Roman History 09 - The Empire Of Caesar 50 - 44 BC

[Music] [Music] Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Rome episode 43. Insert well-known idiom Rome episode 43. Insert well-known idiom Rome episode 43. Insert well-known idiom here. Since we began the history of Rome here. Since we began the history of Rome here. Since we began the history of Rome some 50 odd episodes ago, I've covered some 50 odd episodes ago, I've covered some 50 odd episodes ago, I've covered some pretty obscure stuff. Things that some pretty obscure stuff. Things that some pretty obscure stuff. Things that have long been forgotten by all but have long been forgotten by all but have long been forgotten by all but professional scholars and a few amateur professional scholars and a few amateur professional scholars and a few amateur enthusiasts. Indeed, I was drawn to the enthusiasts. Indeed, I was drawn to the enthusiasts. Indeed, I was drawn to the idea of producing this podcast idea of producing this podcast idea of producing this podcast specifically to shed light on some of specifically to shed light on some of specifically to shed light on some of these ofted these ofted these ofted stories. The next few episodes will be a stories. The next few episodes will be a stories. The next few episodes will be a bit different though. This week we are bit different though. This week we are bit different though. This week we are going to start dealing with things that going to start dealing with things that going to start dealing with things that are so famous that they have worked are so famous that they have worked are so famous that they have worked their way well into our collective their way well into our collective their way well into our collective imagination. For the next little while imagination. For the next little while imagination. For the next little while it's going to be all the die is cast. I it's going to be all the die is cast. I it's going to be all the die is cast. I came, I saw, I conquered. A tub brute. came, I saw, I conquered. A tub brute. came, I saw, I conquered. A tub brute. And I come here not to praise Caesar, And I come here not to praise Caesar, And I come here not to praise Caesar, but to bury him. We're about to delve but to bury him. We're about to delve but to bury him. We're about to delve into events and personalities that are into events and personalities that are into events and personalities that are almost universally almost universally almost universally recognizable. That the language of recognizable. That the language of recognizable. That the language of Caesar's civil war still sits on the Caesar's civil war still sits on the Caesar's civil war still sits on the tips of our tongues is a testament to tips of our tongues is a testament to tips of our tongues is a testament to the massive impact it had on the the massive impact it had on the the massive impact it had on the development of the Western world.

development of the Western world. development of the Western world. Because what do you say when you want to Because what do you say when you want to Because what do you say when you want to express that someone has gone past the express that someone has gone past the express that someone has gone past the point of no return? Ah, yes. You say point of no return? Ah, yes. You say point of no return? Ah, yes. You say that they are crossing the that they are crossing the that they are crossing the Rubicon. As the winter of 50 BC came to Rubicon. As the winter of 50 BC came to Rubicon. As the winter of 50 BC came to a close, Caesar and the Senate had a close, Caesar and the Senate had a close, Caesar and the Senate had reached an impass. Caesar refused to reached an impass. Caesar refused to reached an impass. Caesar refused to obey a direct order from the Senate to obey a direct order from the Senate to obey a direct order from the Senate to stand down his army, and the Senate stand down his army, and the Senate stand down his army, and the Senate refused to grant any of the concessions refused to grant any of the concessions refused to grant any of the concessions Caesar demanded in exchange for his Caesar demanded in exchange for his Caesar demanded in exchange for his cooperation. Both sides accused the cooperation. Both sides accused the cooperation. Both sides accused the other of upending the rule of law for other of upending the rule of law for other of upending the rule of law for the sake of private ambition. the sake of private ambition. the sake of private ambition. Caesar pointed out that the Senate did Caesar pointed out that the Senate did Caesar pointed out that the Senate did not technically have the authority to not technically have the authority to not technically have the authority to order him to give up his command as his order him to give up his command as his order him to give up his command as his proconsul ship did not legally expire proconsul ship did not legally expire proconsul ship did not legally expire for another 2 years. The Senate replied for another 2 years. The Senate replied for another 2 years. The Senate replied that technically Caesar's entire career that technically Caesar's entire career that technically Caesar's entire career was one blatant act of criminality after was one blatant act of criminality after was one blatant act of criminality after another and he ought not go around another and he ought not go around another and he ought not go around touting legal technicalities as a touting legal technicalities as a touting legal technicalities as a defense. But before we go any further defense. But before we go any further defense. But before we go any further into the story, I think it's worth into the story, I think it's worth into the story, I think it's worth reiterating just what had led to this reiterating just what had led to this reiterating just what had led to this impass. A comment by Lane attached to impass. A comment by Lane attached to impass. A comment by Lane attached to last week's episode asked some very good last week's episode asked some very good last week's episode asked some very good questions about exactly what criminal questions about exactly what criminal questions about exactly what criminal charges Caesar faced if he returned to charges Caesar faced if he returned to charges Caesar faced if he returned to Rome and why the relationship between Rome and why the relationship between Rome and why the relationship between the Senate and Caesar had grown so the Senate and Caesar had grown so the Senate and Caesar had grown so acrimonious. The two feed off each acrimonious. The two feed off each acrimonious. The two feed off each other. So I'll answer the last question other. So I'll answer the last question other. So I'll answer the last question first.

first. first. In his survey of the Roman Republic, In his survey of the Roman Republic, In his survey of the Roman Republic, called coincidentally the Roman called coincidentally the Roman called coincidentally the Roman Republic, Michael Crawford makes the Republic, Michael Crawford makes the Republic, Michael Crawford makes the point over and over again that after the point over and over again that after the point over and over again that after the plebs were integrated fully into the plebs were integrated fully into the plebs were integrated fully into the political process, an oligarchy of political process, an oligarchy of political process, an oligarchy of wealthy families on both sides of the wealthy families on both sides of the wealthy families on both sides of the original class divide found their original class divide found their original class divide found their interests generally aligned. From about interests generally aligned. From about interests generally aligned. From about the 350s on, and especially after the the 350s on, and especially after the the 350s on, and especially after the Senate came to dominate the state during Senate came to dominate the state during Senate came to dominate the state during the Second Punic War, there was a great the Second Punic War, there was a great the Second Punic War, there was a great deal of pressure from within this deal of pressure from within this deal of pressure from within this oligarchy to not sell one another out. oligarchy to not sell one another out. oligarchy to not sell one another out. That is when internal disputes emerged. That is when internal disputes emerged. That is when internal disputes emerged. For example, the rivalry between the For example, the rivalry between the For example, the rivalry between the Fabi and the Claudi families, they were Fabi and the Claudi families, they were Fabi and the Claudi families, they were not allowed to spill out into the lower not allowed to spill out into the lower not allowed to spill out into the lower socioeconomic orders. For hundreds of socioeconomic orders. For hundreds of socioeconomic orders. For hundreds of years, these families bred amongst years, these families bred amongst years, these families bred amongst themselves and protected the property themselves and protected the property themselves and protected the property and privileges their status afforded and privileges their status afforded and privileges their status afforded them. So even if two old patricians them. So even if two old patricians them. So even if two old patricians hated each other, one wouldn't turn to hated each other, one wouldn't turn to hated each other, one wouldn't turn to the popular assemblies with promises of the popular assemblies with promises of the popular assemblies with promises of land reform in order to put pressure on land reform in order to put pressure on land reform in order to put pressure on the other. the other. the other. Threats to upend the established order Threats to upend the established order Threats to upend the established order were dealt with swiftly and harshly, were dealt with swiftly and harshly, were dealt with swiftly and harshly, usually in the form of social ostracism.

usually in the form of social ostracism. usually in the form of social ostracism. To the highly social Romans, this was a To the highly social Romans, this was a To the highly social Romans, this was a fate worse than death, and it had the fate worse than death, and it had the fate worse than death, and it had the effect of keeping everyone in the upper effect of keeping everyone in the upper effect of keeping everyone in the upper class pretty much on the same class pretty much on the same class pretty much on the same page. But by the end of the Punic Wars, page. But by the end of the Punic Wars, page. But by the end of the Punic Wars, this solidarity began to break down. The this solidarity began to break down. The this solidarity began to break down. The long wars with Carthage had decimated long wars with Carthage had decimated long wars with Carthage had decimated the ranks of the old aristocratic the ranks of the old aristocratic the ranks of the old aristocratic families and the upper classes became families and the upper classes became families and the upper classes became populated with novous homo men who were populated with novous homo men who were populated with novous homo men who were new to power and had no great loyalty to new to power and had no great loyalty to new to power and had no great loyalty to the old the old the old oligarchs. They identified with the oligarchs. They identified with the oligarchs. They identified with the masses and had no compunction about masses and had no compunction about masses and had no compunction about using popular causes as a means to using popular causes as a means to using popular causes as a means to leverage personal leverage personal leverage personal power. Marius was a great force in this power. Marius was a great force in this power. Marius was a great force in this transition and once he showed how the transition and once he showed how the transition and once he showed how the new game could be played, ambitious men new game could be played, ambitious men new game could be played, ambitious men were eager to follow his lead. Suddenly, were eager to follow his lead. Suddenly, were eager to follow his lead. Suddenly, rather than ignoring the masses, praers rather than ignoring the masses, praers rather than ignoring the masses, praers and consoles were proposing land reform and consoles were proposing land reform and consoles were proposing land reform and grain dos that flew in the face of and grain dos that flew in the face of and grain dos that flew in the face of everything the old order stood for. everything the old order stood for. everything the old order stood for. Because what the old order stood for Because what the old order stood for Because what the old order stood for more than anything else was the more than anything else was the more than anything else was the monopolization of land and trade by a monopolization of land and trade by a monopolization of land and trade by a few select few select few select families. Into this environment steps families. Into this environment steps families. Into this environment steps Caesar, scion of an ancient patrician Caesar, scion of an ancient patrician Caesar, scion of an ancient patrician family who turned his back on that family who turned his back on that family who turned his back on that status to champion popular causes as a status to champion popular causes as a status to champion popular causes as a way to reach the top of the political way to reach the top of the political way to reach the top of the political ladder. I've been reading HW Brans's ladder. I've been reading HW Brans's ladder. I've been reading HW Brans's biography of Franklin Roosevelt called biography of Franklin Roosevelt called biography of Franklin Roosevelt called traitor to his class. And I would say traitor to his class. And I would say traitor to his class. And I would say that there is a great deal of similarity that there is a great deal of similarity that there is a great deal of similarity between American upper class hatred of between American upper class hatred of between American upper class hatred of that man in the White House and the that man in the White House and the that man in the White House and the Senate's hatred of Caesar. In both Senate's hatred of Caesar. In both Senate's hatred of Caesar. In both cases, charismatic leaders who ought to

cases, charismatic leaders who ought to cases, charismatic leaders who ought to have been strident defenders of the have been strident defenders of the have been strident defenders of the privileges of the old order instead used privileges of the old order instead used privileges of the old order instead used their considerable skills to blow those their considerable skills to blow those their considerable skills to blow those privileges up. The title of Brans's book privileges up. The title of Brans's book privileges up. The title of Brans's book says it all. They were traitors to their says it all. They were traitors to their says it all. They were traitors to their class. Because of this betrayal, the class. Because of this betrayal, the class. Because of this betrayal, the conservative Senate hated Caesar. They conservative Senate hated Caesar. They conservative Senate hated Caesar. They could see their way of life slipping could see their way of life slipping could see their way of life slipping away and were trying desperately to stem away and were trying desperately to stem away and were trying desperately to stem the tide of reform. And here was this the tide of reform. And here was this the tide of reform. And here was this enormously talented politician who ought enormously talented politician who ought enormously talented politician who ought to have been helping them, not helping to have been helping them, not helping to have been helping them, not helping them, and instead making things even them, and instead making things even them, and instead making things even worse. And not only that, he seemed to worse. And not only that, he seemed to worse. And not only that, he seemed to enjoy watching them squirm. So they were enjoy watching them squirm. So they were enjoy watching them squirm. So they were eternally vigilant for the moment that eternally vigilant for the moment that eternally vigilant for the moment that they could turn the tables and watch him they could turn the tables and watch him they could turn the tables and watch him squirm for a squirm for a squirm for a change. They finally saw their change. They finally saw their change. They finally saw their opportunity as the war in Gaul wound opportunity as the war in Gaul wound opportunity as the war in Gaul wound down. Ko and his allies were going to go down. Ko and his allies were going to go down. Ko and his allies were going to go after Caesar in court as soon as he lost after Caesar in court as soon as he lost after Caesar in court as soon as he lost the cloak of immunity that came with the cloak of immunity that came with the cloak of immunity that came with holding public office. But the question holding public office. But the question holding public office. But the question is what was the Senate planning to is what was the Senate planning to is what was the Senate planning to actually charge him with? And what would actually charge him with? And what would actually charge him with? And what would that punishment actually be if he was that punishment actually be if he was that punishment actually be if he was convicted? There were complaints large convicted? There were complaints large convicted? There were complaints large and small, some frivolous and some not and small, some frivolous and some not and small, some frivolous and some not even true. But leading the way was the even true. But leading the way was the even true. But leading the way was the entirely accurate charge of bribery and entirely accurate charge of bribery and entirely accurate charge of bribery and his sacriiggious conduct as console.

his sacriiggious conduct as console. his sacriiggious conduct as console. Now, bribery was pretty common practice Now, bribery was pretty common practice Now, bribery was pretty common practice at the time. So, the further question is at the time. So, the further question is at the time. So, the further question is why was Caesar being singled out? The why was Caesar being singled out? The why was Caesar being singled out? The answer is that bribery was tolerated as answer is that bribery was tolerated as answer is that bribery was tolerated as long as everyone involved exercised a long as everyone involved exercised a long as everyone involved exercised a little discretion. But bribery turned little discretion. But bribery turned little discretion. But bribery turned from accepted under the table practice from accepted under the table practice from accepted under the table practice to scandal when it came out into the to scandal when it came out into the to scandal when it came out into the open. And Caesar didn't even bother to open. And Caesar didn't even bother to open. And Caesar didn't even bother to hide what he was doing. He would brag hide what he was doing. He would brag hide what he was doing. He would brag about not having to worry about this or about not having to worry about this or about not having to worry about this or that because he had paid off a tribune that because he had paid off a tribune that because he had paid off a tribune or an influential senator. It made or an influential senator. It made or an influential senator. It made everyone crazy. No one had clean hands everyone crazy. No one had clean hands everyone crazy. No one had clean hands except for maybe stodgy old Ko. But except for maybe stodgy old Ko. But except for maybe stodgy old Ko. But Caesar was making a mockery of their Caesar was making a mockery of their Caesar was making a mockery of their gentlemanly agreements. This break in gentlemanly agreements. This break in gentlemanly agreements. This break in social custom coupled with the amounts social custom coupled with the amounts social custom coupled with the amounts and extent of his bribery was what made and extent of his bribery was what made and extent of his bribery was what made people want to teach him a lesson. Was people want to teach him a lesson. Was people want to teach him a lesson. Was it selective prosecution? Definitely. it selective prosecution? Definitely. it selective prosecution? Definitely. Did the Senate care about the hypocrisy Did the Senate care about the hypocrisy Did the Senate care about the hypocrisy of it all? Not even a little bit. of it all? Not even a little bit. of it all? Not even a little bit. Caesar's brazen public purchase of the Caesar's brazen public purchase of the Caesar's brazen public purchase of the electoral system threatened to unmask electoral system threatened to unmask electoral system threatened to unmask the democratic facade the oligarchs had the democratic facade the oligarchs had the democratic facade the oligarchs had built around the republic. They had to built around the republic. They had to built around the republic. They had to do do do something. Aside from the bribery issue, something. Aside from the bribery issue, something. Aside from the bribery issue, it was the little matter of the entire it was the little matter of the entire it was the little matter of the entire second half of Caesar's consil ship.

second half of Caesar's consil ship. second half of Caesar's consil ship. You'll recall that Bibilis had devised a You'll recall that Bibilis had devised a You'll recall that Bibilis had devised a clever scheme to stop Caesar's reforms clever scheme to stop Caesar's reforms clever scheme to stop Caesar's reforms by declaring every remaining day of by declaring every remaining day of by declaring every remaining day of their shared consil shship a holy day their shared consil shship a holy day their shared consil shship a holy day and thus close to public business. and thus close to public business. and thus close to public business. You'll also recall that Caesar's You'll also recall that Caesar's You'll also recall that Caesar's reaction to this was to ignore the reaction to this was to ignore the reaction to this was to ignore the decree completely. His attitude was to decree completely. His attitude was to decree completely. His attitude was to get done what he wanted to get done and get done what he wanted to get done and get done what he wanted to get done and worry about the consequences later. worry about the consequences later. worry about the consequences later. Well, now was later, and no one had Well, now was later, and no one had Well, now was later, and no one had forgotten what he had done. By ignoring forgotten what he had done. By ignoring forgotten what he had done. By ignoring the holy days, Caesar had committed acts the holy days, Caesar had committed acts the holy days, Caesar had committed acts that were not just illegal, they were that were not just illegal, they were that were not just illegal, they were sacriiggious. to the highly religious sacriiggious. to the highly religious sacriiggious. to the highly religious Romans. Caesar's blasphemy could not go Romans. Caesar's blasphemy could not go Romans. Caesar's blasphemy could not go unpunished or it would invite the wrath unpunished or it would invite the wrath unpunished or it would invite the wrath of the gods on the entire of the gods on the entire of the gods on the entire empire. So there Caesar is in Gaul, empire. So there Caesar is in Gaul, empire. So there Caesar is in Gaul, hated hated by a pretty good chunk of hated hated by a pretty good chunk of hated hated by a pretty good chunk of the political elite who are going to the political elite who are going to the political elite who are going to prosecute him for things that no one prosecute him for things that no one prosecute him for things that no one could possibly argue he did not do. All could possibly argue he did not do. All could possibly argue he did not do. All he could hope for was leniency, but that he could hope for was leniency, but that he could hope for was leniency, but that hated thing seemed to preclude any hated thing seemed to preclude any hated thing seemed to preclude any chance of that. chance of that. chance of that. So, what's the worst he could expect if So, what's the worst he could expect if So, what's the worst he could expect if he was brought up on charges and found he was brought up on charges and found he was brought up on charges and found guilty? I've looked all over and I can't guilty? I've looked all over and I can't guilty? I've looked all over and I can't find any mention of execution being find any mention of execution being find any mention of execution being considered, and I don't think that even considered, and I don't think that even considered, and I don't think that even Caesar thought it would come to that.

Caesar thought it would come to that. Caesar thought it would come to that. The worst he probably expected was The worst he probably expected was The worst he probably expected was banishment or fines that would send him banishment or fines that would send him banishment or fines that would send him to the poor house. But the worst was not to the poor house. But the worst was not to the poor house. But the worst was not the thing that kept Caesar up at night. the thing that kept Caesar up at night. the thing that kept Caesar up at night. The thing that kept him up at night was The thing that kept him up at night was The thing that kept him up at night was the fairly benol fact that if he was the fairly benol fact that if he was the fairly benol fact that if he was tried and convicted, he would be tried and convicted, he would be tried and convicted, he would be politically marginalized. He had politically marginalized. He had politically marginalized. He had dedicated his life to becoming a man of dedicated his life to becoming a man of dedicated his life to becoming a man of influence, a man of power, the first man influence, a man of power, the first man influence, a man of power, the first man in Rome, and a criminal conviction would in Rome, and a criminal conviction would in Rome, and a criminal conviction would erase all that. In essence, Caesar erase all that. In essence, Caesar erase all that. In essence, Caesar plunged Rome into chaos, violence, and plunged Rome into chaos, violence, and plunged Rome into chaos, violence, and civil war because he was afraid of civil war because he was afraid of civil war because he was afraid of losing his status. As much as there is losing his status. As much as there is losing his status. As much as there is to admire about Caesar, and there is to admire about Caesar, and there is to admire about Caesar, and there is much to admire, we should not forget much to admire, we should not forget much to admire, we should not forget that he was an enormously selfish man that he was an enormously selfish man that he was an enormously selfish man who killed tens of thousands of his who killed tens of thousands of his who killed tens of thousands of his fellow citizens because he did not want fellow citizens because he did not want fellow citizens because he did not want to retire to a life of obscurity. And to retire to a life of obscurity. And to retire to a life of obscurity. And there is nothing much to admire about there is nothing much to admire about there is nothing much to admire about that. So it is in this light that we that. So it is in this light that we that. So it is in this light that we should see Caesar's final reply to the should see Caesar's final reply to the should see Caesar's final reply to the Senate's order in the winter of 50 BC to Senate's order in the winter of 50 BC to Senate's order in the winter of 50 BC to stand down his army. He told them he stand down his army. He told them he stand down his army. He told them he could not comply and that if they forced could not comply and that if they forced could not comply and that if they forced the issue, he would defend his honor by the issue, he would defend his honor by the issue, he would defend his honor by any means necessary. The Senate, even any means necessary. The Senate, even any means necessary. The Senate, even the moderates, were insensed by these the moderates, were insensed by these the moderates, were insensed by these fighting words and felt compelled to fighting words and felt compelled to fighting words and felt compelled to follow through on their threats. Caesar follow through on their threats. Caesar follow through on their threats. Caesar was declared an enemy of the was declared an enemy of the was declared an enemy of the state. In the Senate House that day were state. In the Senate House that day were state. In the Senate House that day were a number of Caesar's supporters who a number of Caesar's supporters who a number of Caesar's supporters who argued loudly that this was unjust and argued loudly that this was unjust and argued loudly that this was unjust and beyond the pale. When the majority moved beyond the pale. When the majority moved beyond the pale. When the majority moved to expel Caesar's allies, one in to expel Caesar's allies, one in to expel Caesar's allies, one in particular raised a tremendous particular raised a tremendous particular raised a tremendous commotion. He had been elected tribune commotion. He had been elected tribune commotion. He had been elected tribune for that year, and when the guards came

for that year, and when the guards came for that year, and when the guards came to remove him and his promised veto, he to remove him and his promised veto, he to remove him and his promised veto, he shouted that he was sacrian, and that to shouted that he was sacrian, and that to shouted that he was sacrian, and that to lay hands on him was to invite the wrath lay hands on him was to invite the wrath lay hands on him was to invite the wrath of the gods. But the senators had heard of the gods. But the senators had heard of the gods. But the senators had heard enough and pitched the troublemaker out enough and pitched the troublemaker out enough and pitched the troublemaker out onto the street. The tribune dusted onto the street. The tribune dusted onto the street. The tribune dusted himself off and immediately headed north himself off and immediately headed north himself off and immediately headed north to Caesar's camp. Upon arrival, Caesar to Caesar's camp. Upon arrival, Caesar to Caesar's camp. Upon arrival, Caesar displayed the tribune's bruises to his displayed the tribune's bruises to his displayed the tribune's bruises to his assembled troops as proof of the assembled troops as proof of the assembled troops as proof of the Senate's evil ways. I fight to defend Senate's evil ways. I fight to defend Senate's evil ways. I fight to defend the people of Rome, he said, while the the people of Rome, he said, while the the people of Rome, he said, while the Senate viciously attacks their Senate viciously attacks their Senate viciously attacks their representatives. Now, of course, the representatives. Now, of course, the representatives. Now, of course, the agrieved tribune in question, a one Mr. agrieved tribune in question, a one Mr. agrieved tribune in question, a one Mr. Marcus Antonius, better known as Mark Marcus Antonius, better known as Mark Marcus Antonius, better known as Mark Anthony, was no great friend of the Anthony, was no great friend of the Anthony, was no great friend of the people, and never had been. He had been people, and never had been. He had been people, and never had been. He had been born into a wealthy Pablan family, and born into a wealthy Pablan family, and born into a wealthy Pablan family, and cared very little for much of anything cared very little for much of anything cared very little for much of anything at all beyond his own base pleasures. He at all beyond his own base pleasures. He at all beyond his own base pleasures. He loved wine, women, and gambling, and had loved wine, women, and gambling, and had loved wine, women, and gambling, and had spent his youth endlessly carousing the spent his youth endlessly carousing the spent his youth endlessly carousing the streets of Rome with his friends, streets of Rome with his friends, streets of Rome with his friends, causing trouble and running up massive causing trouble and running up massive causing trouble and running up massive debts. He seemed destined to spend his debts. He seemed destined to spend his debts. He seemed destined to spend his life as a no account spoiled little rich life as a no account spoiled little rich life as a no account spoiled little rich boy. But as it turned out, he was called boy. But as it turned out, he was called boy. But as it turned out, he was called to Syria to serve in the cavalry and to Syria to serve in the cavalry and to Syria to serve in the cavalry and immediately distinguished himself as one immediately distinguished himself as one immediately distinguished himself as one of the finest officers in the legions.

