals as of endurance of one set of animals as they would be compelled to be if they they would be compelled to be if they they would be compelled to be if they were to travel with their own. This plan were to travel with their own. This plan were to travel with their own. This plan has for some reason never been has for some reason never been has for some reason never been introduced into America and it is now introduced into America and it is now introduced into America and it is now probable that it never will be as the probable that it never will be as the probable that it never will be as the railway system will doubtless supersede railway system will doubtless supersede railway system will doubtless supersede it.

it. it. One of the most remarkable of the One of the most remarkable of the One of the most remarkable of the enterprises which Caesar undertook enterprises which Caesar undertook enterprises which Caesar undertook during the period of these campaigns was during the period of these campaigns was during the period of these campaigns was his excursion into Great Britain. The his excursion into Great Britain. The his excursion into Great Britain. The real motive of this expedition was real motive of this expedition was real motive of this expedition was probably a love of romantic adventure probably a love of romantic adventure probably a love of romantic adventure and a desire to secure for himself at and a desire to secure for himself at and a desire to secure for himself at Rome the glory of having penetrated into Rome the glory of having penetrated into Rome the glory of having penetrated into remote regions which Roman armies had remote regions which Roman armies had remote regions which Roman armies had never reached before. The pretext, never reached before. The pretext, never reached before. The pretext, however, which he made to justify his however, which he made to justify his however, which he made to justify his invading the territories of the Britain, invading the territories of the Britain, invading the territories of the Britain, was that the people of the island were was that the people of the island were was that the people of the island were accustomed to come across the channel accustomed to come across the channel accustomed to come across the channel and aid the Gauls in their wars. and aid the Gauls in their wars. and aid the Gauls in their wars. Informing his arrangements for going Informing his arrangements for going Informing his arrangements for going into England, the first thing was to into England, the first thing was to into England, the first thing was to obtain all the information which was obtain all the information which was obtain all the information which was accessible in Gaul in respect to the accessible in Gaul in respect to the accessible in Gaul in respect to the country. There were in those days great country. There were in those days great country. There were in those days great numbers of traveling merchants who went numbers of traveling merchants who went numbers of traveling merchants who went from one nation to another to purchase from one nation to another to purchase from one nation to another to purchase and sell, taking with them such goods as and sell, taking with them such goods as and sell, taking with them such goods as were most easy of transportation. These were most easy of transportation. These were most easy of transportation. These merchants, of course, were generally merchants, of course, were generally merchants, of course, were generally possessed of a great deal of information possessed of a great deal of information possessed of a great deal of information in respect to the countries which they in respect to the countries which they in respect to the countries which they had visited. And Caesar called together had visited. And Caesar called together had visited. And Caesar called together as many of them as he could find when he as many of them as he could find when he as many of them as he could find when he had reached the northern shores of had reached the northern shores of had reached the northern shores of France to inquire about the modes of France to inquire about the modes of France to inquire about the modes of crossing the channel, the harbors on the crossing the channel, the harbors on the crossing the channel, the harbors on the English side, the geographical English side, the geographical English side, the geographical confirmation of the country, and the confirmation of the country, and the confirmation of the country, and the military resources of the people. He military resources of the people. He military resources of the people. He found, however, that the merchants could found, however, that the merchants could found, however, that the merchants could give him very little information. They give him very little information. They give him very little information. They knew that Britain was an island, but knew that Britain was an island, but knew that Britain was an island, but they did not know its extent or its they did not know its extent or its they did not know its extent or its boundaries, and they could tell him very boundaries, and they could tell him very boundaries, and they could tell him very little of the character or customs of little of the character or customs of little of the character or customs of the people. They said that they had only the people. They said that they had only the people. They said that they had only been accustomed to land upon the been accustomed to land upon the been accustomed to land upon the southern shore, and to transact all southern shore, and to transact all southern shore, and to transact all their business there without penetrating