of the finest officers in the legions. of the finest officers in the legions. He was a crude and reckless disaster in He was a crude and reckless disaster in He was a crude and reckless disaster in his private life, but put a helmet on his private life, but put a helmet on his private life, but put a helmet on him, give him a few men, and point him him, give him a few men, and point him him, give him a few men, and point him at the enemy, and he was able to at the enemy, and he was able to at the enemy, and he was able to accomplish extraordinary accomplish extraordinary accomplish extraordinary things. His mother was first cousins things. His mother was first cousins things. His mother was first cousins with Caesar, and in 54 BC, the young with Caesar, and in 54 BC, the young with Caesar, and in 54 BC, the young officer was attached to the great officer was attached to the great officer was attached to the great general staff in general staff in general staff in Gaul. Though he was almost 20 years Gaul. Though he was almost 20 years Gaul. Though he was almost 20 years Caesar's junior, the two struck up an Caesar's junior, the two struck up an Caesar's junior, the two struck up an immediate friendship. In Antony, Caesar immediate friendship. In Antony, Caesar immediate friendship. In Antony, Caesar seems to have found not just another seems to have found not just another seems to have found not just another accomplice or temporary ally or partner, accomplice or temporary ally or partner, accomplice or temporary ally or partner, but in fact a true friend. Anthony would but in fact a true friend. Anthony would but in fact a true friend. Anthony would spend the next 10 years as Caesar's most spend the next 10 years as Caesar's most spend the next 10 years as Caesar's most trusted commander and a dogged defender trusted commander and a dogged defender trusted commander and a dogged defender of his interest wherever Caesar sent of his interest wherever Caesar sent of his interest wherever Caesar sent him, for example, to Rome to serve as him, for example, to Rome to serve as him, for example, to Rome to serve as tribune in 50 BC. Today, he showed off tribune in 50 BC. Today, he showed off tribune in 50 BC. Today, he showed off his bruises and stirred the troops up his bruises and stirred the troops up his bruises and stirred the troops up into an anti-senatorial frenzy. He knew into an anti-senatorial frenzy. He knew into an anti-senatorial frenzy. He knew his role and he played it his role and he played it his role and he played it well. Having been declared an enemy of well. Having been declared an enemy of well. Having been declared an enemy of the state for refusing to surrender his the state for refusing to surrender his the state for refusing to surrender his army, Caesar knew that it would only be army, Caesar knew that it would only be army, Caesar knew that it would only be a matter of time before Pompy would be a matter of time before Pompy would be a matter of time before Pompy would be ordered north to take him ordered north to take him ordered north to take him out. His only real hope was to out. His only real hope was to out. His only real hope was to audaciously preempt the Senate's audaciously preempt the Senate's audaciously preempt the Senate's inevitable attack by marching straight inevitable attack by marching straight inevitable attack by marching straight for Rome at lightning for Rome at lightning for Rome at lightning speed. Maybe the unexpected invasion speed. Maybe the unexpected invasion speed. Maybe the unexpected invasion would cause enough chaos in the city would cause enough chaos in the city would cause enough chaos in the city that Pompy would find himself unprepared that Pompy would find himself unprepared that Pompy would find himself unprepared for a fight, forcing the old general to for a fight, forcing the old general to for a fight, forcing the old general to strategically withdraw from Rome.

strategically withdraw from Rome. strategically withdraw from Rome. Caesar did not feel he even had time to Caesar did not feel he even had time to Caesar did not feel he even had time to wait for reinforcements from Gaul. So on wait for reinforcements from Gaul. So on wait for reinforcements from Gaul. So on January the 10th, 49 BC, he ordered the January the 10th, 49 BC, he ordered the January the 10th, 49 BC, he ordered the one legion he had on hand, the 13th, to one legion he had on hand, the 13th, to one legion he had on hand, the 13th, to follow him across the tiny Rubicon follow him across the tiny Rubicon follow him across the tiny Rubicon River, which marked the southern border River, which marked the southern border River, which marked the southern border of Sis Alpine Gaul into Italia proper, of Sis Alpine Gaul into Italia proper, of Sis Alpine Gaul into Italia proper, an overt act of an overt act of an overt act of treason. Not only was it illegal for a treason. Not only was it illegal for a treason. Not only was it illegal for a general to lead an army out of the general to lead an army out of the general to lead an army out of the province he governed, it was doubly province he governed, it was doubly province he governed, it was doubly illegal to take an army into the home illegal to take an army into the home illegal to take an army into the home peninsula. peninsula. peninsula. Caesar knew what he was doing when he Caesar knew what he was doing when he Caesar knew what he was doing when he ordered the 13th across, but not what ordered the 13th across, but not what ordered the 13th across, but not what the final outcome of his actions would the final outcome of his actions would the final outcome of his actions would be. Famously, watching his troops wade be. Famously, watching his troops wade be. Famously, watching his troops wade into the river, he said, "The die is into the river, he said, "The die is into the river, he said, "The die is cast." They were all in the hands of cast." They were all in the hands of cast." They were all in the hands of fate now, whatever her fickle verdict fate now, whatever her fickle verdict fate now, whatever her fickle verdict turned out to be. Initiating a civil war turned out to be. Initiating a civil war turned out to be. Initiating a civil war by invading Italy with a single legion by invading Italy with a single legion by invading Italy with a single legion may have been completely nuts, but if may have been completely nuts, but if may have been completely nuts, but if they were all in fate's hands anyways, they were all in fate's hands anyways, they were all in fate's hands anyways, how does the expression go? Fortune how does the expression go? Fortune how does the expression go? Fortune favors the bold. favors the bold. favors the bold. Now, neither Caesar nor the Senate had Now, neither Caesar nor the Senate had Now, neither Caesar nor the Senate had access to Roman history books to tell access to Roman history books to tell access to Roman history books to tell them that Caesar's decision to cross the them that Caesar's decision to cross the them that Caesar's decision to cross the Rubicon would mark the end of the Rubicon would mark the end of the Rubicon would mark the end of the republic and the beginning of the republic and the beginning of the republic and the beginning of the imperium. And we shouldn't ascribe imperium. And we shouldn't ascribe imperium. And we shouldn't ascribe motives to anyone beyond what the motives to anyone beyond what the motives to anyone beyond what the immediate context merits. Even the immediate context merits. Even the immediate context merits. Even the Senate, whose rhetoric clearly signaled Senate, whose rhetoric clearly signaled Senate, whose rhetoric clearly signaled they believed Caesar to be a dire threat they believed Caesar to be a dire threat they believed Caesar to be a dire threat to the Republic, couldn't possibly have to the Republic, couldn't possibly have to the Republic, couldn't possibly have known they would be so known they would be so known they would be so right. The Republic had survived the right. The Republic had survived the right. The Republic had survived the Graei, Marius, and Sulla. Caesar was cut Graei, Marius, and Sulla. Caesar was cut Graei, Marius, and Sulla. Caesar was cut from the same cloth. But had not those from the same cloth. But had not those from the same cloth. But had not those men come and gone while the republic

men come and gone while the republic men come and gone while the republic remained. So yes, Caesar knew when he remained. So yes, Caesar knew when he remained. So yes, Caesar knew when he crossed the river that he was sparking a crossed the river that he was sparking a crossed the river that he was sparking a civil war and that if he was going to civil war and that if he was going to civil war and that if he was going to survive, he was going to have to seize survive, he was going to have to seize survive, he was going to have to seize power, but that he would set a precedent power, but that he would set a precedent power, but that he would set a precedent for 500 years of emperors. Standing for 500 years of emperors. Standing for 500 years of emperors. Standing there on the banks of the Rubicon on there on the banks of the Rubicon on there on the banks of the Rubicon on that cold January morning, Caesar was that cold January morning, Caesar was that cold January morning, Caesar was thinking about how best to approach Rome thinking about how best to approach Rome thinking about how best to approach Rome and what resistance he might face from and what resistance he might face from and what resistance he might face from his fellow countrymen. He was thinking his fellow countrymen. He was thinking his fellow countrymen. He was thinking about his supply lines and whether or about his supply lines and whether or about his supply lines and whether or not to overwhelm Italy or detour to not to overwhelm Italy or detour to not to overwhelm Italy or detour to Spain to cut off Pompy's armies there so Spain to cut off Pompy's armies there so Spain to cut off Pompy's armies there so they couldn't reinforce his opponent. they couldn't reinforce his opponent. they couldn't reinforce his opponent. Was he thinking that in 2,000 years the Was he thinking that in 2,000 years the Was he thinking that in 2,000 years the Russians would be ruled by a Zar and the Russians would be ruled by a Zar and the Russians would be ruled by a Zar and the Germans by a Kaiser? That in the future Germans by a Kaiser? That in the future Germans by a Kaiser? That in the future his name would literally be synonymous his name would literally be synonymous his name would literally be synonymous with autocracy? Probably not. He was with autocracy? Probably not. He was with autocracy? Probably not. He was marching into Italy with but a single marching into Italy with but a single marching into Italy with but a single legion to overthrow the greatest state legion to overthrow the greatest state legion to overthrow the greatest state in the ancient world. He had other in the ancient world. He had other in the ancient world. He had other things on his mind. things on his mind. things on his mind. The reaction in Rome was exactly what The reaction in Rome was exactly what The reaction in Rome was exactly what Caesar hoped it would be. The Senate Caesar hoped it would be. The Senate Caesar hoped it would be. The Senate heard that he was invading and heard that he was invading and heard that he was invading and immediately fell over themselves, immediately fell over themselves, immediately fell over themselves, calling for Pompy to save them. The old calling for Pompy to save them. The old calling for Pompy to save them. The old general had two legions at his disposal.

general had two legions at his disposal. general had two legions at his disposal. But critically, no one seemed to know But critically, no one seemed to know But critically, no one seemed to know how large of a force was marching on how large of a force was marching on how large of a force was marching on Rome. The last time Pompy had checked, Rome. The last time Pompy had checked, Rome. The last time Pompy had checked, Caesar only had the 13th with him. Caesar only had the 13th with him. Caesar only had the 13th with him. Surely, he was not foolish enough to Surely, he was not foolish enough to Surely, he was not foolish enough to invade with just a few thousand men. So, invade with just a few thousand men. So, invade with just a few thousand men. So, it was safe to assume that the outlawed it was safe to assume that the outlawed it was safe to assume that the outlawed general had been general had been general had been reinforced. Pompy's imagination got the reinforced. Pompy's imagination got the reinforced. Pompy's imagination got the better of him as he pictured Caesar better of him as he pictured Caesar better of him as he pictured Caesar coming south at the head of 10 veteran coming south at the head of 10 veteran coming south at the head of 10 veteran legions. It would be suicide to stay in legions. It would be suicide to stay in legions. It would be suicide to stay in Rome. So, Pompy, playing right into Rome. So, Pompy, playing right into Rome. So, Pompy, playing right into Caesar's hands, ordered an immediate Caesar's hands, ordered an immediate Caesar's hands, ordered an immediate withdrawal of the city. He would take withdrawal of the city. He would take withdrawal of the city. He would take his legions and anyone else who cared to his legions and anyone else who cared to his legions and anyone else who cared to come with him to Bundisium, and from come with him to Bundisium, and from come with him to Bundisium, and from there they would sail for Greece. there they would sail for Greece. there they would sail for Greece. The senators were appalled, but Pompy The senators were appalled, but Pompy The senators were appalled, but Pompy calmly explained that the east was where calmly explained that the east was where calmly explained that the east was where he had made his name, and he had a he had made his name, and he had a he had made his name, and he had a string of clients willing to support string of clients willing to support string of clients willing to support their patron at the drop of a hat. their patron at the drop of a hat. their patron at the drop of a hat. Caesar could have Rome for now, but the Caesar could have Rome for now, but the Caesar could have Rome for now, but the occupation would be short-lived. Pompy occupation would be short-lived. Pompy occupation would be short-lived. Pompy would gather a massive army in Greece would gather a massive army in Greece would gather a massive army in Greece and then return to Italy to crush the and then return to Italy to crush the and then return to Italy to crush the upstart. They were welcome to stay in upstart. They were welcome to stay in upstart. They were welcome to stay in Rome and await Caesar's arrival if they Rome and await Caesar's arrival if they Rome and await Caesar's arrival if they wished, but he was going to Greece. The wished, but he was going to Greece. The wished, but he was going to Greece. The Senate, almost to a man, followed. They Senate, almost to a man, followed. They Senate, almost to a man, followed. They didn't even bother to lock the didn't even bother to lock the didn't even bother to lock the gates. On his way south, Caesar found gates. On his way south, Caesar found gates. On his way south, Caesar found most of the Italian towns amenable to most of the Italian towns amenable to most of the Italian towns amenable to his his his approach. This he considered a blessing, approach. This he considered a blessing, approach. This he considered a blessing, as he desperately wanted there to be no as he desperately wanted there to be no as he desperately wanted there to be no resistance resistance resistance whatsoever. Despite the propaganda he whatsoever. Despite the propaganda he whatsoever. Despite the propaganda he was issuing about how he was the victim was issuing about how he was the victim was issuing about how he was the victim and how he was the true defender of the and how he was the true defender of the and how he was the true defender of the people and how he was the republic, he

people and how he was the republic, he people and how he was the republic, he knew full well that he was committing knew full well that he was committing knew full well that he was committing treason. If he was going to skate treason. If he was going to skate treason. If he was going to skate through this, he would need his fellow through this, he would need his fellow through this, he would need his fellow citizens to be complicit in the citizens to be complicit in the citizens to be complicit in the whitewashing of his coup whitewashing of his coup whitewashing of his coup d'eta. The last thing he needed was to d'eta. The last thing he needed was to d'eta. The last thing he needed was to be seen killing and pillaging peaceful be seen killing and pillaging peaceful be seen killing and pillaging peaceful Italian towns. At one point though, a Italian towns. At one point though, a Italian towns. At one point though, a city garrisoned by a conservative city garrisoned by a conservative city garrisoned by a conservative general did attempt to hold out, but general did attempt to hold out, but general did attempt to hold out, but Caesar managed to convince him to Caesar managed to convince him to Caesar managed to convince him to surrender without spilling blood. When surrender without spilling blood. When surrender without spilling blood. When the general and his captains emerged the general and his captains emerged the general and his captains emerged from behind the walls, they fully from behind the walls, they fully from behind the walls, they fully expected to be executed. But Caesar expected to be executed. But Caesar expected to be executed. But Caesar released them, going so far as to tell released them, going so far as to tell released them, going so far as to tell them that they could go join up with them that they could go join up with them that they could go join up with Pompy and continue to fight him if Pompy and continue to fight him if Pompy and continue to fight him if that's what they thought was best. that's what they thought was best. that's what they thought was best. Everyone was shocked by this display of Everyone was shocked by this display of Everyone was shocked by this display of leniency. Caesar didn't even make them leniency. Caesar didn't even make them leniency. Caesar didn't even make them promise not to oppose him in the future. promise not to oppose him in the future. promise not to oppose him in the future. But Caesar knew exactly what he was But Caesar knew exactly what he was But Caesar knew exactly what he was doing. He was weaving a spell of doing. He was weaving a spell of doing. He was weaving a spell of legitimacy around himself, and the spell legitimacy around himself, and the spell legitimacy around himself, and the spell would only work if he didn't give anyone would only work if he didn't give anyone would only work if he didn't give anyone an excuse to point out that he was an excuse to point out that he was an excuse to point out that he was engaged in criminal conquest. There engaged in criminal conquest. There engaged in criminal conquest. There could be no martyrs. He was the friend could be no martyrs. He was the friend could be no martyrs. He was the friend of everyone, even his enemies. It drove of everyone, even his enemies. It drove of everyone, even his enemies. It drove both his friends and enemies crazy. But both his friends and enemies crazy. But both his friends and enemies crazy. But the people caught in the middle would the people caught in the middle would the people caught in the middle would remain on the sidelines as long as remain on the sidelines as long as remain on the sidelines as long as Caesar did nothing to provoke Caesar did nothing to provoke Caesar did nothing to provoke them. With Pompy headed south with a them. With Pompy headed south with a them. With Pompy headed south with a head start, Caesar's main motivation at head start, Caesar's main motivation at head start, Caesar's main motivation at this point was not to make straight for this point was not to make straight for this point was not to make straight for Rome, but rather to march for Bundisium Rome, but rather to march for Bundisium Rome, but rather to march for Bundisium as fast as possible and try to cut off as fast as possible and try to cut off as fast as possible and try to cut off access to the port city. If he could access to the port city. If he could access to the port city. If he could keep Pompy from reaching Greece, he keep Pompy from reaching Greece, he keep Pompy from reaching Greece, he might be able to force a resolution to might be able to force a resolution to might be able to force a resolution to the conflict before the end of the year.

the conflict before the end of the year. the conflict before the end of the year. As the two armies race for Bundisium, As the two armies race for Bundisium, As the two armies race for Bundisium, envoys from both camps travel back and envoys from both camps travel back and envoys from both camps travel back and forth, exchanging proposals and forth, exchanging proposals and forth, exchanging proposals and counterproposals to secure a peace counterproposals to secure a peace counterproposals to secure a peace before things got out of before things got out of before things got out of hand. More than anything, Caesar wanted hand. More than anything, Caesar wanted hand. More than anything, Caesar wanted to meet privately with Pompy. If the two to meet privately with Pompy. If the two to meet privately with Pompy. If the two of them could get together alone, he was of them could get together alone, he was of them could get together alone, he was sure they could hash out a peace. But sure they could hash out a peace. But sure they could hash out a peace. But the Senate was adamant that Pompy not the Senate was adamant that Pompy not the Senate was adamant that Pompy not agree to the terms. They were certain agree to the terms. They were certain agree to the terms. They were certain the dynamic Caesar would convince old the dynamic Caesar would convince old the dynamic Caesar would convince old Pompy to sell out the Senate and renew Pompy to sell out the Senate and renew Pompy to sell out the Senate and renew their previous alliance. All attempts at their previous alliance. All attempts at their previous alliance. All attempts at talk were talk were talk were foiled. Despite Caesar's double-time foiled. Despite Caesar's double-time foiled. Despite Caesar's double-time pace, Pompy reached Bumdissium first and pace, Pompy reached Bumdissium first and pace, Pompy reached Bumdissium first and fortified the city. Caesar arrived not fortified the city. Caesar arrived not fortified the city. Caesar arrived not long after and laid siege, including an long after and laid siege, including an long after and laid siege, including an attempt to blockade the port, but his attempt to blockade the port, but his attempt to blockade the port, but his efforts failed and ships from Greece efforts failed and ships from Greece efforts failed and ships from Greece were able to spirit Pompy and the Senate were able to spirit Pompy and the Senate were able to spirit Pompy and the Senate away. Caesar was now in control of away. Caesar was now in control of away. Caesar was now in control of Italy, but it was a hollow victory. The Italy, but it was a hollow victory. The Italy, but it was a hollow victory. The entire Republican governing apparatus entire Republican governing apparatus entire Republican governing apparatus had fled the peninsula. Even with his had fled the peninsula. Even with his had fled the peninsula. Even with his mastery of propaganda, it would be hard mastery of propaganda, it would be hard mastery of propaganda, it would be hard for Caesar to convince anyone that his for Caesar to convince anyone that his for Caesar to convince anyone that his control of Italy was control of Italy was control of Italy was legitimate. But there was no time to legitimate. But there was no time to legitimate. But there was no time to worry about that now. He wheeled around worry about that now. He wheeled around worry about that now. He wheeled around and headed to Rome, marching into the and headed to Rome, marching into the and headed to Rome, marching into the city in April of 49 city in April of 49 city in April of 49 BC. It was awkward marching his army BC. It was awkward marching his army BC. It was awkward marching his army into the unprotected city. There was no into the unprotected city. There was no into the unprotected city. There was no resistance, but there was also no resistance, but there was also no resistance, but there was also no support. He called a meeting of the support. He called a meeting of the support. He called a meeting of the Senate to plead his case, but it was a Senate to plead his case, but it was a Senate to plead his case, but it was a sparsely attended affair, and those who sparsely attended affair, and those who sparsely attended affair, and those who remained in the city were all beeless remained in the city were all beeless remained in the city were all beeless nobodyies anyway. Everyone that mattered

nobodyies anyway. Everyone that mattered nobodyies anyway. Everyone that mattered was already gone. He received a much was already gone. He received a much was already gone. He received a much more enthusiastic welcome when he more enthusiastic welcome when he more enthusiastic welcome when he addressed the popular assemblies, addressed the popular assemblies, addressed the popular assemblies, promising them cash and grain under his promising them cash and grain under his promising them cash and grain under his administration, but they immediately administration, but they immediately administration, but they immediately turned on him when he looted the public turned on him when he looted the public turned on him when he looted the public treasury to help pay his soldiers. treasury to help pay his soldiers. treasury to help pay his soldiers. To make matters worse, a stubborn To make matters worse, a stubborn To make matters worse, a stubborn tribune had made a point of physically tribune had made a point of physically tribune had made a point of physically standing between Caesar and the treasury standing between Caesar and the treasury standing between Caesar and the treasury doors. After making such a big deal doors. After making such a big deal doors. After making such a big deal about the treatment of Mark Anthony, about the treatment of Mark Anthony, about the treatment of Mark Anthony, Caesar's hypocrisy was in full display Caesar's hypocrisy was in full display Caesar's hypocrisy was in full display as he threatened to kill the obstinate as he threatened to kill the obstinate as he threatened to kill the obstinate tribune if he did not clear a path. tribune if he did not clear a path. tribune if he did not clear a path. After seizing the cash and resupplying After seizing the cash and resupplying After seizing the cash and resupplying his army, Caesar was savvy enough to his army, Caesar was savvy enough to his army, Caesar was savvy enough to know that he best get out of the city know that he best get out of the city know that he best get out of the city before he damaged his standing any more before he damaged his standing any more before he damaged his standing any more than he already had. This was a than he already had. This was a than he already had. This was a political conflict as much as it was a political conflict as much as it was a political conflict as much as it was a military affair, and losing on either military affair, and losing on either military affair, and losing on either front would his long-term goals. front would his long-term goals. front would his long-term goals. Though he had done himself no favors Though he had done himself no favors Though he had done himself no favors with his conduct in Rome, military with his conduct in Rome, military with his conduct in Rome, military victory would go a long way towards victory would go a long way towards victory would go a long way towards solving his political problems. So, solving his political problems. So, solving his political problems. So, leaving Mark Anthony in charge of the leaving Mark Anthony in charge of the leaving Mark Anthony in charge of the city, Caesar led his legions out the city, Caesar led his legions out the city, Caesar led his legions out the gate.

gate. gate. Caesar decided to put off chasing after Caesar decided to put off chasing after Caesar decided to put off chasing after Pompy for now and instead resolved to Pompy for now and instead resolved to Pompy for now and instead resolved to neutralize any support that may come in neutralize any support that may come in neutralize any support that may come in from from from Spain. In an amazing 27 days, Caesar Spain. In an amazing 27 days, Caesar Spain. In an amazing 27 days, Caesar marched his legions from Rome to Spain, marched his legions from Rome to Spain, marched his legions from Rome to Spain, picking up additional forces in Gaul picking up additional forces in Gaul picking up additional forces in Gaul along the way. He entered Hispa with along the way. He entered Hispa with along the way. He entered Hispa with some 30,000 troops, intent on taking the some 30,000 troops, intent on taking the some 30,000 troops, intent on taking the Spanish legions out of the fight before Spanish legions out of the fight before Spanish legions out of the fight before Pompy could figure out how to put them Pompy could figure out how to put them Pompy could figure out how to put them to good use. to good use. to good use. He had expected to meet limited He had expected to meet limited He had expected to meet limited resistance from Pompy's five leaderless resistance from Pompy's five leaderless resistance from Pompy's five leaderless legions, but the commanders left in legions, but the commanders left in legions, but the commanders left in charge had no intention of rowing over charge had no intention of rowing over charge had no intention of rowing over for Caesar. When the two forces met in for Caesar. When the two forces met in for Caesar. When the two forces met in battle briefly for an initial skirmish, battle briefly for an initial skirmish, battle briefly for an initial skirmish, the Pompeian legions showed surprising the Pompeian legions showed surprising the Pompeian legions showed surprising resiliency in the field, throwing back resiliency in the field, throwing back resiliency in the field, throwing back Caesar's men, who had grown accustomed Caesar's men, who had grown accustomed Caesar's men, who had grown accustomed to easy to easy to easy victory. But success in the field would victory. But success in the field would victory. But success in the field would not be enough. The local Spanish tribes not be enough. The local Spanish tribes not be enough. The local Spanish tribes concluded that if they help Caesar win concluded that if they help Caesar win concluded that if they help Caesar win control of the empire, he may repay the control of the empire, he may repay the control of the empire, he may repay the favor by easing the burden of servitude favor by easing the burden of servitude favor by easing the burden of servitude imposed by Rome. The Pompeian forces imposed by Rome. The Pompeian forces imposed by Rome. The Pompeian forces soon found themselves bottled up without soon found themselves bottled up without soon found themselves bottled up without access to allies or access to allies or access to allies or supplies. To prevent any escape, Caesar supplies. To prevent any escape, Caesar supplies. To prevent any escape, Caesar camped his army practically on top of camped his army practically on top of camped his army practically on top of the enemy. And soon soldiers from both the enemy. And soon soldiers from both the enemy. And soon soldiers from both sides began to slip back and forth sides began to slip back and forth sides began to slip back and forth between the opposing camps to drink and between the opposing camps to drink and between the opposing camps to drink and commiserate over what a miserable lot commiserate over what a miserable lot commiserate over what a miserable lot they had all drawn. Fighting fellow they had all drawn. Fighting fellow they had all drawn. Fighting fellow Romans is not why any of them had joined Romans is not why any of them had joined Romans is not why any of them had joined up. In particular, the foot soldiers in up. In particular, the foot soldiers in up. In particular, the foot soldiers in the Pompeian legions were jealous of the Pompeian legions were jealous of the Pompeian legions were jealous of Caesar's men who had grown rich being

Caesar's men who had grown rich being Caesar's men who had grown rich being led by the great general while they led by the great general while they led by the great general while they wasted away supporting a pack of rich wasted away supporting a pack of rich wasted away supporting a pack of rich old men who didn't care about them old men who didn't care about them old men who didn't care about them anyway. anyway. anyway. It didn't help when the Pompeian It didn't help when the Pompeian It didn't help when the Pompeian commanders cracked down hard on the commanders cracked down hard on the commanders cracked down hard on the intermingling while Caesar turned a intermingling while Caesar turned a intermingling while Caesar turned a blind eye to the enemy soldiers drinking blind eye to the enemy soldiers drinking blind eye to the enemy soldiers drinking in his own in his own in his own camp. Soon enough though, the camp. Soon enough though, the camp. Soon enough though, the commanders, out of food and supplies, commanders, out of food and supplies, commanders, out of food and supplies, joined in their soldiers joined in their soldiers joined in their soldiers dissatisfaction. They weren't going to dissatisfaction. They weren't going to dissatisfaction. They weren't going to starve to death defending the honor of a starve to death defending the honor of a starve to death defending the honor of a bunch of senators. They surrendered, and bunch of senators. They surrendered, and bunch of senators. They surrendered, and when Caesar disbanded the defeated when Caesar disbanded the defeated when Caesar disbanded the defeated legions, the vast majority of them legions, the vast majority of them legions, the vast majority of them turned right around and signed up to turned right around and signed up to turned right around and signed up to fight for the man who had just defeated fight for the man who had just defeated fight for the man who had just defeated them. them. them. Stronger than ever, Caesar marched back Stronger than ever, Caesar marched back Stronger than ever, Caesar marched back to to to Italy. When he arrived in Rome this time Italy. When he arrived in Rome this time Italy. When he arrived in Rome this time in December of 49 BC, things went quite in December of 49 BC, things went quite in December of 49 BC, things went quite a bit better. Allies had managed to a bit better. Allies had managed to a bit better. Allies had managed to formalize an appointment to the office formalize an appointment to the office formalize an appointment to the office of dictator, giving Caesar legal powers of dictator, giving Caesar legal powers of dictator, giving Caesar legal powers he had not had previously. he had not had previously. he had not had previously. But unlike Marius and Sullah, who had But unlike Marius and Sullah, who had But unlike Marius and Sullah, who had used their powers to murder their used their powers to murder their used their powers to murder their enemies, Caesar showed amazing enemies, Caesar showed amazing enemies, Caesar showed amazing restraint, turning his attention away restraint, turning his attention away restraint, turning his attention away from revenge and toward the grain supply from revenge and toward the grain supply from revenge and toward the grain supply problems and economic meltdowns that had problems and economic meltdowns that had problems and economic meltdowns that had been caused by the civil been caused by the civil been caused by the civil war. Quickly reorganizing the logistics war. Quickly reorganizing the logistics war. Quickly reorganizing the logistics and finances of the state, Caesar then and finances of the state, Caesar then and finances of the state, Caesar then resigned his dictatorship, declaring his resigned his dictatorship, declaring his resigned his dictatorship, declaring his intention to serve merely as a console, intention to serve merely as a console, intention to serve merely as a console, which he reminded everyone was all he which he reminded everyone was all he which he reminded everyone was all he wanted anyway.

wanted anyway. wanted anyway. The citizens of Rome were amazed and it The citizens of Rome were amazed and it The citizens of Rome were amazed and it did much to repair the damage he had did much to repair the damage he had did much to repair the damage he had done in his first tour through the done in his first tour through the done in his first tour through the city. But he would not be staying in city. But he would not be staying in city. But he would not be staying in Rome for long. Now a console with at Rome for long. Now a console with at Rome for long. Now a console with at least a claim to legitimacy, Caesar least a claim to legitimacy, Caesar least a claim to legitimacy, Caesar headed to Bundisium with seven headed to Bundisium with seven headed to Bundisium with seven legions. Pompy had spent the year legions. Pompy had spent the year legions. Pompy had spent the year gathering a massive international army, gathering a massive international army, gathering a massive international army, and it was a sure bet that come the and it was a sure bet that come the and it was a sure bet that come the spring they would be pouring back across spring they would be pouring back across spring they would be pouring back across the Adriatic. the Adriatic. the Adriatic. Most troubling for Caesar, who knew that Most troubling for Caesar, who knew that Most troubling for Caesar, who knew that his best shot lay in taking the fight to his best shot lay in taking the fight to his best shot lay in taking the fight to Pompy in Greece, was the fact that Pompy Pompy in Greece, was the fact that Pompy Pompy in Greece, was the fact that Pompy had some 600 ships patrolling the had some 600 ships patrolling the had some 600 ships patrolling the Adriatic, an impossible blockade if Adriatic, an impossible blockade if Adriatic, an impossible blockade if Caesar played it by the book, which Caesar played it by the book, which Caesar played it by the book, which clearly stated that he had to wait for clearly stated that he had to wait for clearly stated that he had to wait for spring and that no one sailed a whole spring and that no one sailed a whole spring and that no one sailed a whole army across the Adriatic in winter. So army across the Adriatic in winter. So army across the Adriatic in winter. So Caesar threw the book out and ordered an Caesar threw the book out and ordered an Caesar threw the book out and ordered an unprecedented January unprecedented January unprecedented January crossing. If not for their fanatical crossing. If not for their fanatical crossing. If not for their fanatical loyalty, Caesar may have been faced with loyalty, Caesar may have been faced with loyalty, Caesar may have been faced with a full-blown mutiny. but instead his a full-blown mutiny. but instead his a full-blown mutiny. but instead his soldiers jumped into the crazy plan with soldiers jumped into the crazy plan with soldiers jumped into the crazy plan with relish. Even crazier, Caesar only had relish. Even crazier, Caesar only had relish. Even crazier, Caesar only had enough ships for about half his troops.

enough ships for about half his troops. enough ships for about half his troops. He would have to send one convoy across, He would have to send one convoy across, He would have to send one convoy across, hope it could run the blockade, survive hope it could run the blockade, survive hope it could run the blockade, survive the dangerous seas, and hold a beach the dangerous seas, and hold a beach the dangerous seas, and hold a beach head totally outnumbered in enemy head totally outnumbered in enemy head totally outnumbered in enemy territory. The odds of making it across territory. The odds of making it across territory. The odds of making it across unscathed one time were long, but Caesar unscathed one time were long, but Caesar unscathed one time were long, but Caesar then planned to do it all again a second then planned to do it all again a second then planned to do it all again a second time to bring over the rest of his time to bring over the rest of his time to bring over the rest of his troops. Fortune had better favor the troops. Fortune had better favor the troops. Fortune had better favor the bold. Pompy's fleet, ironically led by bold. Pompy's fleet, ironically led by bold. Pompy's fleet, ironically led by Caesar's old consular rival, Bibilis, Caesar's old consular rival, Bibilis, Caesar's old consular rival, Bibilis, was totally unprepared for the January was totally unprepared for the January was totally unprepared for the January crossing, and Caesar led the first wave crossing, and Caesar led the first wave crossing, and Caesar led the first wave across, intact and across, intact and across, intact and unchallenged. Enraged and embarrassed, unchallenged. Enraged and embarrassed, unchallenged. Enraged and embarrassed, however, Bibilis was wellprepared for however, Bibilis was wellprepared for however, Bibilis was wellprepared for the second wave and prevented them from the second wave and prevented them from the second wave and prevented them from crossing. crossing. crossing. Caesar's old nemesis died not long Caesar's old nemesis died not long Caesar's old nemesis died not long after, and it was remarked that he had after, and it was remarked that he had after, and it was remarked that he had exerted himself so much in the winter exerted himself so much in the winter exerted himself so much in the winter seas that he had literally worked seas that he had literally worked seas that he had literally worked himself to death. But he had left Caesar himself to death. But he had left Caesar himself to death. But he had left Caesar with half an army on the far side of the with half an army on the far side of the with half an army on the far side of the Adriatic, a fine parting gift from a man Adriatic, a fine parting gift from a man Adriatic, a fine parting gift from a man who had for so long been a thorn in who had for so long been a thorn in who had for so long been a thorn in Caesar's Caesar's Caesar's side. We'll leave Caesar there for now, side. We'll leave Caesar there for now, side. We'll leave Caesar there for now, camped in a pyrus with half an army, camped in a pyrus with half an army, camped in a pyrus with half an army, surrounded by enemies. However, as next surrounded by enemies. However, as next surrounded by enemies. However, as next weekend contains both my own birthday weekend contains both my own birthday weekend contains both my own birthday and the soon to be Mrs. History of and the soon to be Mrs. History of and the soon to be Mrs. History of Rome's birthday, it'll be an extra week Rome's birthday, it'll be an extra week Rome's birthday, it'll be an extra week before we get to the final confrontation before we get to the final confrontation before we get to the final confrontation with Pompy at Farsculus. The history of with Pompy at Farsculus. The history of with Pompy at Farsculus. The history of Rome will be back in two weeks for Rome will be back in two weeks for Rome will be back in two weeks for Caesar's final victory over the Senate Caesar's final victory over the Senate Caesar's final victory over the Senate and his return to Rome as the sole and his return to Rome as the sole and his return to Rome as the sole master of the greatest empire in the master of the greatest empire in the master of the greatest empire in the world.

world. world. [Music] Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Rome. Episode 44, Caesar Rome. Episode 44, Caesar Rome. Episode 44, Caesar triumphant. Last time we left Caesar in triumphant. Last time we left Caesar in triumphant. Last time we left Caesar in a somewhat precarious position. Sorry a somewhat precarious position. Sorry a somewhat precarious position. Sorry about that, Caesar. On the far side of about that, Caesar. On the far side of about that, Caesar. On the far side of the Adriatic with only half his army. the Adriatic with only half his army. the Adriatic with only half his army. The rest of Caesar's men had been turned The rest of Caesar's men had been turned The rest of Caesar's men had been turned back by the naval blockade led by back by the naval blockade led by back by the naval blockade led by Bibilis, who died denying the second Bibilis, who died denying the second Bibilis, who died denying the second half of his old enemy's army an easy half of his old enemy's army an easy half of his old enemy's army an easy crossing. Pompy, with his wells supplied crossing. Pompy, with his wells supplied crossing. Pompy, with his wells supplied and much larger army, now numbering some and much larger army, now numbering some and much larger army, now numbering some 45,000, humming along nicely, he made no 45,000, humming along nicely, he made no 45,000, humming along nicely, he made no attempt to attack Caesar right away, attempt to attack Caesar right away, attempt to attack Caesar right away, even with the latter's army at half even with the latter's army at half even with the latter's army at half strength. He knew that Caesar was in a strength. He knew that Caesar was in a strength. He knew that Caesar was in a rotten position and would soon discover rotten position and would soon discover rotten position and would soon discover that food for his men and horses would that food for his men and horses would that food for his men and horses would be hard to come by in this hostile be hard to come by in this hostile be hard to come by in this hostile country. Let the rebels starve. Best country. Let the rebels starve. Best country. Let the rebels starve. Best case scenario, they eventually case scenario, they eventually case scenario, they eventually surrendered and no more Roman blood is surrendered and no more Roman blood is surrendered and no more Roman blood is spilled. Worst case scenario, they spilled. Worst case scenario, they spilled. Worst case scenario, they refuse to give up and Pompy's well-fed refuse to give up and Pompy's well-fed refuse to give up and Pompy's well-fed army crushes Caesar's exhausted and army crushes Caesar's exhausted and army crushes Caesar's exhausted and starving troops. The smart play was starving troops. The smart play was starving troops. The smart play was definitely to wait.

definitely to wait. definitely to wait. The contrasting styles of the two The contrasting styles of the two The contrasting styles of the two generals could not be more apparent generals could not be more apparent generals could not be more apparent during the coming campaign in Greece. during the coming campaign in Greece. during the coming campaign in Greece. Pompy was careful, methodical, and well Pompy was careful, methodical, and well Pompy was careful, methodical, and well organized. He had no need to take risks organized. He had no need to take risks organized. He had no need to take risks because time and numbers were both on because time and numbers were both on because time and numbers were both on his side. Caesar, on the other hand, was his side. Caesar, on the other hand, was his side. Caesar, on the other hand, was flying by the seat of his pants, making flying by the seat of his pants, making flying by the seat of his pants, making it up as he went, and taking wild risks it up as he went, and taking wild risks it up as he went, and taking wild risks every step of the way. I think 99 times every step of the way. I think 99 times every step of the way. I think 99 times out of a 100red, the Pompy model beats out of a 100red, the Pompy model beats out of a 100red, the Pompy model beats the Caesar model. But every so often, the Caesar model. But every so often, the Caesar model. But every so often, that one shot pops up. Caesar may have that one shot pops up. Caesar may have that one shot pops up. Caesar may have been one of the most brilliant generals been one of the most brilliant generals been one of the most brilliant generals of the ancient world, but he was also, of the ancient world, but he was also, of the ancient world, but he was also, by his own admission, one of the by his own admission, one of the by his own admission, one of the luckiest. This luck was well on display luckiest. This luck was well on display luckiest. This luck was well on display when the two armies finally did meet at when the two armies finally did meet at when the two armies finally did meet at Durium in May of 48 BC. In the months Durium in May of 48 BC. In the months Durium in May of 48 BC. In the months after his landing, Caesar used every after his landing, Caesar used every after his landing, Caesar used every channel he could think of to secure a channel he could think of to secure a channel he could think of to secure a truce with Pompy. from the highest truce with Pompy. from the highest truce with Pompy. from the highest diplomatic overtures to sending diplomatic overtures to sending diplomatic overtures to sending legionnaires to the outskirts of Pompy's legionnaires to the outskirts of Pompy's legionnaires to the outskirts of Pompy's camp to try and get the foot soldiers on camp to try and get the foot soldiers on camp to try and get the foot soldiers on both sides to agree that fighting each both sides to agree that fighting each both sides to agree that fighting each other was other was other was crazy. Caesar pursued peace not only crazy. Caesar pursued peace not only crazy. Caesar pursued peace not only because he wanted to build the case that because he wanted to build the case that because he wanted to build the case that he was not the aggressor, but he was he was not the aggressor, but he was he was not the aggressor, but he was also in no position to actually, you also in no position to actually, you also in no position to actually, you know, win a battle. It was this latter know, win a battle. It was this latter know, win a battle. It was this latter fact that kept Pompy in the Senate from fact that kept Pompy in the Senate from fact that kept Pompy in the Senate from taking Caesar's overtures too taking Caesar's overtures too taking Caesar's overtures too seriously. So, as the winner slogged on, seriously. So, as the winner slogged on, seriously. So, as the winner slogged on, things were not looking good for Caesar.

things were not looking good for Caesar. things were not looking good for Caesar. Not only were his men struggling on a Not only were his men struggling on a Not only were his men struggling on a subsistence diet, but he began to subsistence diet, but he began to subsistence diet, but he began to suspect that his allies in Italy were suspect that his allies in Italy were suspect that his allies in Italy were intentionally delaying the launch of the intentionally delaying the launch of the intentionally delaying the launch of the reinforcements Bibilis had turned back. reinforcements Bibilis had turned back. reinforcements Bibilis had turned back. Had he been betrayed? Had he foolishly Had he been betrayed? Had he foolishly Had he been betrayed? Had he foolishly rushed into his own destruction? A man rushed into his own destruction? A man rushed into his own destruction? A man of action, Caesar was unable to hold of action, Caesar was unable to hold of action, Caesar was unable to hold still and even attempted to cross back still and even attempted to cross back still and even attempted to cross back across the winter Adriatic Sea to fetch across the winter Adriatic Sea to fetch across the winter Adriatic Sea to fetch his missing troops, but was turned back his missing troops, but was turned back his missing troops, but was turned back by a storm. He was left brood in his by a storm. He was left brood in his by a storm. He was left brood in his tent, racked with doubts about his tent, racked with doubts about his tent, racked with doubts about his position and his own position and his own position and his own abilities. But just as he was beginning abilities. But just as he was beginning abilities. But just as he was beginning to lose heart, Mark Anthony lit a fire to lose heart, Mark Anthony lit a fire to lose heart, Mark Anthony lit a fire under the legions waiting in Brundium under the legions waiting in Brundium under the legions waiting in Brundium and led them boldly across the and led them boldly across the and led them boldly across the Adriatic. Anthony may have been crass, Adriatic. Anthony may have been crass, Adriatic. Anthony may have been crass, vulgar, and an unrepentant hedonist. But vulgar, and an unrepentant hedonist. But vulgar, and an unrepentant hedonist. But he was nothing if not a brilliant he was nothing if not a brilliant he was nothing if not a brilliant soldier and Caesar's most loyal captain. soldier and Caesar's most loyal captain. soldier and Caesar's most loyal captain. There was no way he was going to hang There was no way he was going to hang There was no way he was going to hang his general out to dry, even if more his general out to dry, even if more his general out to dry, even if more than a few people had whispered in his than a few people had whispered in his than a few people had whispered in his ear that he ought to do just that. When ear that he ought to do just that. When ear that he ought to do just that. When the spring came, the reinforcements the spring came, the reinforcements the spring came, the reinforcements linked up with Caesar, bringing his linked up with Caesar, bringing his linked up with Caesar, bringing his numbers up to a respectable numbers up to a respectable numbers up to a respectable 15,000. Now at full strength, and with 15,000. Now at full strength, and with 15,000. Now at full strength, and with Anthony at his side, Caesar felt Anthony at his side, Caesar felt Anthony at his side, Caesar felt confident about taking the fight to confident about taking the fight to confident about taking the fight to Pompy.