their business there without penetrating their business there without penetrating at all into the interior of the country. at all into the interior of the country. at all into the interior of the country. Caesar then, who, though undaunted and Caesar then, who, though undaunted and Caesar then, who, though undaunted and bold in emergencies, requiring prompt bold in emergencies, requiring prompt bold in emergencies, requiring prompt and decisive action, was extremely and decisive action, was extremely and decisive action, was extremely cautious and wary at all other times, cautious and wary at all other times, cautious and wary at all other times, fitted up a single ship, and putting one fitted up a single ship, and putting one fitted up a single ship, and putting one of his officers on board with a proper of his officers on board with a proper of his officers on board with a proper crew, directed him to cross the channel crew, directed him to cross the channel crew, directed him to cross the channel to the English coast, and then to cruise to the English coast, and then to cruise to the English coast, and then to cruise along the land for some miles in each along the land for some miles in each along the land for some miles in each direction, to observe where were the direction, to observe where were the direction, to observe where were the best harbors and places for landing, and best harbors and places for landing, and best harbors and places for landing, and to examine generally the appearance of to examine generally the appearance of to examine generally the appearance of the shore. This vessel was a galley the shore. This vessel was a galley the shore. This vessel was a galley manned with numerous orarsmen, well manned with numerous orarsmen, well manned with numerous orarsmen, well selected and strong, so that it could selected and strong, so that it could selected and strong, so that it could retreat with great speed from any sudden retreat with great speed from any sudden retreat with great speed from any sudden appearance of danger. The name of the appearance of danger. The name of the appearance of danger. The name of the officer who had the command of it was officer who had the command of it was officer who had the command of it was set sail, the army watching his vessel set sail, the army watching his vessel set sail, the army watching his vessel with great interest as it moved slowly with great interest as it moved slowly with great interest as it moved slowly away from the shore. He was gone 5 days away from the shore. He was gone 5 days away from the shore. He was gone 5 days and then returned, bringing Caesar an and then returned, bringing Caesar an and then returned, bringing Caesar an account of his discoveries. In the account of his discoveries. In the account of his discoveries. In the meantime, Caesar had collected a large meantime, Caesar had collected a large meantime, Caesar had collected a large number of sailing vessels from the whole number of sailing vessels from the whole number of sailing vessels from the whole line of the French shore, by means of line of the French shore, by means of line of the French shore, by means of which he proposed to transport his army which he proposed to transport his army which he proposed to transport his army across the channel. He had two legions across the channel. He had two legions across the channel. He had two legions to take into Britain, the remainder of to take into Britain, the remainder of to take into Britain, the remainder of his forces having been stationed as his forces having been stationed as his forces having been stationed as garrisons in various parts of Gaul. It garrisons in various parts of Gaul. It garrisons in various parts of Gaul. It was necessary, too, to leave a was necessary, too, to leave a was necessary, too, to leave a considerable force at his post of considerable force at his post of considerable force at his post of debarcation in order to secure a safe debarcation in order to secure a safe debarcation in order to secure a safe retreat in case of any disaster on the retreat in case of any disaster on the retreat in case of any disaster on the British side. The number of transport British side. The number of transport British side. The number of transport ships provided for the foot soldiers ships provided for the foot soldiers ships provided for the foot soldiers which were to be taken over was 80.

which were to be taken over was 80. which were to be taken over was 80. There were besides these 18 more which There were besides these 18 more which There were besides these 18 more which were appointed to convey a squadron of were appointed to convey a squadron of were appointed to convey a squadron of horse. This cavalry force was to embark horse. This cavalry force was to embark horse. This cavalry force was to embark at a separate port about 80 mi distant at a separate port about 80 mi distant at a separate port about 80 mi distant from the one from which the infantry from the one from which the infantry from the one from which the infantry were to sail. At length a suitable day were to sail. At length a suitable day were to sail. At length a suitable day for the embarcation arrived. The troops for the embarcation arrived. The troops for the embarcation arrived. The troops were put on board the ships and orders were put on board the ships and orders were put on board the ships and orders were given to sail. The day could not be were given to sail. The day could not be were given to sail. The day could not be fixed beforehand, as the time for fixed beforehand, as the time for fixed beforehand, as the time for attempting to make the passage must attempting to make the passage must attempting to make the passage must necessarily depend upon the state of the necessarily depend upon the state of the necessarily depend upon the state of the wind and weather. Accordingly, when the wind and weather. Accordingly, when the wind and weather. Accordingly, when the favorable opportunity arrived, and the favorable opportunity arrived, and the favorable opportunity arrived, and the main body of the army began to embark, main body of the army began to embark, main body of the army began to embark, it took some time to send the orders to it took some time to send the orders to it took some time to send the orders to the port where the cavalry had the port where the cavalry had the port where the cavalry had rendevued, and there were, besides other rendevued, and there were, besides other rendevued, and there were, besides other causes of delay which occurred to detain causes of delay which occurred to detain causes of delay which