Pompy. Pompy. By May, the Republic's army was camped By May, the Republic's army was camped By May, the Republic's army was camped just south of Durkium, a port city which just south of Durkium, a port city which just south of Durkium, a port city which lay directly across the Adriatic from lay directly across the Adriatic from lay directly across the Adriatic from Misium in modern Misium in modern Misium in modern Albania. In the dating for the rest of Albania. In the dating for the rest of Albania. In the dating for the rest of the war, I'm going to use the month the the war, I'm going to use the month the the war, I'm going to use the month the battles actually took place in rather battles actually took place in rather battles actually took place in rather than the recorded historical dates. In than the recorded historical dates. In than the recorded historical dates. In just a few years, Caesar will reset the just a few years, Caesar will reset the just a few years, Caesar will reset the Roman calendar to reflect the drift Roman calendar to reflect the drift Roman calendar to reflect the drift caused by centuries of missing leap caused by centuries of missing leap caused by centuries of missing leap days. So the battle of Durkium which was days. So the battle of Durkium which was days. So the battle of Durkium which was recorded to have taken place in July recorded to have taken place in July recorded to have taken place in July actually took place in actually took place in actually took place in midmay just as Farsculus really took midmay just as Farsculus really took midmay just as Farsculus really took place in June not August. The difference place in June not August. The difference place in June not August. The difference in dates may seem trivial but to in dates may seem trivial but to in dates may seem trivial but to understand Pompy's hope that he would be understand Pompy's hope that he would be understand Pompy's hope that he would be able to starve Caesar into submission able to starve Caesar into submission able to starve Caesar into submission you have to understand that everything you have to understand that everything you have to understand that everything took place before the harvest season not took place before the harvest season not took place before the harvest season not after it as the misaligned old calendar after it as the misaligned old calendar after it as the misaligned old calendar implied. So in May of 48 BC, Pompy was implied. So in May of 48 BC, Pompy was implied. So in May of 48 BC, Pompy was camped in a strong position with the sea camped in a strong position with the sea camped in a strong position with the sea and a link to endless supplies at his and a link to endless supplies at his and a link to endless supplies at his back, surrounded by steep hills. No back, surrounded by steep hills. No back, surrounded by steep hills. No direct assault was possible. So Caesar direct assault was possible. So Caesar direct assault was possible. So Caesar decided to try to recreate some of his decided to try to recreate some of his decided to try to recreate some of his success at Alicia and hem Pompy in. He success at Alicia and hem Pompy in. He success at Alicia and hem Pompy in. He ordered the same men who had built him a ordered the same men who had built him a ordered the same men who had built him a bridge across the Rine in 10 days to bridge across the Rine in 10 days to bridge across the Rine in 10 days to build him a wall in a giant ark, build him a wall in a giant ark, build him a wall in a giant ark, starting at the sea north of Pompy's starting at the sea north of Pompy's starting at the sea north of Pompy's camp, running up and down the hills to camp, running up and down the hills to camp, running up and down the hills to the east and then wrapping back around the east and then wrapping back around the east and then wrapping back around and connecting to the Adriatic in the and connecting to the Adriatic in the and connecting to the Adriatic in the south. He may not be able to prevent south. He may not be able to prevent south. He may not be able to prevent Pompy's access to food, but the wall Pompy's access to food, but the wall Pompy's access to food, but the wall would cut off his access to fresh water would cut off his access to fresh water would cut off his access to fresh water and the critical pasture land Pompy's and the critical pasture land Pompy's and the critical pasture land Pompy's cavalry needed to feed their cavalry needed to feed their cavalry needed to feed their horses. Pompy responded by building his

horses. Pompy responded by building his horses. Pompy responded by building his own parallel wall and trench system to own parallel wall and trench system to own parallel wall and trench system to keep Caesar's forces out in case they keep Caesar's forces out in case they keep Caesar's forces out in case they tried an open assault. Caesar notes in tried an open assault. Caesar notes in tried an open assault. Caesar notes in his commentaries on the civil wars that his commentaries on the civil wars that his commentaries on the civil wars that the two generals were essentially the two generals were essentially the two generals were essentially inventing entirely new ways to wage war inventing entirely new ways to wage war inventing entirely new ways to wage war as they went along. as they went along. as they went along. The ensuing weeks of siege and The ensuing weeks of siege and The ensuing weeks of siege and skirmishes fought in the no man's land skirmishes fought in the no man's land skirmishes fought in the no man's land between the two walls has often been between the two walls has often been between the two walls has often been compared to the modern trench warfare of compared to the modern trench warfare of compared to the modern trench warfare of World War I rather than a classical era World War I rather than a classical era World War I rather than a classical era infantry battle. Men would launch infantry battle. Men would launch infantry battle. Men would launch themselves over their respective walls themselves over their respective walls themselves over their respective walls and attack only to be repulsed by the and attack only to be repulsed by the and attack only to be repulsed by the superior defenses they assaulted. They superior defenses they assaulted. They superior defenses they assaulted. They would then return to the safety of their would then return to the safety of their would then return to the safety of their own walls and the whole bloody drama own walls and the whole bloody drama own walls and the whole bloody drama would be played out in reverse. would be played out in reverse. would be played out in reverse. The stalemate was broken when a few GIC The stalemate was broken when a few GIC The stalemate was broken when a few GIC officers defected to Pompy and brought officers defected to Pompy and brought officers defected to Pompy and brought with them information about the weak with them information about the weak with them information about the weak points in Caesar's wall. Pompy may have points in Caesar's wall. Pompy may have points in Caesar's wall. Pompy may have run his side of the war as run his side of the war as run his side of the war as conservatively as possible, but he could conservatively as possible, but he could conservatively as possible, but he could not ignore this opportunity. He pointed not ignore this opportunity. He pointed not ignore this opportunity. He pointed his men at the spots identified by the his men at the spots identified by the his men at the spots identified by the defectors and attacked immediately.

defectors and attacked immediately. defectors and attacked immediately. Caesar tried to plug the hole but failed Caesar tried to plug the hole but failed Caesar tried to plug the hole but failed miserably. He lost some thousand troops miserably. He lost some thousand troops miserably. He lost some thousand troops in the fighting and was forced to in the fighting and was forced to in the fighting and was forced to abandon his wall and retreat. abandon his wall and retreat. abandon his wall and retreat. But what initiative Pompy had shown by But what initiative Pompy had shown by But what initiative Pompy had shown by attacking was immediately negated by his attacking was immediately negated by his attacking was immediately negated by his hesitancy to pursue Caesar's fleeting hesitancy to pursue Caesar's fleeting hesitancy to pursue Caesar's fleeting army. The old general let Caesar's army. The old general let Caesar's army. The old general let Caesar's reputation for cleverness trip him up, reputation for cleverness trip him up, reputation for cleverness trip him up, and he convinced himself that Caesar was and he convinced himself that Caesar was and he convinced himself that Caesar was trying to lure him into a trap by trying to lure him into a trap by trying to lure him into a trap by running away. But there was no trap, running away. But there was no trap, running away. But there was no trap, just a pack of disorganized troops just a pack of disorganized troops just a pack of disorganized troops running away after getting their pants running away after getting their pants running away after getting their pants beat off. Collecting himself far inland, beat off. Collecting himself far inland, beat off. Collecting himself far inland, Caesar was amazed that he had managed to Caesar was amazed that he had managed to Caesar was amazed that he had managed to escape the day in one piece. He escape the day in one piece. He escape the day in one piece. He commented to one of his officers. Today commented to one of his officers. Today commented to one of his officers. Today the victory had been the enemies had the victory had been the enemies had the victory had been the enemies had there been anyone among them to gain there been anyone among them to gain there been anyone among them to gain it. Caesar regrouped his army and it. Caesar regrouped his army and it. Caesar regrouped his army and marched inland trying to put some marched inland trying to put some marched inland trying to put some distance between himself and Pompy. He distance between himself and Pompy. He distance between himself and Pompy. He had been badly shaken by the defeat at had been badly shaken by the defeat at had been badly shaken by the defeat at Durkium, but the fight had by no means Durkium, but the fight had by no means Durkium, but the fight had by no means gone out of him or his gone out of him or his gone out of him or his men. Some in the senatorial camp urged men. Some in the senatorial camp urged men. Some in the senatorial camp urged Pompy to now make straightaway for Italy Pompy to now make straightaway for Italy Pompy to now make straightaway for Italy and retake Rome. But Pompy wisely and retake Rome. But Pompy wisely and retake Rome. But Pompy wisely understood that this was not a battle of understood that this was not a battle of understood that this was not a battle of territory. This was a battle of will.

territory. This was a battle of will. territory. This was a battle of will. The objective was not to control Rome. The objective was not to control Rome. The objective was not to control Rome. It was to defeat Caesar. Anything less It was to defeat Caesar. Anything less It was to defeat Caesar. Anything less would be a false summit on the way up would be a false summit on the way up would be a false summit on the way up the mountain. By June, Caesar had been the mountain. By June, Caesar had been the mountain. By June, Caesar had been chased across northern Greece and was chased across northern Greece and was chased across northern Greece and was encamped near the town of Farselus in Thessaly. He now had about 20,000 troops Thessaly. He now had about 20,000 troops all told, stronger than he had been. but all told, stronger than he had been. but all told, stronger than he had been. but numerically no match for the 45,000 numerically no match for the 45,000 numerically no match for the 45,000 Pompy had encamped 5 miles to the Pompy had encamped 5 miles to the Pompy had encamped 5 miles to the northwest. At Farsculus, Pompy held the northwest. At Farsculus, Pompy held the northwest. At Farsculus, Pompy held the high ground and all the advantages of high ground and all the advantages of high ground and all the advantages of being in friendly country, and so was being in friendly country, and so was being in friendly country, and so was content to starve Caesar into content to starve Caesar into content to starve Caesar into submission. But he was surrounded by the submission. But he was surrounded by the submission. But he was surrounded by the Senate in exile, who pressed Pompy to Senate in exile, who pressed Pompy to Senate in exile, who pressed Pompy to attack and end the war once and for all. attack and end the war once and for all. attack and end the war once and for all. Every day, Caesar would march his army Every day, Caesar would march his army Every day, Caesar would march his army out onto the plane to offer battle, out onto the plane to offer battle, out onto the plane to offer battle, desperate for a conclusive fight. But desperate for a conclusive fight. But desperate for a conclusive fight. But Pompy would always Pompy would always Pompy would always decline. After a few days of light decline. After a few days of light decline. After a few days of light skirmishes, though, he finally gave into skirmishes, though, he finally gave into skirmishes, though, he finally gave into pressure from the Senate and marched out pressure from the Senate and marched out pressure from the Senate and marched out in full force. He may have had in full force. He may have had in full force. He may have had misgivings about whether it was a good misgivings about whether it was a good misgivings about whether it was a good idea, but if it was a battle the Senate idea, but if it was a battle the Senate idea, but if it was a battle the Senate and Caesar wanted, a battle is what they and Caesar wanted, a battle is what they and Caesar wanted, a battle is what they would would would get. The Senate was overjoyed as they get. The Senate was overjoyed as they get. The Senate was overjoyed as they looked past the battle to a post Caesar looked past the battle to a post Caesar looked past the battle to a post Caesar world. They argued in their tents about world. They argued in their tents about world. They argued in their tents about who would become Ponteffects Maximus, who would become Ponteffects Maximus, who would become Ponteffects Maximus, who would be console in the next year, who would be console in the next year, who would be console in the next year, how Caesar's estates would be divided, how Caesar's estates would be divided, how Caesar's estates would be divided, everything, it seemed, but the battle everything, it seemed, but the battle everything, it seemed, but the battle itself. Caesar was not so itself. Caesar was not so itself. Caesar was not so distracted. The two armies were lined up distracted. The two armies were lined up distracted. The two armies were lined up with a river on Caesar's left and

with a river on Caesar's left and with a river on Caesar's left and Pompy's right, making any attempt to Pompy's right, making any attempt to Pompy's right, making any attempt to flank the other on that front a flank the other on that front a flank the other on that front a non-starter. So, both commanders looked non-starter. So, both commanders looked non-starter. So, both commanders looked to Caesar's right as the center of the to Caesar's right as the center of the to Caesar's right as the center of the action. action. action. Pompy masked all his cavalry on that Pompy masked all his cavalry on that Pompy masked all his cavalry on that flank and intended to smash through flank and intended to smash through flank and intended to smash through Caesar's weaker horsemen and then Caesar's weaker horsemen and then Caesar's weaker horsemen and then surround the small army. But Caesar surround the small army. But Caesar surround the small army. But Caesar immediately understood what Pompy's immediately understood what Pompy's immediately understood what Pompy's deployment meant and peeled off a cohort deployment meant and peeled off a cohort deployment meant and peeled off a cohort of men from each of his three lines and of men from each of his three lines and of men from each of his three lines and angled them as a fourth line as backup angled them as a fourth line as backup angled them as a fourth line as backup for his for his for his cavalry. He deployed this fourth line cavalry. He deployed this fourth line cavalry. He deployed this fourth line under cover of dust and the marching of under cover of dust and the marching of under cover of dust and the marching of his light skirmishers so Pompy would not his light skirmishers so Pompy would not his light skirmishers so Pompy would not realize the additional wall of infantry realize the additional wall of infantry realize the additional wall of infantry existed. existed. existed. The battle began when Caesar ordered his The battle began when Caesar ordered his The battle began when Caesar ordered his first line in a frontal assault on first line in a frontal assault on first line in a frontal assault on Pompy's infantry, but Pompy had ordered Pompy's infantry, but Pompy had ordered Pompy's infantry, but Pompy had ordered his own troops to stand his own troops to stand his own troops to stand fast. Standard tactics of the day fast. Standard tactics of the day fast. Standard tactics of the day dictated that both sides should run dictated that both sides should run dictated that both sides should run headlong at each other and meet headlong at each other and meet headlong at each other and meet somewhere in the middle. But Pompy's somewhere in the middle. But Pompy's somewhere in the middle. But Pompy's plan was to force Caesar's veteran plan was to force Caesar's veteran plan was to force Caesar's veteran fighters to run the whole way, giving fighters to run the whole way, giving fighters to run the whole way, giving his own less experienced troops a slight his own less experienced troops a slight his own less experienced troops a slight advantage. But that veteran experience advantage. But that veteran experience advantage. But that veteran experience did not just mean they were better did not just mean they were better did not just mean they were better fighters. It also meant that they were fighters. It also meant that they were fighters. It also meant that they were more disciplined. When Caesar saw more disciplined. When Caesar saw more disciplined. When Caesar saw Pompy's troops staying put, he signaled Pompy's troops staying put, he signaled Pompy's troops staying put, he signaled his centurions to halt the charge just his centurions to halt the charge just his centurions to halt the charge just short of spear range to catch their short of spear range to catch their short of spear range to catch their breath. It is no small thing to halt the breath. It is no small thing to halt the breath. It is no small thing to halt the charge of an entire army when you've charge of an entire army when you've charge of an entire army when you've just whipped them into a murderous just whipped them into a murderous just whipped them into a murderous frenzy. But Caesar had trained his men frenzy. But Caesar had trained his men frenzy. But Caesar had trained his men well. When he said stop, they stopped.

well. When he said stop, they stopped. well. When he said stop, they stopped. Only when they were sufficiently rested Only when they were sufficiently rested Only when they were sufficiently rested from their sprint did Caesar give the from their sprint did Caesar give the from their sprint did Caesar give the order to close the final distance. Just order to close the final distance. Just order to close the final distance. Just like that, his men turned back on the like that, his men turned back on the like that, his men turned back on the murderous frenzy and threw themselves murderous frenzy and threw themselves murderous frenzy and threw themselves against Pompy's line. The Battle of against Pompy's line. The Battle of against Pompy's line. The Battle of Farselus had Farselus had Farselus had begun. With the two infantries engaged, begun. With the two infantries engaged, begun. With the two infantries engaged, Pompy ordered his cavalry to break Pompy ordered his cavalry to break Pompy ordered his cavalry to break through according to the plan. They had through according to the plan. They had through according to the plan. They had no problem driving off Caesar's smaller no problem driving off Caesar's smaller no problem driving off Caesar's smaller cavalry. But when they cleared out the cavalry. But when they cleared out the cavalry. But when they cleared out the enemy horse, they suddenly found enemy horse, they suddenly found enemy horse, they suddenly found themselves confronted with an unexpected themselves confronted with an unexpected themselves confronted with an unexpected line of Caesar's heavy infantry. This line of Caesar's heavy infantry. This line of Caesar's heavy infantry. This time it was Caesar's turn to defy time it was Caesar's turn to defy time it was Caesar's turn to defy convention. Usually when confronted by convention. Usually when confronted by convention. Usually when confronted by charging cavalry, infantry men would charging cavalry, infantry men would charging cavalry, infantry men would hurl their spears and then try to hack hurl their spears and then try to hack hurl their spears and then try to hack at the legs of the riders with their at the legs of the riders with their at the legs of the riders with their short swords. But Caesar ordered his men short swords. But Caesar ordered his men short swords. But Caesar ordered his men to hold on to their spears and use those to hold on to their spears and use those to hold on to their spears and use those to attack the heads of the riders. to attack the heads of the riders. to attack the heads of the riders. Totally surprised by this new tactic, Totally surprised by this new tactic, Totally surprised by this new tactic, Pompy's cavalry was completely thrown Pompy's cavalry was completely thrown Pompy's cavalry was completely thrown off and pulled up short, trying to avoid off and pulled up short, trying to avoid off and pulled up short, trying to avoid being stabbed in the face by spears. In being stabbed in the face by spears. In being stabbed in the face by spears. In just a few minutes, Caesar's fourth line just a few minutes, Caesar's fourth line just a few minutes, Caesar's fourth line had scattered the charging cavalry, and had scattered the charging cavalry, and had scattered the charging cavalry, and as soon as they had, the battle was as as soon as they had, the battle was as as soon as they had, the battle was as good as over. The fourth line charged good as over. The fourth line charged good as over. The fourth line charged forward and was able to sweep around forward and was able to sweep around forward and was able to sweep around behind Pompy's infantry. The siege now behind Pompy's infantry. The siege now behind Pompy's infantry. The siege now on two fronts, Pompy's less experienced on two fronts, Pompy's less experienced on two fronts, Pompy's less experienced troops panicked, and the decisive battle troops panicked, and the decisive battle troops panicked, and the decisive battle of the Civil War turned quickly from of the Civil War turned quickly from of the Civil War turned quickly from titanic struggle for the future of Rome titanic struggle for the future of Rome titanic struggle for the future of Rome to complete an utter route.

to complete an utter route. to complete an utter route. Pompy himself seems to have snapped Pompy himself seems to have snapped Pompy himself seems to have snapped mentally when he saw his cavalry mentally when he saw his cavalry mentally when he saw his cavalry shattered and fled the battlefield, shattered and fled the battlefield, shattered and fled the battlefield, leaving his army to fend for leaving his army to fend for leaving his army to fend for itself. Seeing Pompy run ended any itself. Seeing Pompy run ended any itself. Seeing Pompy run ended any notion that the day might somehow be notion that the day might somehow be notion that the day might somehow be salvaged, and it soon became every man salvaged, and it soon became every man salvaged, and it soon became every man for himself. Senators, who had just that for himself. Senators, who had just that for himself. Senators, who had just that morning been splitting up the inevitable morning been splitting up the inevitable morning been splitting up the inevitable spoils of victory, now scattered in spoils of victory, now scattered in spoils of victory, now scattered in every direction. every direction. every direction. Caesar himself did not linger over his Caesar himself did not linger over his Caesar himself did not linger over his victory in the field and immediately victory in the field and immediately victory in the field and immediately charged for Pompy's camp, hoping he charged for Pompy's camp, hoping he charged for Pompy's camp, hoping he could catch his defeated rival and could catch his defeated rival and could catch his defeated rival and finalize an official finalize an official finalize an official peace. But despite his speed, he could peace. But despite his speed, he could peace. But despite his speed, he could not get there in time. Pompy had not get there in time. Pompy had not get there in time. Pompy had gathered up his family, who had been gathered up his family, who had been gathered up his family, who had been with him since his flight from Rome and with him since his flight from Rome and with him since his flight from Rome and abandoned the camp. He loaded up as much abandoned the camp. He loaded up as much abandoned the camp. He loaded up as much gold as he could, but was forced to gold as he could, but was forced to gold as he could, but was forced to leave behind most of his possessions. leave behind most of his possessions. leave behind most of his possessions. When word came that Caesar was headed When word came that Caesar was headed When word came that Caesar was headed straight for him, he went so far as to straight for him, he went so far as to straight for him, he went so far as to throw off his general's cloak and throw off his general's cloak and throw off his general's cloak and disguise himself as a common camp disguise himself as a common camp disguise himself as a common camp follower to avoid follower to avoid follower to avoid capture. Pompy Magnus, who had fought capture. Pompy Magnus, who had fought capture. Pompy Magnus, who had fought his whole career for honor and glory, his whole career for honor and glory, his whole career for honor and glory, was reduced by defeat to a pathetic was reduced by defeat to a pathetic was reduced by defeat to a pathetic shadow of his former self, abandoning shadow of his former self, abandoning shadow of his former self, abandoning his troops and running for his his troops and running for his his troops and running for his life. But maybe that's too harsh. It was life. But maybe that's too harsh. It was life. But maybe that's too harsh. It was not for nothing that Pompy fled for not for nothing that Pompy fled for not for nothing that Pompy fled for Egypt, and not for nothing that he made Egypt, and not for nothing that he made Egypt, and not for nothing that he made sure he took with him as much gold as he sure he took with him as much gold as he sure he took with him as much gold as he could. The Senate had an ally in King could. The Senate had an ally in King could. The Senate had an ally in King Juba of Numidia, and Pompy's plan was Juba of Numidia, and Pompy's plan was Juba of Numidia, and Pompy's plan was likely to gather another army in North likely to gather another army in North likely to gather another army in North Africa, where allies of Caesar had just Africa, where allies of Caesar had just Africa, where allies of Caesar had just been defeated in that subtheat of the

been defeated in that subtheat of the been defeated in that subtheat of the greater civil greater civil greater civil war. But it was not to be. Court war. But it was not to be. Court war. But it was not to be. Court ministers in Alexandria, the capital of ministers in Alexandria, the capital of ministers in Alexandria, the capital of Egypt, learned that Pompy was headed Egypt, learned that Pompy was headed Egypt, learned that Pompy was headed their way and resolved to curry favor their way and resolved to curry favor their way and resolved to curry favor with Caesar by assassinating his enemy. with Caesar by assassinating his enemy. with Caesar by assassinating his enemy. When Pompy arrived at the Egyptian When Pompy arrived at the Egyptian When Pompy arrived at the Egyptian coast, he was greeted by a small skiff coast, he was greeted by a small skiff coast, he was greeted by a small skiff that was to take him to shore. But as that was to take him to shore. But as that was to take him to shore. But as soon as he was on board and separated soon as he was on board and separated soon as he was on board and separated from his bodyguards, the Egyptian from his bodyguards, the Egyptian from his bodyguards, the Egyptian welcoming party attacked. They stabbed welcoming party attacked. They stabbed welcoming party attacked. They stabbed Pompy repeatedly, murdering him there on Pompy repeatedly, murdering him there on Pompy repeatedly, murdering him there on the shores of Egypt. the second triumph the shores of Egypt. the second triumph the shores of Egypt. the second triumph to meet a violent end after a life spent to meet a violent end after a life spent to meet a violent end after a life spent chasing chasing chasing greatness. When Caesar heard the news, greatness. When Caesar heard the news, greatness. When Caesar heard the news, he was enraged. The conspiring ministers he was enraged. The conspiring ministers he was enraged. The conspiring ministers in Alexandria could not have been more in Alexandria could not have been more in Alexandria could not have been more wrong about what Caesar wanted, and wrong about what Caesar wanted, and wrong about what Caesar wanted, and their clever plan totally their clever plan totally their clever plan totally backfired. Rather than making a friend backfired. Rather than making a friend backfired. Rather than making a friend in Caesar, they had just cemented him as in Caesar, they had just cemented him as in Caesar, they had just cemented him as a furious enemy. a furious enemy. a furious enemy. See, Caesar's whole posture had always See, Caesar's whole posture had always See, Caesar's whole posture had always been one of the magnanimous victor, the been one of the magnanimous victor, the been one of the magnanimous victor, the generous statesman who was forever generous statesman who was forever generous statesman who was forever pardoning his enemies. After the battle pardoning his enemies. After the battle pardoning his enemies. After the battle of Farcelus, a whole contingent of of Farcelus, a whole contingent of of Farcelus, a whole contingent of senators decided that running in order senators decided that running in order senators decided that running in order to keep up the fight was pointless and to keep up the fight was pointless and to keep up the fight was pointless and supplicated themselves before Caesar, supplicated themselves before Caesar, supplicated themselves before Caesar, expecting the worst, but hoping for the expecting the worst, but hoping for the expecting the worst, but hoping for the best.

best. best. Caesar pardoned them all and declared it Caesar pardoned them all and declared it Caesar pardoned them all and declared it his greatest desire to simply heal the his greatest desire to simply heal the his greatest desire to simply heal the divisions within the state and reunite divisions within the state and reunite divisions within the state and reunite Rome as one body. Among those who begged Rome as one body. Among those who begged Rome as one body. Among those who begged forgiveness was Marcus Brutus, son of forgiveness was Marcus Brutus, son of forgiveness was Marcus Brutus, son of Caesar's old mistress, Cervilia, whom Caesar's old mistress, Cervilia, whom Caesar's old mistress, Cervilia, whom Caesar had long regarded affectionately Caesar had long regarded affectionately Caesar had long regarded affectionately as a stepson. He welcomed Brutus back to as a stepson. He welcomed Brutus back to as a stepson. He welcomed Brutus back to his side and told him to forget the his side and told him to forget the his side and told him to forget the past, that together they would build a past, that together they would build a past, that together they would build a new future for Rome. And this was new future for Rome. And this was new future for Rome. And this was exactly how he intended to handle his exactly how he intended to handle his exactly how he intended to handle his old friend Pompy the Great. just as soon old friend Pompy the Great. just as soon old friend Pompy the Great. just as soon as he caught as he caught as he caught him. So, you can imagine Caesar's him. So, you can imagine Caesar's him. So, you can imagine Caesar's reaction when he landed in Alexandria in reaction when he landed in Alexandria in reaction when he landed in Alexandria in the autumn of 48 BC, hot on Pompy's the autumn of 48 BC, hot on Pompy's the autumn of 48 BC, hot on Pompy's heels, and instead of receiving heels, and instead of receiving heels, and instead of receiving information about which direction his information about which direction his information about which direction his rival had gone, he was instead presented rival had gone, he was instead presented rival had gone, he was instead presented with Pompy's head. The assassination with Pompy's head. The assassination with Pompy's head. The assassination denied Caesar his planned public denied Caesar his planned public denied Caesar his planned public relations coupra of pardoning Pompy and relations coupra of pardoning Pompy and relations coupra of pardoning Pompy and asking that he serve beside him as asking that he serve beside him as asking that he serve beside him as together they repaired Rome and may the together they repaired Rome and may the together they repaired Rome and may the empire even greater than it had been empire even greater than it had been empire even greater than it had been before the civil war. When he saw the before the civil war. When he saw the before the civil war. When he saw the head, he wept bitter tears and to head, he wept bitter tears and to head, he wept bitter tears and to everyone's shock ordered that it be everyone's shock ordered that it be everyone's shock ordered that it be buried with full honors. The ashes of buried with full honors. The ashes of buried with full honors. The ashes of Pompy's body were handed over to his Pompy's body were handed over to his Pompy's body were handed over to his grieving widow who was allowed to return grieving widow who was allowed to return grieving widow who was allowed to return to Rome and perform the funeral rights to Rome and perform the funeral rights to Rome and perform the funeral rights becoming of a great hero.

becoming of a great hero. becoming of a great hero. When Caesar was done mourning his old When Caesar was done mourning his old When Caesar was done mourning his old partner and one-time son-in-law, he partner and one-time son-in-law, he partner and one-time son-in-law, he turned to the ministers who had turned to the ministers who had turned to the ministers who had engineered the assassination. They were engineered the assassination. They were engineered the assassination. They were in big in big in big trouble. Alexandria had been founded in trouble. Alexandria had been founded in trouble. Alexandria had been founded in 334 BC by Alexander the Great. And since 334 BC by Alexander the Great. And since 334 BC by Alexander the Great. And since that time, it had grown to become one of that time, it had grown to become one of that time, it had grown to become one of the most important cities of the ancient the most important cities of the ancient the most important cities of the ancient world, nearly as wealthy and populous as world, nearly as wealthy and populous as world, nearly as wealthy and populous as Rome itself. Rome itself. Rome itself. When Alexander died, his domains had When Alexander died, his domains had When Alexander died, his domains had been divided up by his former captains been divided up by his former captains been divided up by his former captains with Egypt going to the general Tomy. with Egypt going to the general Tomy. with Egypt going to the general Tomy. And since then, the Tomic dynasty had And since then, the Tomic dynasty had And since then, the Tomic dynasty had ruled the Nile from the growing ruled the Nile from the growing ruled the Nile from the growing cosmopolitan capital of cosmopolitan capital of cosmopolitan capital of Alexandria. The Greekeaking Tomies made Alexandria. The Greekeaking Tomies made Alexandria. The Greekeaking Tomies made no effort to integrate with the locals no effort to integrate with the locals no effort to integrate with the locals and rarely left the safety of their and rarely left the safety of their and rarely left the safety of their palaces. But with the death of Tommy I palaces. But with the death of Tommy I palaces. But with the death of Tommy I 12th in 51 BC, the ruling dynasty was 12th in 51 BC, the ruling dynasty was 12th in 51 BC, the ruling dynasty was fractured. The dead king had decreed fractured. The dead king had decreed fractured. The dead king had decreed that his son and daughter ought to be that his son and daughter ought to be that his son and daughter ought to be co-rulers in the Egyptian tradition. But co-rulers in the Egyptian tradition. But co-rulers in the Egyptian tradition. But the same court ministers who would later the same court ministers who would later the same court ministers who would later assassinate Pompy had decided that the assassinate Pompy had decided that the assassinate Pompy had decided that the 10-year-old Tommy I 13th would be far 10-year-old Tommy I 13th would be far 10-year-old Tommy I 13th would be far easier to control than his 18-year-old easier to control than his 18-year-old easier to control than his 18-year-old sister Cleopatra and so worked sister Cleopatra and so worked sister Cleopatra and so worked diligently to marginalize her diligently to marginalize her diligently to marginalize her power. But Cleopatra was savvy and power. But Cleopatra was savvy and power. But Cleopatra was savvy and seeing that she was the target of palace seeing that she was the target of palace seeing that she was the target of palace intrigue did something totally radical.

intrigue did something totally radical. intrigue did something totally radical. She turned to the local Egyptians for She turned to the local Egyptians for She turned to the local Egyptians for support. She became the first of the support. She became the first of the support. She became the first of the Tomies to learn Egyptian and often took Tomies to learn Egyptian and often took Tomies to learn Egyptian and often took part in the local religious festivals in part in the local religious festivals in part in the local religious festivals in her role as queen. By ingratiating her role as queen. By ingratiating her role as queen. By ingratiating herself with the locals, the queen herself with the locals, the queen herself with the locals, the queen became even more dangerous to the became even more dangerous to the became even more dangerous to the ministers controlling her brother. And ministers controlling her brother. And ministers controlling her brother. And so by the time Caesar arrived in Egypt, so by the time Caesar arrived in Egypt, so by the time Caesar arrived in Egypt, a full-blown civil war was underway with a full-blown civil war was underway with a full-blown civil war was underway with Cleopatra exiled from the capital Cleopatra exiled from the capital Cleopatra exiled from the capital leading an army of local Egyptians. But leading an army of local Egyptians. But leading an army of local Egyptians. But at that time in Egypt, support from the at that time in Egypt, support from the at that time in Egypt, support from the locals did not count for nearly as much locals did not count for nearly as much locals did not count for nearly as much as support from the Greeks in as support from the Greeks in as support from the Greeks in Alexandria. So her position was dicey at Alexandria. So her position was dicey at Alexandria. So her position was dicey at best. And this is why it had been such a best. And this is why it had been such a best. And this is why it had been such a huge mistake by the conspiring ministers huge mistake by the conspiring ministers huge mistake by the conspiring ministers to kill Pompy. It caused Caesar in his to kill Pompy. It caused Caesar in his to kill Pompy. It caused Caesar in his disgust to turn away from the young king disgust to turn away from the young king disgust to turn away from the young king they controlled and look for other they controlled and look for other they controlled and look for other allies in Egypt to support. Cleopatra allies in Egypt to support. Cleopatra allies in Egypt to support. Cleopatra fit the bill perfectly. fit the bill perfectly. fit the bill perfectly. So rather than return to Rome and begin So rather than return to Rome and begin So rather than return to Rome and begin consolidating his power there, Caesar consolidating his power there, Caesar consolidating his power there, Caesar announced his intention to stay in announced his intention to stay in announced his intention to stay in Alexandria and settle the civil Alexandria and settle the civil Alexandria and settle the civil war. But placing an ally on the throne war. But placing an ally on the throne war. But placing an ally on the throne was not Caesar's only reason for staying was not Caesar's only reason for staying was not Caesar's only reason for staying in Egypt. His endless campaigning was in Egypt. His endless campaigning was in Egypt. His endless campaigning was expensive and he needed expensive and he needed expensive and he needed money. With the rise of Rome, the Tomies money. With the rise of Rome, the Tomies money. With the rise of Rome, the Tomies maintained the independence of Egypt by maintained the independence of Egypt by maintained the independence of Egypt by issuing massive bribes to influential issuing massive bribes to influential issuing massive bribes to influential Romans which in time included Crass, Romans which in time included Crass, Romans which in time included Crass, Pompy, and Caesar.

Pompy, and Caesar. Pompy, and Caesar. Caesar reminded young Tommy I 13th that Caesar reminded young Tommy I 13th that Caesar reminded young Tommy I 13th that the last round of payments promised by the last round of payments promised by the last round of payments promised by his father had in no way been forgotten his father had in no way been forgotten his father had in no way been forgotten just because the old king had died. just because the old king had died. just because the old king had died. Tomy's ministers did everything they Tomy's ministers did everything they Tomy's ministers did everything they could to try to convince Caesar to could to try to convince Caesar to could to try to convince Caesar to leave, promising payments as soon as he leave, promising payments as soon as he leave, promising payments as soon as he was back in Rome. But Caesar would have was back in Rome. But Caesar would have was back in Rome. But Caesar would have none of it. He was more than content to none of it. He was more than content to none of it. He was more than content to wait for payment, and in the meantime, wait for payment, and in the meantime, wait for payment, and in the meantime, he could help them solve their little he could help them solve their little he could help them solve their little civil war. I'll bet they were thrilled. civil war. I'll bet they were thrilled. civil war. I'll bet they were thrilled. He called for Cleopatra to return to the He called for Cleopatra to return to the He called for Cleopatra to return to the royal palace to help sort out the royal palace to help sort out the royal palace to help sort out the conflict, but knowing that if she were conflict, but knowing that if she were conflict, but knowing that if she were to simply appear at the gates, it was to simply appear at the gates, it was to simply appear at the gates, it was likely that her brother's allies would likely that her brother's allies would likely that her brother's allies would have her killed before she could make it have her killed before she could make it have her killed before she could make it to the relative safety of Caesar's to the relative safety of Caesar's to the relative safety of Caesar's company. So, she famously hid in what company. So, she famously hid in what company. So, she famously hid in what amounted to a laundry bag and had a amounted to a laundry bag and had a amounted to a laundry bag and had a loyal slave smuggle her into the palace. loyal slave smuggle her into the palace. loyal slave smuggle her into the palace. Caesar was immediately taken by the Caesar was immediately taken by the Caesar was immediately taken by the cunning young queen after she slipped cunning young queen after she slipped cunning young queen after she slipped through danger in such dramatic fashion. through danger in such dramatic fashion. through danger in such dramatic fashion. Declaring only to be executing the will Declaring only to be executing the will Declaring only to be executing the will of the dead Tommy I 12th, Caesar of the dead Tommy I 12th, Caesar of the dead Tommy I 12th, Caesar re-elevated Cleopatra to co-ruler and re-elevated Cleopatra to co-ruler and re-elevated Cleopatra to co-ruler and not long after the 21-year-old queen for not long after the 21-year-old queen for not long after the 21-year-old queen for reasons of either politics or affection reasons of either politics or affection reasons of either politics or affection became Caesar's mistress.

became Caesar's mistress. became Caesar's mistress. The powers behind Tommy the 13th, The powers behind Tommy the 13th, The powers behind Tommy the 13th, however, were not going to take this however, were not going to take this however, were not going to take this lying down and concluded that they were lying down and concluded that they were lying down and concluded that they were going to have to expel the Romans by going to have to expel the Romans by going to have to expel the Romans by force. Caesar had brought with him to force. Caesar had brought with him to force. Caesar had brought with him to Alexandria only a single understaffed Alexandria only a single understaffed Alexandria only a single understaffed legion of some 4,000 infantry and around legion of some 4,000 infantry and around legion of some 4,000 infantry and around 800 cavalry. Reinforcements were on the 800 cavalry. Reinforcements were on the 800 cavalry. Reinforcements were on the way, but they were weeks out. So, if the way, but they were weeks out. So, if the way, but they were weeks out. So, if the ministers were planning to drive Caesar ministers were planning to drive Caesar ministers were planning to drive Caesar away, they knew they needed to do it away, they knew they needed to do it away, they knew they needed to do it before the rest of his army arrived. So before the rest of his army arrived. So before the rest of his army arrived. So they whipped the local Alexandrians into they whipped the local Alexandrians into they whipped the local Alexandrians into a frenzy, declaring that Caesar was a frenzy, declaring that Caesar was a frenzy, declaring that Caesar was planning to make Egypt a province, planning to make Egypt a province, planning to make Egypt a province, depriving them all of the liberty and depriving them all of the liberty and depriving them all of the liberty and wealth to which they had grown wealth to which they had grown wealth to which they had grown accustom. Nearly the whole city rose up accustom. Nearly the whole city rose up accustom. Nearly the whole city rose up in revolt and besieged the royal palace, in revolt and besieged the royal palace, in revolt and besieged the royal palace, which was held by Caesar and his which was held by Caesar and his which was held by Caesar and his men. What followed was weeks of bitter men. What followed was weeks of bitter men. What followed was weeks of bitter street fighting as Caesar was forced to street fighting as Caesar was forced to street fighting as Caesar was forced to try and conquer and hold the try and conquer and hold the try and conquer and hold the neighborhoods around the palace, house neighborhoods around the palace, house neighborhoods around the palace, house by house, block by block. by house, block by block. by house, block by block. Nothing in their long careers prepared Nothing in their long careers prepared Nothing in their long careers prepared the Romans for the rigors of urban the Romans for the rigors of urban the Romans for the rigors of urban warfare. The cavalry was useless and warfare. The cavalry was useless and warfare. The cavalry was useless and traditional troop deployments were traditional troop deployments were traditional troop deployments were unworkable. Their only advantage was unworkable. Their only advantage was unworkable. Their only advantage was that they were tougher and more that they were tougher and more that they were tougher and more disciplined soldiers than their disciplined soldiers than their disciplined soldiers than their opponents and were able to withstand opponents and were able to withstand opponents and were able to withstand barges from the locals as they moved to barges from the locals as they moved to barges from the locals as they moved to eradicate pockets of eradicate pockets of eradicate pockets of resistance. Eventually, the Romans resistance. Eventually, the Romans resistance. Eventually, the Romans leveled whole blocks to create a no leveled whole blocks to create a no leveled whole blocks to create a no man's land the Alexandrians would be man's land the Alexandrians would be man's land the Alexandrians would be suicidal to try and cross.

suicidal to try and cross. suicidal to try and cross. The ticking clock was at the forefront The ticking clock was at the forefront The ticking clock was at the forefront of the Alexandrian's mind. While Caesar of the Alexandrian's mind. While Caesar of the Alexandrian's mind. While Caesar needed only to hold out until needed only to hold out until needed only to hold out until reinforcements arrived, the Alexandrians reinforcements arrived, the Alexandrians reinforcements arrived, the Alexandrians needed to win before the reinforcements needed to win before the reinforcements needed to win before the reinforcements arrived. But no matter how hard they arrived. But no matter how hard they arrived. But no matter how hard they tried, they couldn't break the Roman tried, they couldn't break the Roman tried, they couldn't break the Roman resistance. Caesar was able to maintain resistance. Caesar was able to maintain resistance. Caesar was able to maintain access to supplies by winning a naval access to supplies by winning a naval access to supplies by winning a naval battle in the harbor, but suffered battle in the harbor, but suffered battle in the harbor, but suffered casualties he could not afford in an casualties he could not afford in an casualties he could not afford in an ultimately successful but brutal assault ultimately successful but brutal assault ultimately successful but brutal assault on Ferros Island, home to one of the on Ferros Island, home to one of the on Ferros Island, home to one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, the seven wonders of the ancient world, the seven wonders of the ancient world, the great lighthouse of great lighthouse of great lighthouse of Alexandria. Finally though, in January Alexandria. Finally though, in January Alexandria. Finally though, in January of 47 BC, word came that the Roman of 47 BC, word came that the Roman of 47 BC, word came that the Roman reinforcements had completed their reinforcements had completed their reinforcements had completed their overland march and were now on the overland march and were now on the overland march and were now on the outskirts of Egypt. outskirts of Egypt. outskirts of Egypt. Caesar slipped his besieged men out of Caesar slipped his besieged men out of Caesar slipped his besieged men out of the palace under cover of night and the palace under cover of night and the palace under cover of night and along with a contingent of Cleopatra's along with a contingent of Cleopatra's along with a contingent of Cleopatra's Egyptian army joined with the newly Egyptian army joined with the newly Egyptian army joined with the newly arrived legions to form an army of some arrived legions to form an army of some arrived legions to form an army of some 20,000. This combined force assaulted 20,000. This combined force assaulted 20,000. This combined force assaulted the base of young Tomy's army which the base of young Tomy's army which the base of young Tomy's army which numbered around 20,000 numbered around 20,000 numbered around 20,000 itself. Used to fighting severely itself. Used to fighting severely itself. Used to fighting severely outnumbered, basing an army merely equal outnumbered, basing an army merely equal outnumbered, basing an army merely equal in size was a rare treat for Caesar's in size was a rare treat for Caesar's in size was a rare treat for Caesar's legions. The battle of the Nile was legions. The battle of the Nile was legions. The battle of the Nile was easily won by the Romans. Tommy the 13th easily won by the Romans. Tommy the 13th easily won by the Romans. Tommy the 13th drowned when the ship he was escaping on drowned when the ship he was escaping on drowned when the ship he was escaping on capsized and Cleopatra was placed back capsized and Cleopatra was placed back capsized and Cleopatra was placed back on the on the on the throne. Caesar though never had any real throne. Caesar though never had any real throne. Caesar though never had any real intention of annexing Egypt. The wealth intention of annexing Egypt. The wealth intention of annexing Egypt. The wealth of Alexandria combined with its now of Alexandria combined with its now of Alexandria combined with its now thoroughly anti-Roman citizenry would thoroughly anti-Roman citizenry would thoroughly anti-Roman citizenry would prove a fertile center of rebellion no prove a fertile center of rebellion no prove a fertile center of rebellion no matter how loyal a governor Caesar