occurred to detain this core, so that it turned out, as we this core, so that it turned out, as we this core, so that it turned out, as we shall presently see, that the foot shall presently see, that the foot shall presently see, that the foot soldiers had to act alone in the first soldiers had to act alone in the first soldiers had to act alone in the first attempt at landing on the British shore. attempt at landing on the British shore. attempt at landing on the British shore. It was 1:00 in the morning when the It was 1:00 in the morning when the It was 1:00 in the morning when the fleet set sail. The Britain had in the fleet set sail. The Britain had in the fleet set sail. The Britain had in the meantime obtained intelligence of meantime obtained intelligence of meantime obtained intelligence of Caesar's threatened invasion, and they Caesar's threatened invasion, and they Caesar's threatened invasion, and they had assembled in great force with troops had assembled in great force with troops had assembled in great force with troops and horsemen and carriages of war, and and horsemen and carriages of war, and and horsemen and carriages of war, and were all ready to guard the shore. The were all ready to guard the shore. The were all ready to guard the shore. The coast, at the point where Caesar was coast, at the point where Caesar was coast, at the point where Caesar was approaching, consists of a line of approaching, consists of a line of approaching, consists of a line of chalky cliffs, with valley-like openings chalky cliffs, with valley-like openings chalky cliffs, with valley-like openings here and there between them, here and there between them, here and there between them, communicating with the shore, and communicating with the shore, and communicating with the shore, and sometimes narrow beaches below. When the sometimes narrow beaches below. When the sometimes narrow beaches below. When the Roman fleet approached the land, Caesar Roman fleet approached the land, Caesar Roman fleet approached the land, Caesar found the cliffs everywhere lined with found the cliffs everywhere lined with found the cliffs everywhere lined with troops of Britain's and every accessible troops of Britain's and every accessible troops of Britain's and every accessible point below carefully guarded. It was point below carefully guarded. It was point below carefully guarded. It was now about 10:00 in the morning, and now about 10:00 in the morning, and now about 10:00 in the morning, and Caesar, finding the prospect so Caesar, finding the prospect so Caesar, finding the prospect so unfavorable in respect to the

unfavorable in respect to the unfavorable in respect to the practicability of affecting a landing practicability of affecting a landing practicability of affecting a landing here, brought his fleet to anchor near here, brought his fleet to anchor near here, brought his fleet to anchor near the shore, but far enough from it to be the shore, but far enough from it to be the shore, but far enough from it to be safe from the missiles of the enemy. safe from the missiles of the enemy. safe from the missiles of the enemy. Here he remained for several hours to Here he remained for several hours to Here he remained for several hours to give time for all the vessels to join give time for all the vessels to join give time for all the vessels to join him. Some of them had been delayed in him. Some of them had been delayed in him. Some of them had been delayed in the embarcation or had made slower the embarcation or had made slower the embarcation or had made slower progress than the rest in crossing the progress than the rest in crossing the progress than the rest in crossing the channel. He called a council too of the channel. He called a council too of the channel. He called a council too of the superior officers of the army on board superior officers of the army on board superior officers of the army on board his own galley and explained to them the his own galley and explained to them the his own galley and explained to them the plan which he now adopted for the plan which he now adopted for the plan which he now adopted for the landing. About 3:00 in the afternoon he landing. About 3:00 in the afternoon he landing. About 3:00 in the afternoon he sent these officers back to their sent these officers back to their sent these officers back to their respective ships and gave orders to make respective ships and gave orders to make respective ships and gave orders to make sail along the shore. The anchors were sail along the shore. The anchors were sail along the shore. The anchors were raised and the fleet moved on, born by raised and the fleet moved on, born by raised and the fleet moved on, born by the united impulse of the wind and the the united impulse of the wind and the the united impulse of the wind and the tide. The Britain, perceiving this tide. The Britain, perceiving this tide. The Britain, perceiving this movement, put themselves in motion on movement, put themselves in motion on movement, put themselves in motion on the land, following the motions of the the land, following the motions of the the land, following the motions of the fleet so as to be ready to meet their fleet so as to be ready to meet their fleet so as to be ready to meet their enemy wherever they might ultimately enemy wherever they might ultimately enemy wherever they might ultimately undertake to land. Their horsemen and undertake to land. Their horsemen and undertake to land. Their horsemen and carriages went on in advance, and the carriages went on in advance, and the carriages went on in advance, and the foot soldiers followed, all pressing foot soldiers followed, all pressing foot soldiers followed, all pressing eagerly forward to keep up with the eagerly forward to keep up with the eagerly forward to keep up with the motion of the fleet, and to prevent motion of the fleet, and to prevent motion of the fleet, and to prevent Caesar's army from having time to land Caesar's army from having time to land Caesar's army from having time to land before they should arrive at the spot before they should arrive at the spot before they should arrive at the spot and be ready to oppose them.