matter how loyal a governor Caesar matter how loyal a governor Caesar installed. Better to leave it as a installed. Better to leave it as a installed. Better to leave it as a client kingdom with Cleopatra in charge. client kingdom with Cleopatra in charge. client kingdom with Cleopatra in charge. The queen understood that she owed her The queen understood that she owed her The queen understood that she owed her position to Caesar and Caesar alone. So position to Caesar and Caesar alone. So position to Caesar and Caesar alone. So he knew she might be the one person on he knew she might be the one person on he knew she might be the one person on earth he could trust not to rebel the earth he could trust not to rebel the earth he could trust not to rebel the first chance she first chance she first chance she got. But official province or not, Egypt got. But official province or not, Egypt got. But official province or not, Egypt was now firmly under Roman control. The was now firmly under Roman control. The was now firmly under Roman control. The Hellenistic dynasty of the Tomies that Hellenistic dynasty of the Tomies that Hellenistic dynasty of the Tomies that had ruled since Alexander the Great was had ruled since Alexander the Great was had ruled since Alexander the Great was for all intents and purposes for all intents and purposes for all intents and purposes broken. Rome's full encirclement of the broken. Rome's full encirclement of the broken. Rome's full encirclement of the Mediterranean was nearly complete. Because I left Caesar in such desperate Because I left Caesar in such desperate straits at the end of the last episode, straits at the end of the last episode, straits at the end of the last episode, suffering through the winter with half suffering through the winter with half suffering through the winter with half an army deep in hostile territory. This an army deep in hostile territory. This an army deep in hostile territory. This week, I think he deserves to be left in week, I think he deserves to be left in week, I think he deserves to be left in a slightly better place. So, we'll leave a slightly better place. So, we'll leave a slightly better place. So, we'll leave him there in Egypt where despite the him there in Egypt where despite the him there in Egypt where despite the fact that the remaining senatorial fact that the remaining senatorial fact that the remaining senatorial forces were regrouping in Numidia, the forces were regrouping in Numidia, the forces were regrouping in Numidia, the fact that Mark Anony's ruthlessly fact that Mark Anony's ruthlessly fact that Mark Anony's ruthlessly debauched management of Rome was turning debauched management of Rome was turning debauched management of Rome was turning the city into a hell hole, the fact that the city into a hell hole, the fact that the city into a hell hole, the fact that his appointed governor of Spain was so his appointed governor of Spain was so his appointed governor of Spain was so corrupt and brutal that the natives so corrupt and brutal that the natives so corrupt and brutal that the natives so recently won to Caesar's banner were in recently won to Caesar's banner were in recently won to Caesar's banner were in revolt and the fact that nearly every revolt and the fact that nearly every revolt and the fact that nearly every territory Rome had ever pacified was territory Rome had ever pacified was territory Rome had ever pacified was planning to declare its independence at planning to declare its independence at planning to declare its independence at the first opportunity. Caesar took a the first opportunity. Caesar took a the first opportunity. Caesar took a month off in early 47 BC to enjoy a month off in early 47 BC to enjoy a month off in early 47 BC to enjoy a leisurely cruise up the Nile with leisurely cruise up the Nile with leisurely cruise up the Nile with Cleopatra. Next week, Caesar will go Cleopatra. Next week, Caesar will go Cleopatra. Next week, Caesar will go back to the exhausting business of back to the exhausting business of back to the exhausting business of consolidating power over the Roman consolidating power over the Roman consolidating power over the Roman Empire. But for now, let's leave him be.

Empire. But for now, let's leave him be. Empire. But for now, let's leave him be. I think he's earned a vacation. I think he's earned a vacation. I think he's earned a vacation. [Music] [Music] [Music] Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Rome. Episode 45, the end of the Rome. Episode 45, the end of the Rome. Episode 45, the end of the war. In early 47 BC, after settling the war. In early 47 BC, after settling the war. In early 47 BC, after settling the civil war in Egypt and firmly civil war in Egypt and firmly civil war in Egypt and firmly establishing Roman dominance over the establishing Roman dominance over the establishing Roman dominance over the Nile, Caesar took a month-long cruise up Nile, Caesar took a month-long cruise up Nile, Caesar took a month-long cruise up the Great River with the Great River with the Great River with Cleopatra. Though no doubt relaxing, it Cleopatra. Though no doubt relaxing, it Cleopatra. Though no doubt relaxing, it was not simply an uncharacteristic was not simply an uncharacteristic was not simply an uncharacteristic vacation. Caesar took with him some 400 vacation. Caesar took with him some 400 vacation. Caesar took with him some 400 ships. The slowmoving entourage was ships. The slowmoving entourage was ships. The slowmoving entourage was meant to display the power of Rome to meant to display the power of Rome to meant to display the power of Rome to any Egyptian who may be planning any Egyptian who may be planning any Egyptian who may be planning resistance to the new regime. Caesar had resistance to the new regime. Caesar had resistance to the new regime. Caesar had a dozen major problems to deal with as a dozen major problems to deal with as a dozen major problems to deal with as he reshaped the political map of the he reshaped the political map of the he reshaped the political map of the ancient world. He did not need a revolt ancient world. He did not need a revolt ancient world. He did not need a revolt in newly pacified Egypt to become one of in newly pacified Egypt to become one of in newly pacified Egypt to become one of them. Of those major problems, his them. Of those major problems, his them. Of those major problems, his greatest lay near the remains of old greatest lay near the remains of old greatest lay near the remains of old Carthage, where the senatorial forces Carthage, where the senatorial forces Carthage, where the senatorial forces that had fled from Barcelus were that had fled from Barcelus were that had fled from Barcelus were regrouping under the command of Matelis regrouping under the command of Matelis regrouping under the command of Matelis Scipio, who was building a massive army Scipio, who was building a massive army Scipio, who was building a massive army with the help of the Numidian king Juba.

with the help of the Numidian king Juba. with the help of the Numidian king Juba. The problem was, in fact, so big that The problem was, in fact, so big that The problem was, in fact, so big that Caesar knew he could not face it right Caesar knew he could not face it right Caesar knew he could not face it right away. His men were exhausted. The cash away. His men were exhausted. The cash away. His men were exhausted. The cash supply was running dangerously low, and supply was running dangerously low, and supply was running dangerously low, and the entire eastern half of the empire the entire eastern half of the empire the entire eastern half of the empire seemed ready to revolt at a moment's seemed ready to revolt at a moment's seemed ready to revolt at a moment's notice. Plus, between the battle of notice. Plus, between the battle of notice. Plus, between the battle of Farsculus and the war in Alexandria, he Farsculus and the war in Alexandria, he Farsculus and the war in Alexandria, he had basically lost contact with Rome had basically lost contact with Rome had basically lost contact with Rome itself. The population, who had once itself. The population, who had once itself. The population, who had once received regular glowing reports from received regular glowing reports from received regular glowing reports from Caesar during the GAC wars, had now gone Caesar during the GAC wars, had now gone Caesar during the GAC wars, had now gone more than 6 months without any updates more than 6 months without any updates more than 6 months without any updates at all. Before he could face his enemies at all. Before he could face his enemies at all. Before he could face his enemies in North Africa, Caesar would have to in North Africa, Caesar would have to in North Africa, Caesar would have to solidify his hold over every other solidify his hold over every other solidify his hold over every other corner of the empire, including the corner of the empire, including the corner of the empire, including the capital city itself. capital city itself. capital city itself. So rather than marching west, Caesar So rather than marching west, Caesar So rather than marching west, Caesar took the road east out of Alexandria. took the road east out of Alexandria. took the road east out of Alexandria. His plan was to travel up the eastern His plan was to travel up the eastern His plan was to travel up the eastern Mediterranean coast, cross Asia Minor Mediterranean coast, cross Asia Minor Mediterranean coast, cross Asia Minor into Greece, and sail back across the into Greece, and sail back across the into Greece, and sail back across the Adriatic into Italy. Along the way, he Adriatic into Italy. Along the way, he Adriatic into Italy. Along the way, he would collect money, allies, soldiers, would collect money, allies, soldiers, would collect money, allies, soldiers, and support, and he would eliminate and support, and he would eliminate and support, and he would eliminate anyone who opposed him. For the most anyone who opposed him. For the most anyone who opposed him. For the most part, though, there was no opposition.

part, though, there was no opposition. part, though, there was no opposition. Kings who had been clients of Pompy Kings who had been clients of Pompy Kings who had been clients of Pompy readily embraced Caesar as their new readily embraced Caesar as their new readily embraced Caesar as their new patron. Roman garrisons scattered across patron. Roman garrisons scattered across patron. Roman garrisons scattered across the east, most previously allied with the east, most previously allied with the east, most previously allied with the Senate, repudiated their old the Senate, repudiated their old the Senate, repudiated their old generals, and begged clemency from generals, and begged clemency from generals, and begged clemency from Caesar, who was more than happy to grant Caesar, who was more than happy to grant Caesar, who was more than happy to grant it. But it was not all easy goinging. it. But it was not all easy goinging. it. But it was not all easy goinging. Farnicks II, the son of Rome's old Farnicks II, the son of Rome's old Farnicks II, the son of Rome's old enemy, Mithrates, had returned to Pontis enemy, Mithrates, had returned to Pontis enemy, Mithrates, had returned to Pontis and thought it right that he should be and thought it right that he should be and thought it right that he should be king. But to stake his claim, he had king. But to stake his claim, he had king. But to stake his claim, he had been forced to battle with the Roman been forced to battle with the Roman been forced to battle with the Roman garrison stationed there to keep an eye garrison stationed there to keep an eye garrison stationed there to keep an eye on Caesar's interests in the region. The on Caesar's interests in the region. The on Caesar's interests in the region. The Roman garrison distracted by a desire to Roman garrison distracted by a desire to Roman garrison distracted by a desire to make for Egypt to reinforce their make for Egypt to reinforce their make for Egypt to reinforce their embattled general had not taken the embattled general had not taken the embattled general had not taken the fight seriously and Farnese had beaten fight seriously and Farnese had beaten fight seriously and Farnese had beaten them them them soundly. Now in the great game of power soundly. Now in the great game of power soundly. Now in the great game of power politics, Caesar might have let this go politics, Caesar might have let this go politics, Caesar might have let this go and worked out a deal with Farnese to and worked out a deal with Farnese to and worked out a deal with Farnese to recognize his sovereignty over Pontis in recognize his sovereignty over Pontis in recognize his sovereignty over Pontis in exchange for not making trouble. But exchange for not making trouble. But exchange for not making trouble. But upon his ascension to the throne, the upon his ascension to the throne, the upon his ascension to the throne, the new Pontic king had made a point to new Pontic king had made a point to new Pontic king had made a point to track down any Roman citizen he could track down any Roman citizen he could track down any Roman citizen he could find and castrate them. This was a crime find and castrate them. This was a crime find and castrate them. This was a crime that Caesar could not let go that Caesar could not let go that Caesar could not let go unpunished. So as he traveled through unpunished. So as he traveled through unpunished. So as he traveled through Asia Minor, Caesar humored the Pontic Asia Minor, Caesar humored the Pontic Asia Minor, Caesar humored the Pontic envoy sent to work out a lasting peace.

envoy sent to work out a lasting peace. envoy sent to work out a lasting peace. He replied with kind words and generous He replied with kind words and generous He replied with kind words and generous promises, but it was all merely a show promises, but it was all merely a show promises, but it was all merely a show to buy himself some time as he marched to buy himself some time as he marched to buy himself some time as he marched toward Pontis. The speed with which toward Pontis. The speed with which toward Pontis. The speed with which Caesar moved took Farnicks off guard, Caesar moved took Farnicks off guard, Caesar moved took Farnicks off guard, and before he knew it, Caesar was at his and before he knew it, Caesar was at his and before he knew it, Caesar was at his doorstep. When the Romans arrived, doorstep. When the Romans arrived, doorstep. When the Romans arrived, though, Caesar's tone immediately though, Caesar's tone immediately though, Caesar's tone immediately changed. There would be no peace with a changed. There would be no peace with a changed. There would be no peace with a man who castrated Roman citizens. man who castrated Roman citizens. man who castrated Roman citizens. Farnick, who thought he was on the verge Farnick, who thought he was on the verge Farnick, who thought he was on the verge of a deal with Rome, quickly assembled of a deal with Rome, quickly assembled of a deal with Rome, quickly assembled his army as Caesar dug in outside the his army as Caesar dug in outside the his army as Caesar dug in outside the hill for Fort of Aa, where the Pontic hill for Fort of Aa, where the Pontic hill for Fort of Aa, where the Pontic king was holding king was holding king was holding court. The only hope for Faris was a court. The only hope for Faris was a court. The only hope for Faris was a surprise attack before the Romans were surprise attack before the Romans were surprise attack before the Romans were firmly entrenched. So at dawn, while the firmly entrenched. So at dawn, while the firmly entrenched. So at dawn, while the legionnaires dug trenches, the Pontic legionnaires dug trenches, the Pontic legionnaires dug trenches, the Pontic army poured out of the gates of the army poured out of the gates of the army poured out of the gates of the fort. At first, Caesar could not believe fort. At first, Caesar could not believe fort. At first, Caesar could not believe that they were really attacking. But it that they were really attacking. But it that they were really attacking. But it was soon obvious that this was no bluff. was soon obvious that this was no bluff. was soon obvious that this was no bluff. Throwing aside their shovels, the Romans Throwing aside their shovels, the Romans Throwing aside their shovels, the Romans tried to assemble as the enemy army hit. tried to assemble as the enemy army hit. tried to assemble as the enemy army hit. In the den of battle, it took longer In the den of battle, it took longer In the den of battle, it took longer than usual for the legions to get their than usual for the legions to get their than usual for the legions to get their act together. But once some order was act together. But once some order was act together. But once some order was imposed on the battle, the Romans imposed on the battle, the Romans imposed on the battle, the Romans quickly gained the upper hand. The quickly gained the upper hand. The quickly gained the upper hand. The Pontic army was destroyed and Caesar let Pontic army was destroyed and Caesar let Pontic army was destroyed and Caesar let his men sack the town. Writing to a his men sack the town. Writing to a his men sack the town. Writing to a friend in Rome, Caesar described the friend in Rome, Caesar described the friend in Rome, Caesar described the campaign in Pontis simply, "I came, I campaign in Pontis simply, "I came, I campaign in Pontis simply, "I came, I saw, I conquered.

Caesar continued west through Greece Caesar continued west through Greece without incident and soon enough landed without incident and soon enough landed without incident and soon enough landed on the shores of Italy. There to greet on the shores of Italy. There to greet on the shores of Italy. There to greet him in Brundium with Cicero, who had him in Brundium with Cicero, who had him in Brundium with Cicero, who had gone home after the defeat of Farselus gone home after the defeat of Farselus gone home after the defeat of Farselus and was now ready to face whatever and was now ready to face whatever and was now ready to face whatever punishment Caesar had in mind for him. punishment Caesar had in mind for him. punishment Caesar had in mind for him. But Caesar, who had tried his whole But Caesar, who had tried his whole But Caesar, who had tried his whole career to win Cicero over to his side, career to win Cicero over to his side, career to win Cicero over to his side, merely embraced the old senator and merely embraced the old senator and merely embraced the old senator and asked him to join him on the final leg asked him to join him on the final leg asked him to join him on the final leg of his journey so they could catch of his journey so they could catch of his journey so they could catch up. Back in Rome, Caesar's first order up. Back in Rome, Caesar's first order up. Back in Rome, Caesar's first order of business was removing Mark Anthony of business was removing Mark Anthony of business was removing Mark Anthony from power. While he had been on from power. While he had been on from power. While he had been on campaign in the east, Caesar had been campaign in the east, Caesar had been campaign in the east, Caesar had been appointed dictator by what was left of appointed dictator by what was left of appointed dictator by what was left of the Senate, and Anthony had been made the Senate, and Anthony had been made the Senate, and Anthony had been made master of the horse. And legally, when master of the horse. And legally, when master of the horse. And legally, when the dictator is absent, the word of a the dictator is absent, the word of a the dictator is absent, the word of a master of the horse becomes law, and master of the horse becomes law, and master of the horse becomes law, and Antony had let absolute power corrupt Antony had let absolute power corrupt Antony had let absolute power corrupt him absolutely. him absolutely. him absolutely. While Caesar had refused to revive the While Caesar had refused to revive the While Caesar had refused to revive the horrifying prescriptions that had marked horrifying prescriptions that had marked horrifying prescriptions that had marked the reigns of Marius, Sa and Solah, his the reigns of Marius, Sa and Solah, his the reigns of Marius, Sa and Solah, his chief lieutenant showed no such chief lieutenant showed no such chief lieutenant showed no such restraint, and terror had gripped the restraint, and terror had gripped the restraint, and terror had gripped the city while Anthony lived a lavish life city while Anthony lived a lavish life city while Anthony lived a lavish life of drunken excess, casually murdering of drunken excess, casually murdering of drunken excess, casually murdering his real or imagined his real or imagined his real or imagined enemies. But the bloody, debauched reign enemies. But the bloody, debauched reign enemies. But the bloody, debauched reign of Anthony did have a silver lining. It of Anthony did have a silver lining. It of Anthony did have a silver lining. It made Caesar look great by comparison.

made Caesar look great by comparison. made Caesar look great by comparison. All he had to do to win the people's All he had to do to win the people's All he had to do to win the people's affection when he came home was remove affection when he came home was remove affection when he came home was remove Anthony from office. Anthony from office. Anthony from office. After bringing a measure of peace to the After bringing a measure of peace to the After bringing a measure of peace to the strife torn city, he set aside the strife torn city, he set aside the strife torn city, he set aside the mantle of dictator and was again elected mantle of dictator and was again elected mantle of dictator and was again elected console. He kept Anthony on the console. He kept Anthony on the console. He kept Anthony on the political sidelines though and instead political sidelines though and instead political sidelines though and instead chose as his colleague an amiable and chose as his colleague an amiable and chose as his colleague an amiable and completely loyal cavalry commander named completely loyal cavalry commander named completely loyal cavalry commander named Marcus Lepedus. Those of you who read Marcus Lepedus. Those of you who read Marcus Lepedus. Those of you who read ahead to the next chapter know that in a ahead to the next chapter know that in a ahead to the next chapter know that in a few years Lepodus will form the third few years Lepodus will form the third few years Lepodus will form the third leg of the second triumvirant along with leg of the second triumvirant along with leg of the second triumvirant along with Anthony and Caesar's great nephew and Anthony and Caesar's great nephew and Anthony and Caesar's great nephew and heir gas Octavius the future Caesar heir gas Octavius the future Caesar heir gas Octavius the future Caesar Augustus. Satisfied that the eastern provinces Satisfied that the eastern provinces were pacified and the situation in Rome were pacified and the situation in Rome were pacified and the situation in Rome was under control, Caesar finally turned was under control, Caesar finally turned was under control, Caesar finally turned his attention to the problem in North his attention to the problem in North his attention to the problem in North Africa. But just as he was getting Africa. But just as he was getting Africa. But just as he was getting started on the initial planning of an started on the initial planning of an started on the initial planning of an invasion, Caesar dealt with revolt from invasion, Caesar dealt with revolt from invasion, Caesar dealt with revolt from an unexpected corner, his own troops. an unexpected corner, his own troops. an unexpected corner, his own troops. The men who had conquered Gaul, secured The men who had conquered Gaul, secured The men who had conquered Gaul, secured Italy, sprinted across the continent to Italy, sprinted across the continent to Italy, sprinted across the continent to Spain and back, crossed the Adriatic in Spain and back, crossed the Adriatic in Spain and back, crossed the Adriatic in the middle of winter, defeated Pompy, the middle of winter, defeated Pompy, the middle of winter, defeated Pompy, taken Egypt, and then marched back home taken Egypt, and then marched back home taken Egypt, and then marched back home again, had finally had enough. Their again, had finally had enough. Their again, had finally had enough. Their paychecks were chronically late, and paychecks were chronically late, and paychecks were chronically late, and promises of discharge and land grants promises of discharge and land grants promises of discharge and land grants were forever just one more campaign were forever just one more campaign were forever just one more campaign away. When word came that Caesar was away. When word came that Caesar was away. When word came that Caesar was planning to lead them all in an invasion planning to lead them all in an invasion planning to lead them all in an invasion of North Africa, they mutinied.

of North Africa, they mutinied. of North Africa, they mutinied. Marching north from their camps in Marching north from their camps in Marching north from their camps in southern Italy, they planted themselves southern Italy, they planted themselves southern Italy, they planted themselves just outside the gates of Rome with a just outside the gates of Rome with a just outside the gates of Rome with a list of list of list of demands. Against the advice of his demands. Against the advice of his demands. Against the advice of his friends, Caesar rode out alone to meet friends, Caesar rode out alone to meet friends, Caesar rode out alone to meet them. Standing in front of the assembled them. Standing in front of the assembled them. Standing in front of the assembled legions, the men who had been his family legions, the men who had been his family legions, the men who had been his family for a decade or more, Caesar calmly for a decade or more, Caesar calmly for a decade or more, Caesar calmly asked them what he could do to make them asked them what he could do to make them asked them what he could do to make them happy. Their tough talk about demanding happy. Their tough talk about demanding happy. Their tough talk about demanding gold and land melted away, and they told gold and land melted away, and they told gold and land melted away, and they told Caesar all they desired was to be Caesar all they desired was to be Caesar all they desired was to be discharged from service. In response, discharged from service. In response, discharged from service. In response, Caesar dealt them a cruel blow. He Caesar dealt them a cruel blow. He Caesar dealt them a cruel blow. He granted their request, telling them he granted their request, telling them he granted their request, telling them he would handle the matters of backay and would handle the matters of backay and would handle the matters of backay and land grants when he returned from land grants when he returned from land grants when he returned from Africa. He turned to leave the camp, and Africa. He turned to leave the camp, and Africa. He turned to leave the camp, and in bidding goodbye, he addressed them in bidding goodbye, he addressed them in bidding goodbye, he addressed them now not as my fellow comrades, but as my now not as my fellow comrades, but as my now not as my fellow comrades, but as my fellow citizens. It was too much to fellow citizens. It was too much to fellow citizens. It was too much to take. The soldiers were utterly shamed. take. The soldiers were utterly shamed. take. The soldiers were utterly shamed. Were they really deserting their general Were they really deserting their general Were they really deserting their general on the eve of his final battle? Were on the eve of his final battle? Were on the eve of his final battle? Were they really going to force Caesar to they really going to force Caesar to they really going to force Caesar to meet his enemies with only raw recruits meet his enemies with only raw recruits meet his enemies with only raw recruits to protect him? And if he won, were they to protect him? And if he won, were they to protect him? And if he won, were they really going to let those recruits march really going to let those recruits march really going to let those recruits march back to Rome and triumph and be awarded back to Rome and triumph and be awarded back to Rome and triumph and be awarded honors that had been secured by their honors that had been secured by their honors that had been secured by their own hard work and own hard work and own hard work and sacrifice? This hit them all in a rush sacrifice? This hit them all in a rush sacrifice? This hit them all in a rush as Caesar left the stage, and as Caesar left the stage, and as Caesar left the stage, and immediately calls went out for him to immediately calls went out for him to immediately calls went out for him to take them back. Caesar paused and let take them back. Caesar paused and let take them back. Caesar paused and let them twist in the wind for a heartbeat them twist in the wind for a heartbeat them twist in the wind for a heartbeat before returning to the stage.

before returning to the stage. before returning to the stage. When we return from Africa, he told When we return from Africa, he told When we return from Africa, he told them, "Every man will be granted land them, "Every man will be granted land them, "Every man will be granted land and pay and be honorably discharged from and pay and be honorably discharged from and pay and be honorably discharged from service, but first we must go to Africa service, but first we must go to Africa service, but first we must go to Africa together." The soldiers exploded in together." The soldiers exploded in together." The soldiers exploded in cheers, shouting their thanks and cheers, shouting their thanks and cheers, shouting their thanks and promising him a great promising him a great promising him a great victory. So in early 46 BC, 2 years victory. So in early 46 BC, 2 years victory. So in early 46 BC, 2 years after crossing the wintry Adriatic, after crossing the wintry Adriatic, after crossing the wintry Adriatic, Caesar ready his legions for a similar Caesar ready his legions for a similar Caesar ready his legions for a similar winter crossing of the straits between winter crossing of the straits between winter crossing of the straits between Sicily and North Africa. While Matelis Sicily and North Africa. While Matelis Sicily and North Africa. While Matelis Scipio had gathered somewhere between 10 Scipio had gathered somewhere between 10 Scipio had gathered somewhere between 10 and 14 legions, Caesar once again and 14 legions, Caesar once again and 14 legions, Caesar once again charged into the belly of the beast charged into the belly of the beast charged into the belly of the beast completely outnumbered. Eager to make completely outnumbered. Eager to make completely outnumbered. Eager to make the crossing and establish a beach head the crossing and establish a beach head the crossing and establish a beach head under Scipio's radar, Caesar set out under Scipio's radar, Caesar set out under Scipio's radar, Caesar set out from Sicily with but one from Sicily with but one from Sicily with but one legion. His men, terrified of drowning legion. His men, terrified of drowning legion. His men, terrified of drowning in the choppy sea, were overjoyed to see in the choppy sea, were overjoyed to see in the choppy sea, were overjoyed to see land appear on the horizon, but were land appear on the horizon, but were land appear on the horizon, but were horrified when they saw Caesar disembark horrified when they saw Caesar disembark horrified when they saw Caesar disembark onto the shores of Africa. While onto the shores of Africa. While onto the shores of Africa. While climbing from the ship, he became climbing from the ship, he became climbing from the ship, he became entangled in his cloak and fell face entangled in his cloak and fell face entangled in his cloak and fell face first onto the beach. A terrible omen to first onto the beach. A terrible omen to first onto the beach. A terrible omen to the superstitious the superstitious the superstitious Romans. But Caesar thought fast and Romans. But Caesar thought fast and Romans. But Caesar thought fast and tried to play off the mishap. According tried to play off the mishap. According tried to play off the mishap. According to Sutonius, he hugged the sand and to Sutonius, he hugged the sand and to Sutonius, he hugged the sand and cried, "I hold you now, cried, "I hold you now, cried, "I hold you now, Africa." For the first few months after Africa." For the first few months after Africa." For the first few months after landing, though, the omen seemed to landing, though, the omen seemed to landing, though, the omen seemed to prove true, and things went badly for prove true, and things went badly for prove true, and things went badly for Caesar. Reinforcements were continually Caesar. Reinforcements were continually Caesar. Reinforcements were continually being blown off course or captured by being blown off course or captured by being blown off course or captured by the senatorial forces. His legions the senatorial forces. His legions the senatorial forces. His legions already ashore were harassed constantly already ashore were harassed constantly already ashore were harassed constantly by detachments of Numidian cavalry who by detachments of Numidian cavalry who by detachments of Numidian cavalry who would strike and disappear with would strike and disappear with would strike and disappear with impunity. Access to supplies was

impunity. Access to supplies was impunity. Access to supplies was terrible, and his foraging parties came terrible, and his foraging parties came terrible, and his foraging parties came back empty-handed or not at all. Caesar back empty-handed or not at all. Caesar back empty-handed or not at all. Caesar finally decided to move his men to the finally decided to move his men to the finally decided to move his men to the interior where food was more plentiful. interior where food was more plentiful. interior where food was more plentiful. But as soon as he began to march, the But as soon as he began to march, the But as soon as he began to march, the entire Numidian cavalry, led by Roman entire Numidian cavalry, led by Roman entire Numidian cavalry, led by Roman officers, appeared on the horizon. officers, appeared on the horizon. officers, appeared on the horizon. Caesar was forced to slowly retreat Caesar was forced to slowly retreat Caesar was forced to slowly retreat after being encircled and mocked by his after being encircled and mocked by his after being encircled and mocked by his rival commanders. But the attacking rival commanders. But the attacking rival commanders. But the attacking Numidians were unable to break Caesar's Numidians were unable to break Caesar's Numidians were unable to break Caesar's lines, and he made it to the high ground lines, and he made it to the high ground lines, and he made it to the high ground where horses were more of a hindrance where horses were more of a hindrance where horses were more of a hindrance than a help. They staved off attack, and than a help. They staved off attack, and than a help. They staved off attack, and the Numidians retreated, but huddled the Numidians retreated, but huddled the Numidians retreated, but huddled amongst the rocks, bloody, tired, and amongst the rocks, bloody, tired, and amongst the rocks, bloody, tired, and hungry. It was looking like Caesar hungry. It was looking like Caesar hungry. It was looking like Caesar should have heated the omen and just should have heated the omen and just should have heated the omen and just gone back to Italy. gone back to Italy. gone back to Italy. But he managed to hold his army together But he managed to hold his army together But he managed to hold his army together until spring, by which point the until spring, by which point the until spring, by which point the continuously arriving reinforcements continuously arriving reinforcements continuously arriving reinforcements finally gave him an army he felt he finally gave him an army he felt he finally gave him an army he felt he could go to battle with rather than could go to battle with rather than could go to battle with rather than simply survive with. But of course, what simply survive with. But of course, what simply survive with. But of course, what looked to Caesar like a big enough army looked to Caesar like a big enough army looked to Caesar like a big enough army to go to battle with usually looked to to go to battle with usually looked to to go to battle with usually looked to everyone else like an army that would be everyone else like an army that would be everyone else like an army that would be easily overrun by 14 legions. It easily overrun by 14 legions. It easily overrun by 14 legions. It certainly looked that way to Matelis certainly looked that way to Matelis certainly looked that way to Matelis Scipio right up until the moment his Scipio right up until the moment his Scipio right up until the moment his much larger army was completely much larger army was completely much larger army was completely destroyed.

The decisive battle came at the port The decisive battle came at the port city of Theapsis, whose unique geography city of Theapsis, whose unique geography city of Theapsis, whose unique geography led both sides to think they were laying led both sides to think they were laying led both sides to think they were laying a clever trap for the other. The city a clever trap for the other. The city a clever trap for the other. The city itself lay on an ismas with the sea on itself lay on an ismas with the sea on itself lay on an ismas with the sea on one side and heavy marshes on the other one side and heavy marshes on the other one side and heavy marshes on the other with only two narrow strips of dry land with only two narrow strips of dry land with only two narrow strips of dry land connecting the city to the mainland. connecting the city to the mainland. connecting the city to the mainland. When Caesar marched in and overran the When Caesar marched in and overran the When Caesar marched in and overran the garrison station there, Scipio jumped at garrison station there, Scipio jumped at garrison station there, Scipio jumped at the opportunity Caesar presented. the opportunity Caesar presented. the opportunity Caesar presented. All he had to do was blockade the narrow All he had to do was blockade the narrow All he had to do was blockade the narrow exits and Caesar would be trapped. exits and Caesar would be trapped. exits and Caesar would be trapped. Unbeknownst to Scipio, however, this was Unbeknownst to Scipio, however, this was Unbeknownst to Scipio, however, this was exactly what Caesar wanted. By forcing exactly what Caesar wanted. By forcing exactly what Caesar wanted. By forcing the battle onto the narrow strips of the battle onto the narrow strips of the battle onto the narrow strips of land, Scipio's greater numbers would be land, Scipio's greater numbers would be land, Scipio's greater numbers would be negated, and the ferocity of Caesar's negated, and the ferocity of Caesar's negated, and the ferocity of Caesar's veteran legions would be the greatest veteran legions would be the greatest veteran legions would be the greatest factor in the fight, which is of course factor in the fight, which is of course factor in the fight, which is of course exactly how it exactly how it exactly how it happened. With King Juba marching to happened. With King Juba marching to happened. With King Juba marching to hold the southern escape route, Caesar hold the southern escape route, Caesar hold the southern escape route, Caesar masked his own army on the other side to masked his own army on the other side to masked his own army on the other side to face Scipio, who could not resist face Scipio, who could not resist face Scipio, who could not resist attacking. Just as Caesar planned, attacking. Just as Caesar planned, attacking. Just as Caesar planned, Scipio was unable to overwhelm Caesar's Scipio was unable to overwhelm Caesar's Scipio was unable to overwhelm Caesar's troops as they were forced to fight in a troops as they were forced to fight in a troops as they were forced to fight in a bottleneck. The battle soon turned into bottleneck. The battle soon turned into bottleneck. The battle soon turned into a bloodbath. Caesar's troops, believing a bloodbath. Caesar's troops, believing a bloodbath. Caesar's troops, believing that this was the really real last that this was the really real last that this was the really real last battle of the Civil War, were ferocious, battle of the Civil War, were ferocious, battle of the Civil War, were ferocious, and soon some 10,000 of Scipio's and soon some 10,000 of Scipio's and soon some 10,000 of Scipio's infantry laid dead and his army was infantry laid dead and his army was infantry laid dead and his army was shattered.

shattered. shattered. King Juba, realizing he'd backed the King Juba, realizing he'd backed the King Juba, realizing he'd backed the wrong horse in the Roman Civil War, wrong horse in the Roman Civil War, wrong horse in the Roman Civil War, committed suicide upon hearing the news committed suicide upon hearing the news committed suicide upon hearing the news of Caesar's victory. Scipio tried to of Caesar's victory. Scipio tried to of Caesar's victory. Scipio tried to escape with the last remnants of his escape with the last remnants of his escape with the last remnants of his men, but drowned when his ship sank on men, but drowned when his ship sank on men, but drowned when his ship sank on its way to its way to its way to Spain. In Udica, the capital of the Spain. In Udica, the capital of the Spain. In Udica, the capital of the Roman province of Africa, where all of Roman province of Africa, where all of Roman province of Africa, where all of this action was taking place, Kato this action was taking place, Kato this action was taking place, Kato received the news with characteristic received the news with characteristic received the news with characteristic stoicism. stoicism. stoicism. He had held the city for the Senate He had held the city for the Senate He had held the city for the Senate during the majority of the Civil War, during the majority of the Civil War, during the majority of the Civil War, despite the fact that its inhabitants despite the fact that its inhabitants despite the fact that its inhabitants were overwhelmingly pro- were overwhelmingly pro- were overwhelmingly pro- Caesar. Caesar's most implacable and Caesar. Caesar's most implacable and Caesar. Caesar's most implacable and incorruptible opponent knew that the end incorruptible opponent knew that the end incorruptible opponent knew that the end had come. He also knew that there was had come. He also knew that there was had come. He also knew that there was nothing Caesar like more than pardoning nothing Caesar like more than pardoning nothing Caesar like more than pardoning his enemies and leaving them in his his enemies and leaving them in his his enemies and leaving them in his debt. Ko had no intention of giving him debt. Ko had no intention of giving him debt. Ko had no intention of giving him the the the pleasure. After setting his affairs in pleasure. After setting his affairs in pleasure. After setting his affairs in order, he retired for the evening with a order, he retired for the evening with a order, he retired for the evening with a copy of Plato's Photo, the dialogue that copy of Plato's Photo, the dialogue that copy of Plato's Photo, the dialogue that ends with Socrates drinking the hemlock ends with Socrates drinking the hemlock ends with Socrates drinking the hemlock tea. tea. tea. Ko had smuggled a knife into the tent Ko had smuggled a knife into the tent Ko had smuggled a knife into the tent with him despite being searched by his with him despite being searched by his with him despite being searched by his son who feared his father's intentions son who feared his father's intentions son who feared his father's intentions and plunged it into his stomach when he and plunged it into his stomach when he and plunged it into his stomach when he was done reading. When his body hit the was done reading. When his body hit the was done reading. When his body hit the floor, his friends came running and a floor, his friends came running and a floor, his friends came running and a doctor patched the old senator back doctor patched the old senator back doctor patched the old senator back together. But Ko was nothing if not together. But Ko was nothing if not together. But Ko was nothing if not stubborn. When he came to, he ripped out stubborn. When he came to, he ripped out stubborn. When he came to, he ripped out the bandages, causing enough damage that the bandages, causing enough damage that the bandages, causing enough damage that this time he died, defying Caesar one this time he died, defying Caesar one this time he died, defying Caesar one last time.

last time. last time. After making sure he had nothing left to After making sure he had nothing left to After making sure he had nothing left to fear in Africa, Caesar returned to Italy fear in Africa, Caesar returned to Italy fear in Africa, Caesar returned to Italy in the summer of 46 BC and made his in the summer of 46 BC and made his in the summer of 46 BC and made his triumphal entrance into Rome. For all he triumphal entrance into Rome. For all he triumphal entrance into Rome. For all he had accomplished in all the battles he had accomplished in all the battles he had accomplished in all the battles he had won, Caesar had yet to celebrate an had won, Caesar had yet to celebrate an had won, Caesar had yet to celebrate an official triumph. He had thrown away his official triumph. He had thrown away his official triumph. He had thrown away his one opportunity years before when he one opportunity years before when he one opportunity years before when he chose to run for console instead. A bold chose to run for console instead. A bold chose to run for console instead. A bold move at the time as triumphs were move at the time as triumphs were move at the time as triumphs were usually once in a-lifetime events for a usually once in a-lifetime events for a usually once in a-lifetime events for a Roman general. But perhaps to prove that Roman general. But perhaps to prove that Roman general. But perhaps to prove that he had been right to forego the he had been right to forego the he had been right to forego the opportunity, Caesar planned to celebrate opportunity, Caesar planned to celebrate opportunity, Caesar planned to celebrate his victories with not one but four his victories with not one but four his victories with not one but four consecutive triumphs, one each to consecutive triumphs, one each to consecutive triumphs, one each to celebrate his victories in Gaul, Greece, celebrate his victories in Gaul, Greece, celebrate his victories in Gaul, Greece, Egypt, and North Africa. Coinciding with Egypt, and North Africa. Coinciding with Egypt, and North Africa. Coinciding with these great marches, Caesar threw lavish these great marches, Caesar threw lavish these great marches, Caesar threw lavish banquetss and gladatorial games. The banquetss and gladatorial games. The banquetss and gladatorial games. The wars were finally over. It was time to wars were finally over. It was time to wars were finally over. It was time to celebrate. The masses of Rome praised celebrate. The masses of Rome praised celebrate. The masses of Rome praised Caesar to the hilt and jumped headlong Caesar to the hilt and jumped headlong Caesar to the hilt and jumped headlong into his running party. They cheered as into his running party. They cheered as into his running party. They cheered as he hauled Versen Jederics out of the he hauled Versen Jederics out of the he hauled Versen Jederics out of the cell he had been languishing in and had cell he had been languishing in and had cell he had been languishing in and had him strangled. They laughed at giant him strangled. They laughed at giant him strangled. They laughed at giant depictions of all the foreign enemies he depictions of all the foreign enemies he depictions of all the foreign enemies he had beaten and marveled at the exotic had beaten and marveled at the exotic had beaten and marveled at the exotic creatures he put on creatures he put on creatures he put on display. But in the fourth and final display. But in the fourth and final display. But in the fourth and final triumph, Caesar finally made a mistake triumph, Caesar finally made a mistake triumph, Caesar finally made a mistake and pushed things too far. While the and pushed things too far. While the and pushed things too far. While the Romans had no problem cheering his Romans had no problem cheering his Romans had no problem cheering his victory over Egyptian Unix, when the victory over Egyptian Unix, when the victory over Egyptian Unix, when the floats bearing the images of dying Ko floats bearing the images of dying Ko floats bearing the images of dying Ko and fleeing Matelis Scipio came down the and fleeing Matelis Scipio came down the and fleeing Matelis Scipio came down the street, the mood of the masses changed.

street, the mood of the masses changed. street, the mood of the masses changed. No one actually liked Ko, but should No one actually liked Ko, but should No one actually liked Ko, but should they really be reveling in the suicide they really be reveling in the suicide they really be reveling in the suicide of the great statesmen? It made them of the great statesmen? It made them of the great statesmen? It made them think about who they were celebrating think about who they were celebrating think about who they were celebrating and what they were celebrating. and what they were celebrating. and what they were celebrating. Stability was wonderful and everyone was Stability was wonderful and everyone was Stability was wonderful and everyone was glad the Civil War was over. But what glad the Civil War was over. But what glad the Civil War was over. But what now? With Ko dead, was there anyone left now? With Ko dead, was there anyone left now? With Ko dead, was there anyone left to defend the Republic? Was there even a to defend the Republic? Was there even a to defend the Republic? Was there even a republic left to defend? Caesar was republic left to defend? Caesar was republic left to defend? Caesar was surprised the reaction. All he had done surprised the reaction. All he had done surprised the reaction. All he had done was dislodge the corrupt oligarchs who was dislodge the corrupt oligarchs who was dislodge the corrupt oligarchs who had sat parasitically on the top of the had sat parasitically on the top of the had sat parasitically on the top of the Roman political economy. The people Roman political economy. The people Roman political economy. The people ought to be offering toast after toast ought to be offering toast after toast ought to be offering toast after toast to the death of Ko. But here they were to the death of Ko. But here they were to the death of Ko. But here they were mourning him. It didn't make any sense. mourning him. It didn't make any sense. mourning him. It didn't make any sense. Caesar chose not to dwell on it. He had Caesar chose not to dwell on it. He had Caesar chose not to dwell on it. He had work to do. But the seeds of work to do. But the seeds of work to do. But the seeds of disenchantment had been planted. As I mentioned a few episodes ago, if As I mentioned a few episodes ago, if the governing apparatus of the state was the governing apparatus of the state was the governing apparatus of the state was to fall into the hands of a single man, to fall into the hands of a single man, to fall into the hands of a single man, Rome could have done a lot worse than Rome could have done a lot worse than Rome could have done a lot worse than Julius Caesar. And as we will see down Julius Caesar. And as we will see down Julius Caesar. And as we will see down the line, Rome eventually does do quite the line, Rome eventually does do quite the line, Rome eventually does do quite a bit worse than Julius a bit worse than Julius a bit worse than Julius Caesar. While the Mark Antines of the Caesar. While the Mark Antines of the Caesar. While the Mark Antines of the world see absolute power as a vehicle world see absolute power as a vehicle world see absolute power as a vehicle for personal indulgence, the Julius for personal indulgence, the Julius for personal indulgence, the Julius Caesars of the world see absolute power Caesars of the world see absolute power Caesars of the world see absolute power as a vehicle for total reform.

as a vehicle for total reform. as a vehicle for total reform. Caesar saw in the old republican system Caesar saw in the old republican system Caesar saw in the old republican system a laundry list of injustices, a laundry list of injustices, a laundry list of injustices, irrationalities, and inefficiencies that irrationalities, and inefficiencies that irrationalities, and inefficiencies that did unnecessary harm to the people and did unnecessary harm to the people and did unnecessary harm to the people and the the the empire. He brought with him to power an empire. He brought with him to power an empire. He brought with him to power an ambitious agenda designed to write the ambitious agenda designed to write the ambitious agenda designed to write the ship of state. But where Sullah had ship of state. But where Sullah had ship of state. But where Sullah had attempted a similar writing of the ship attempted a similar writing of the ship attempted a similar writing of the ship by turning to the past, Caesar's eye was by turning to the past, Caesar's eye was by turning to the past, Caesar's eye was firmly on the future. The republic was firmly on the future. The republic was firmly on the future. The republic was dead, and the outmoded ways it did dead, and the outmoded ways it did dead, and the outmoded ways it did business ought to die with it. If Rome business ought to die with it. If Rome business ought to die with it. If Rome was to rule what it had conquered, it was to rule what it had conquered, it was to rule what it had conquered, it needed a systemwide overhaul. The first thing on his agenda overhaul. The first thing on his agenda was a proper census. Since the start of was a proper census. Since the start of was a proper census. Since the start of the Civil War 3 years earlier, there had the Civil War 3 years earlier, there had the Civil War 3 years earlier, there had been massive upheavalss in the been massive upheavalss in the been massive upheavalss in the population and economy. Families had population and economy. Families had population and economy. Families had moved, fled, had their property seized, moved, fled, had their property seized, moved, fled, had their property seized, moved back, resettled elsewhere, or been moved back, resettled elsewhere, or been moved back, resettled elsewhere, or been consumed by the violence and anarchy. No consumed by the violence and anarchy. No consumed by the violence and anarchy. No one had any real idea how many people one had any real idea how many people one had any real idea how many people actually lived in Rome, nor really who actually lived in Rome, nor really who actually lived in Rome, nor really who owned what owned what owned what anymore. Caesar sent agents from house anymore. Caesar sent agents from house anymore. Caesar sent agents from house to house to count every man, woman, and to house to count every man, woman, and to house to count every man, woman, and child and determine their citizenship child and determine their citizenship child and determine their citizenship status and status and status and income. The immediate issue was Caesar's income. The immediate issue was Caesar's income. The immediate issue was Caesar's suspicion that the free grandle was suspicion that the free grandle was suspicion that the free grandle was being abused by non-citizen foreign being abused by non-citizen foreign being abused by non-citizen foreign residents and by citizens whose property residents and by citizens whose property residents and by citizens whose property disqualified them from state charity.