and be ready to oppose them. and be ready to oppose them. The fleet moved on until at length, The fleet moved on until at length, The fleet moved on until at length, after sailing about 8 mi, they came to a after sailing about 8 mi, they came to a after sailing about 8 mi, they came to a part of the coast where there was a part of the coast where there was a part of the coast where there was a tract of comparatively level ground tract of comparatively level ground tract of comparatively level ground which seemed to be easily accessible which seemed to be easily accessible which seemed to be easily accessible from the shore. Here Caesar determined from the shore. Here Caesar determined from the shore. Here Caesar determined to attempt to land, and drawing up his to attempt to land, and drawing up his to attempt to land, and drawing up his vessel accordingly as near as possible vessel accordingly as near as possible vessel accordingly as near as possible to the beach, he ordered the men to leap to the beach, he ordered the men to leap to the beach, he ordered the men to leap over into the water with their weapons over into the water with their weapons over into the water with their weapons in their hands. The Britain were all in their hands. The Britain were all in their hands. The Britain were all here to oppose them, and a dreadful here to oppose them, and a dreadful here to oppose them, and a dreadful struggle ensued, the combatants dying struggle ensued, the combatants dying struggle ensued, the combatants dying the waters with their blood as they the waters with their blood as they the waters with their blood as they fought, half submerged in the turf which fought, half submerged in the turf which fought, half submerged in the turf which rolled in upon the sand. Some galleys rolled in upon the sand. Some galleys rolled in upon the sand. Some galleys rode up at the same time near to the rode up at the same time near to the rode up at the same time near to the shore, and the men on board of them shore, and the men on board of them shore, and the men on board of them attacked the Britain from the decks by attacked the Britain from the decks by attacked the Britain from the decks by the darts and arrows which they shot to the darts and arrows which they shot to the darts and arrows which they shot to the land. Caesar at last prevailed. The the land. Caesar at last prevailed. The the land. Caesar at last prevailed. The Britain were driven away, and the Roman Britain were driven away, and the Roman Britain were driven away, and the Roman army established themselves in quiet army established themselves in quiet army established themselves in quiet possession of the shore. possession of the shore. possession of the shore. Caesar had afterward a great variety of Caesar had afterward a great variety of Caesar had afterward a great variety of adventures and many narrow escapes from adventures and many narrow escapes from adventures and many narrow escapes from imminent dangers in Britain. And though imminent dangers in Britain. And though imminent dangers in Britain. And though he gained considerable glory by thus he gained considerable glory by thus he gained considerable glory by thus penetrating into such remote and unknown penetrating into such remote and unknown penetrating into such remote and unknown regions, there was very little else to regions, there was very little else to regions, there was very little else to be acquired. The glory, however, was be acquired. The glory, however, was be acquired. The glory, however, was itself of great value to Caesar. During itself of great value to Caesar. During itself of great value to Caesar. During the whole period of his campaigns in the whole period of his campaigns in the whole period of his campaigns in Gaul, Rome and all Italy, in fact, had Gaul, Rome and all Italy, in fact, had Gaul, Rome and all Italy, in fact, had been filled with the fame of his been filled with the fame of his been filled with the fame of his exploits, and the expedition into exploits, and the expedition into exploits, and the expedition into Britain added not a little to his Britain added not a little to his Britain added not a little to his renown. The populace of the city were renown. The populace of the city were renown. The populace of the city were greatly gratified to hear of the greatly gratified to hear of the greatly gratified to hear of the continued success of their former continued success of their former continued success of their former favorite. They decreed to him triumph favorite. They decreed to him triumph favorite. They decreed to him triumph after triumph and were prepared to after triumph and were prepared to after triumph and were prepared to welcome him whenever he should return

welcome him whenever he should return welcome him whenever he should return with greater honors and more extended with greater honors and more extended with greater honors and more extended and higher powers than he had ever and higher powers than he had ever and higher powers than he had ever enjoyed before. Caesar's exploits in enjoyed before. Caesar's exploits in enjoyed before. Caesar's exploits in these campaigns were in fact in a these campaigns were in fact in a these campaigns were in fact in a military point of view of the most military point of view of the most military point of view of the most magnificent character. Plutarch in magnificent character. Plutarch in magnificent character. Plutarch in summing up the results of them says that summing up the results of them says that summing up the results of them says that he took 800 cities, conquered 300 he took 800 cities, conquered 300 he took 800 cities, conquered 300 nations, fought pitched battles at nations, fought pitched battles at nations, fought pitched battles at separate times with three millions of separate times with three millions of separate times with three millions of men, took 1 million of prisoners, and men, took 1 million of prisoners, and men, took 1 million of prisoners, and killed another million on the field. killed another million on the field. killed another million on the field. What a vast work of destruction was this What a vast work of destruction was this What a vast work of destruction was this for a man to spend 8 years of his life for a man to spend 8 years of his life for a man to spend 8 years of his life in performing upon his fellow creatures, in performing upon his fellow creatures, in performing upon his fellow creatures, merely to gratify his insane love of merely to gratify his insane love of merely to gratify his insane love of dominion. End of chapter 4.