disqualified them from state charity. disqualified them from state charity. When the numbers came back, they showed When the numbers came back, they showed When the numbers came back, they showed that while some 320,000 had been that while some 320,000 had been that while some 320,000 had been receiving grain aotments, only 150,000 receiving grain aotments, only 150,000 receiving grain aotments, only 150,000 actually qualified. So Caesar haved the actually qualified. So Caesar haved the actually qualified. So Caesar haved the free grain supply, instantly saving the free grain supply, instantly saving the free grain supply, instantly saving the state a huge quantity of money, and he state a huge quantity of money, and he state a huge quantity of money, and he was just getting was just getting was just getting started. Also contained within the started. Also contained within the started. Also contained within the census numbers, which showed a total census numbers, which showed a total census numbers, which showed a total population of some 900,000, Caesar also population of some 900,000, Caesar also population of some 900,000, Caesar also discovered that Rome had become discovered that Rome had become discovered that Rome had become economically unbalanced. economically unbalanced. economically unbalanced. There were a ton of poor laborers and a There were a ton of poor laborers and a There were a ton of poor laborers and a few rich nobles. But the middle class few rich nobles. But the middle class few rich nobles. But the middle class was badly under reppresented. So he was badly under reppresented. So he was badly under reppresented. So he instituted a dual policy to solve the instituted a dual policy to solve the instituted a dual policy to solve the problem. On the one hand, he offered problem. On the one hand, he offered problem. On the one hand, he offered citizenship to any foreign professionals citizenship to any foreign professionals citizenship to any foreign professionals who migrated to the city. While on the who migrated to the city. While on the who migrated to the city. While on the other hand, he set up a colonization other hand, he set up a colonization other hand, he set up a colonization program offering land to citizens who program offering land to citizens who program offering land to citizens who moved out to the moved out to the moved out to the provinces. Over the next few years, some provinces. Over the next few years, some provinces. Over the next few years, some 80,000 members of the urban poor took 80,000 members of the urban poor took 80,000 members of the urban poor took Caesar up on his offer and moved out of Caesar up on his offer and moved out of Caesar up on his offer and moved out of the city. while teachers and doctors the city. while teachers and doctors the city. while teachers and doctors from across the empire resettle in the from across the empire resettle in the from across the empire resettle in the capital. It was a winwinwin for capital. It was a winwinwin for capital. It was a winwinwin for everyone. Skilled professionals received everyone. Skilled professionals received everyone. Skilled professionals received citizenship. Poor workers moved out of citizenship. Poor workers moved out of citizenship. Poor workers moved out of the slums and onto small farms. And Rome the slums and onto small farms. And Rome the slums and onto small farms. And Rome itself became more itself became more itself became more prosperous. At the same time, Caesar prosperous. At the same time, Caesar prosperous. At the same time, Caesar took care of his loyal soldiers and took care of his loyal soldiers and took care of his loyal soldiers and lived up to his promise to release them lived up to his promise to release them lived up to his promise to release them and grant them back pay and land. As and grant them back pay and land. As and grant them back pay and land. As much as he loved them, though, he made much as he loved them, though, he made much as he loved them, though, he made sure to scatter the veteran settlements sure to scatter the veteran settlements sure to scatter the veteran settlements across the whole of the empire. There is across the whole of the empire. There is across the whole of the empire. There is nothing more dangerous than congregating nothing more dangerous than congregating nothing more dangerous than congregating veterans. Eventually, they get veterans. Eventually, they get veterans. Eventually, they get ideas. He also followed through on one ideas. He also followed through on one ideas. He also followed through on one of the promises he had made to his

of the promises he had made to his of the promises he had made to his foreign allies while he traveled the foreign allies while he traveled the foreign allies while he traveled the empire during the wars. That if he won, empire during the wars. That if he won, empire during the wars. That if he won, Roman citizenship would be the prize of Roman citizenship would be the prize of Roman citizenship would be the prize of victory. Caesar had always seen victory. Caesar had always seen victory. Caesar had always seen restrictions on citizenship as a great restrictions on citizenship as a great restrictions on citizenship as a great hindrance to the empire, benefiting only hindrance to the empire, benefiting only hindrance to the empire, benefiting only the nobles who jealously hoarded power. the nobles who jealously hoarded power. the nobles who jealously hoarded power. Having already granted citizenship to Having already granted citizenship to Having already granted citizenship to the population of his old province of the population of his old province of the population of his old province of Cisal Alpine Gaul during the early Cisal Alpine Gaul during the early Cisal Alpine Gaul during the early stages of the war, Caesar liberally stages of the war, Caesar liberally stages of the war, Caesar liberally granted citizenship to his allies and granted citizenship to his allies and granted citizenship to his allies and men he hoped to become his allies across men he hoped to become his allies across men he hoped to become his allies across the multinational the multinational the multinational empire. Not only did it bind the men empire. Not only did it bind the men empire. Not only did it bind the men personally to Caesar, but in the future personally to Caesar, but in the future personally to Caesar, but in the future it would bind their families to Rome. it would bind their families to Rome. it would bind their families to Rome. Citizenship in the empire meant that Citizenship in the empire meant that Citizenship in the empire meant that potentially sedicious elements in Syria potentially sedicious elements in Syria potentially sedicious elements in Syria or Spain or Greece would now see their or Spain or Greece would now see their or Spain or Greece would now see their interests aligned with Romes. Caesar had interests aligned with Romes. Caesar had interests aligned with Romes. Caesar had the vision to see that the empire would the vision to see that the empire would the vision to see that the empire would not survive if it remained simply a not survive if it remained simply a not survive if it remained simply a Roman empire. It must embrace its Roman empire. It must embrace its Roman empire. It must embrace its growing multithnic character or it would growing multithnic character or it would growing multithnic character or it would inevitably fracture. inevitably fracture. inevitably fracture. To this end, he also expanded the ranks To this end, he also expanded the ranks To this end, he also expanded the ranks of the depleted Senate to some thousand of the depleted Senate to some thousand of the depleted Senate to some thousand members and to the horror of old members and to the horror of old members and to the horror of old conservatives welcomed into the august conservatives welcomed into the august conservatives welcomed into the august body important read loyal to Caesar men body important read loyal to Caesar men body important read loyal to Caesar men from across the empire regardless of from across the empire regardless of from across the empire regardless of their national their national their national origins. After taking care of all these origins. After taking care of all these origins. After taking care of all these human questions, infranchisement, grain, human questions, infranchisement, grain, human questions, infranchisement, grain, colonization, Caesar turned to the colonization, Caesar turned to the colonization, Caesar turned to the physical infrastructure of the empire.

physical infrastructure of the empire. physical infrastructure of the empire. The city had been crumbling and as in The city had been crumbling and as in The city had been crumbling and as in the case of the old Senate House, been the case of the old Senate House, been the case of the old Senate House, been deliberately destroyed in the chaos of deliberately destroyed in the chaos of deliberately destroyed in the chaos of the previous few years. Caesar initiated the previous few years. Caesar initiated the previous few years. Caesar initiated a slew of public works projects, a slew of public works projects, a slew of public works projects, rebuilding and expanding the neglected rebuilding and expanding the neglected rebuilding and expanding the neglected city. But he had his eye not just on city. But he had his eye not just on city. But he had his eye not just on Rome itself. Caesar personally drew up Rome itself. Caesar personally drew up Rome itself. Caesar personally drew up plans for an expanded and rationalized plans for an expanded and rationalized plans for an expanded and rationalized harbor at the poorly conceived but harbor at the poorly conceived but harbor at the poorly conceived but vitally important port of Oia. He also vitally important port of Oia. He also vitally important port of Oia. He also initiated a program to drain the swamps initiated a program to drain the swamps initiated a program to drain the swamps around Italy, which he saw as little around Italy, which he saw as little around Italy, which he saw as little more than factories for malaria. The more than factories for malaria. The more than factories for malaria. The modernization program was bold and modernization program was bold and modernization program was bold and farreaching. But perhaps his boldest and farreaching. But perhaps his boldest and farreaching. But perhaps his boldest and farthest reaching program was to farthest reaching program was to farthest reaching program was to reimagine the nature of time reimagine the nature of time reimagine the nature of time itself. Since its inception, Rome had itself. Since its inception, Rome had itself. Since its inception, Rome had operated on a lunar calendar. to handle operated on a lunar calendar. to handle operated on a lunar calendar. to handle the lag between the 355day lunar year the lag between the 355day lunar year the lag between the 355day lunar year and the 365day solar year. The high and the 365day solar year. The high and the 365day solar year. The high priests were forever inserting holy days priests were forever inserting holy days priests were forever inserting holy days to keep the months and years aligned. to keep the months and years aligned. to keep the months and years aligned. But in the chaos of the war years, the But in the chaos of the war years, the But in the chaos of the war years, the calendar had been neglected and things calendar had been neglected and things calendar had been neglected and things were completely out of whack. Caesar were completely out of whack. Caesar were completely out of whack. Caesar decided to prevent this from ever decided to prevent this from ever decided to prevent this from ever happening again by officially moving happening again by officially moving happening again by officially moving Rome onto a solar calendar.

Rome onto a solar calendar. Rome onto a solar calendar. Using a Greek astronomer's calculations, Using a Greek astronomer's calculations, Using a Greek astronomer's calculations, he declared a 12-month, 365day year with he declared a 12-month, 365day year with he declared a 12-month, 365day year with a leap day scheduled every four years. a leap day scheduled every four years. a leap day scheduled every four years. Sound familiar? The Julian calendar Sound familiar? The Julian calendar Sound familiar? The Julian calendar would remain in effect in the West until would remain in effect in the West until would remain in effect in the West until the 1500s when it was tweaked by Pope the 1500s when it was tweaked by Pope the 1500s when it was tweaked by Pope Gregory to reflect the subtle drift of Gregory to reflect the subtle drift of Gregory to reflect the subtle drift of the equinoxes over the centuries. But in the equinoxes over the centuries. But in the equinoxes over the centuries. But in substance, we live today in the calendar substance, we live today in the calendar substance, we live today in the calendar that Julius Caesar declared unilaterally that Julius Caesar declared unilaterally that Julius Caesar declared unilaterally in 46 BC. The month of July, Giuli, in 46 BC. The month of July, Giuli, in 46 BC. The month of July, Giuli, should tell us everything we need to should tell us everything we need to should tell us everything we need to know about the impact of Caesar's vision. There is little doubt that vision. There is little doubt that Caesar's reforms had a net positive Caesar's reforms had a net positive Caesar's reforms had a net positive impact on the empire and coupled with impact on the empire and coupled with impact on the empire and coupled with the subsequent overhauls initiated by the subsequent overhauls initiated by the subsequent overhauls initiated by Augustus, his policy set the stage for Augustus, his policy set the stage for Augustus, his policy set the stage for another five centuries of Roman another five centuries of Roman another five centuries of Roman dominance over the Mediterranean basin. dominance over the Mediterranean basin. dominance over the Mediterranean basin. But there was still the little matter of But there was still the little matter of But there was still the little matter of how all of these necessary reforms were how all of these necessary reforms were how all of these necessary reforms were being executed. being executed. being executed. It had been 500 years since the Romans It had been 500 years since the Romans It had been 500 years since the Romans had driven out Tarquinius Perbus and had driven out Tarquinius Perbus and had driven out Tarquinius Perbus and founded their republic, believing that founded their republic, believing that founded their republic, believing that never again should one man hold absolute never again should one man hold absolute never again should one man hold absolute power over his power over his power over his countrymen. On what authority was Caesar countrymen. On what authority was Caesar countrymen. On what authority was Caesar really acting? What were his real really acting? What were his real really acting? What were his real intentions? When the crowds in the intentions? When the crowds in the intentions? When the crowds in the street hailed him as Rex Caesar, and he street hailed him as Rex Caesar, and he street hailed him as Rex Caesar, and he casually waved them off, was he waving casually waved them off, was he waving casually waved them off, was he waving off their attempts to crown him or off their attempts to crown him or off their attempts to crown him or waving off their attempts to crown him waving off their attempts to crown him waving off their attempts to crown him as simply premature?

as simply premature? as simply premature? Next week, we will get more into the Next week, we will get more into the Next week, we will get more into the specifics of Caesar's legal authority specifics of Caesar's legal authority specifics of Caesar's legal authority through this period. But suffice it to through this period. But suffice it to through this period. But suffice it to say that a growing contingent of the say that a growing contingent of the say that a growing contingent of the waning nobility did not believe for a waning nobility did not believe for a waning nobility did not believe for a second Caesar's claims that he would second Caesar's claims that he would second Caesar's claims that he would restore the old order as soon as order restore the old order as soon as order restore the old order as soon as order itself was itself was itself was restored. When a group of senators restored. When a group of senators restored. When a group of senators called on Caesar one afternoon, and he called on Caesar one afternoon, and he called on Caesar one afternoon, and he did not rise to greet them as equals, did not rise to greet them as equals, did not rise to greet them as equals, but instead remain seated in lordly but instead remain seated in lordly but instead remain seated in lordly fashion, they saw their worst fears fashion, they saw their worst fears fashion, they saw their worst fears confirmed. confirmed. confirmed. Caesar was aiming to make himself a king Caesar was aiming to make himself a king Caesar was aiming to make himself a king and a god, and he must be stopped. And and a god, and he must be stopped. And and a god, and he must be stopped. And though Caesar was clearly aiming for though Caesar was clearly aiming for though Caesar was clearly aiming for immortality, they knew that in fact he immortality, they knew that in fact he immortality, they knew that in fact he was just a man, a man who could and must was just a man, a man who could and must was just a man, a man who could and must be killed. be killed. be killed. [Music] Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Rome. Episode 46. Six seer Rome. Episode 46. Six seer Rome. Episode 46. Six seer tyrannis. In 46 BC, Julius Caesar stayed tyrannis. In 46 BC, Julius Caesar stayed tyrannis. In 46 BC, Julius Caesar stayed in Rome for an extended period for the in Rome for an extended period for the in Rome for an extended period for the first time since heading to Gaul some 12 first time since heading to Gaul some 12 first time since heading to Gaul some 12 years earlier. During the summer, he was years earlier. During the summer, he was years earlier. During the summer, he was joined by Queen Cleopatra, who visited joined by Queen Cleopatra, who visited joined by Queen Cleopatra, who visited the city as an honored guest. Somewhat the city as an honored guest. Somewhat the city as an honored guest. Somewhat awkwardly for Caesar, she brought with awkwardly for Caesar, she brought with awkwardly for Caesar, she brought with her the product of their affair, a small her the product of their affair, a small her the product of their affair, a small boy nicknamed Cesarian, or little boy nicknamed Cesarian, or little boy nicknamed Cesarian, or little Caesar, who would prove to be the great Caesar, who would prove to be the great Caesar, who would prove to be the great general's only son. Though Cicero found general's only son. Though Cicero found general's only son. Though Cicero found her infuriating, and Kalpernia cannot her infuriating, and Kalpernia cannot her infuriating, and Kalpernia cannot have been happy to see her husband's have been happy to see her husband's have been happy to see her husband's lover parading around their illegitimate

lover parading around their illegitimate lover parading around their illegitimate child, Cleopatra charmed the city and child, Cleopatra charmed the city and child, Cleopatra charmed the city and was formerly made a friend of Rome by was formerly made a friend of Rome by was formerly made a friend of Rome by the Senate. The Roman envelopment of the Senate. The Roman envelopment of the Senate. The Roman envelopment of Egypt, long sought and long staved off Egypt, long sought and long staved off Egypt, long sought and long staved off by bribery, was now by bribery, was now by bribery, was now official. Through the spring and summer, official. Through the spring and summer, official. Through the spring and summer, Caesar worked furiously on his reform Caesar worked furiously on his reform Caesar worked furiously on his reform projects, trying to salvage the Roman projects, trying to salvage the Roman projects, trying to salvage the Roman economy and restore stability to the economy and restore stability to the economy and restore stability to the empire. I would like to thank alert empire. I would like to thank alert empire. I would like to thank alert listener Dave for pointing out an error listener Dave for pointing out an error listener Dave for pointing out an error I made last week in recounting the I made last week in recounting the I made last week in recounting the changes to the calendar. It turns out changes to the calendar. It turns out changes to the calendar. It turns out that Caesar actually got his math wrong that Caesar actually got his math wrong that Caesar actually got his math wrong and inserted a leap day every 3 years and inserted a leap day every 3 years and inserted a leap day every 3 years rather than every four years. The rather than every four years. The rather than every four years. The mistake would stand for another 30 years mistake would stand for another 30 years mistake would stand for another 30 years until the reforms of Augustus. And until the reforms of Augustus. And until the reforms of Augustus. And speaking of corrections, I would also speaking of corrections, I would also speaking of corrections, I would also like to thank alert and longtime like to thank alert and longtime like to thank alert and longtime listener Detliff for pointing out that I listener Detliff for pointing out that I listener Detliff for pointing out that I got crossed up on my Roman numerals a got crossed up on my Roman numerals a got crossed up on my Roman numerals a few episodes back and referred to few episodes back and referred to few episodes back and referred to Mithrates the Great as Mythrates V 6th Mithrates the Great as Mythrates V 6th Mithrates the Great as Mythrates V 6th rather than Mithrates IVth. Thanks guys rather than Mithrates IVth. Thanks guys rather than Mithrates IVth. Thanks guys for helping me keep everything for helping me keep everything for helping me keep everything straight. At this point, Caesar still straight. At this point, Caesar still straight. At this point, Caesar still officially served as co-consul with officially served as co-consul with officially served as co-consul with Lepitus as his colleague and had not yet Lepitus as his colleague and had not yet Lepitus as his colleague and had not yet embraced the full-time role of dictator embraced the full-time role of dictator embraced the full-time role of dictator that he would be remembered for. But that he would be remembered for. But that he would be remembered for. But while technically he was just another while technically he was just another while technically he was just another average Republican executive, in reality average Republican executive, in reality average Republican executive, in reality the word of mere consul Julius Caesar the word of mere consul Julius Caesar the word of mere consul Julius Caesar was the undisputed law of the land, it was the undisputed law of the land, it was the undisputed law of the land, it felt good to finally wield the power he felt good to finally wield the power he felt good to finally wield the power he had sought for so long. And it felt had sought for so long. And it felt had sought for so long. And it felt doubly good that for the first time in doubly good that for the first time in doubly good that for the first time in years, there were no enemies on the years, there were no enemies on the years, there were no enemies on the horizon threatening to take it all away.

horizon threatening to take it all away. horizon threatening to take it all away. As he remade the city, though, he As he remade the city, though, he As he remade the city, though, he received new reports of trouble in received new reports of trouble in received new reports of trouble in Spain. At first, he hoped to simply Spain. At first, he hoped to simply Spain. At first, he hoped to simply brush them aside. He had won the war. He brush them aside. He had won the war. He brush them aside. He had won the war. He was in power. He did not want to hear was in power. He did not want to hear was in power. He did not want to hear that the sons of Pompy were raising more that the sons of Pompy were raising more that the sons of Pompy were raising more legions in Hispania to challenge his legions in Hispania to challenge his legions in Hispania to challenge his rule. Finally though, he was forced to rule. Finally though, he was forced to rule. Finally though, he was forced to acknowledge the problem when word came acknowledge the problem when word came acknowledge the problem when word came that the ragtag remnants of the Senate's that the ragtag remnants of the Senate's that the ragtag remnants of the Senate's North African army was now 13 legions North African army was now 13 legions North African army was now 13 legions strong. Sigh. strong. Sigh. strong. Sigh. So, in the autumn of 46 BC, Caesar set So, in the autumn of 46 BC, Caesar set So, in the autumn of 46 BC, Caesar set out from the city once again with two of out from the city once again with two of out from the city once again with two of his veteran legions, marching to Spain his veteran legions, marching to Spain his veteran legions, marching to Spain in less than a month, gathering recruits in less than a month, gathering recruits in less than a month, gathering recruits along the way and joining with a force along the way and joining with a force along the way and joining with a force that had been raised in anticipation of that had been raised in anticipation of that had been raised in anticipation of his his his arrival. In the end, he marshaled some arrival. In the end, he marshaled some arrival. In the end, he marshaled some 40,000 to face off against the 70,000 40,000 to face off against the 70,000 40,000 to face off against the 70,000 raised by the Pompies, outnumbered raised by the Pompies, outnumbered raised by the Pompies, outnumbered again. again. again. Sigh. But the speed of his advance had Sigh. But the speed of his advance had Sigh. But the speed of his advance had taken his enemies by surprise and Caesar taken his enemies by surprise and Caesar taken his enemies by surprise and Caesar was able to reclaim much of the was able to reclaim much of the was able to reclaim much of the territory taken by the Pompy brothers. territory taken by the Pompy brothers. territory taken by the Pompy brothers. With Caesar in country and clearly every With Caesar in country and clearly every With Caesar in country and clearly every bit the general he had always been.

bit the general he had always been. bit the general he had always been. Soldiers on the other side began to get Soldiers on the other side began to get Soldiers on the other side began to get nervous and defect in droves. The nervous and defect in droves. The nervous and defect in droves. The Pompies found themselves forced to Pompies found themselves forced to Pompies found themselves forced to challenge Caesar in battle immediately. challenge Caesar in battle immediately. challenge Caesar in battle immediately. If they waited any longer, they risked If they waited any longer, they risked If they waited any longer, they risked losing their whole army to defection. So losing their whole army to defection. So losing their whole army to defection. So in March of 45 BC on a slope outside the in March of 45 BC on a slope outside the in March of 45 BC on a slope outside the fortified city of Munda, the two sides fortified city of Munda, the two sides fortified city of Munda, the two sides met. Caesar was in the weaker position, met. Caesar was in the weaker position, met. Caesar was in the weaker position, but like always, he acted boldly and but like always, he acted boldly and but like always, he acted boldly and ordered his legions to charge up the ordered his legions to charge up the ordered his legions to charge up the hill. The battle was an extremely hill. The battle was an extremely hill. The battle was an extremely hard-fought, bloody affair. Caesar hard-fought, bloody affair. Caesar hard-fought, bloody affair. Caesar himself was recorded to have said himself was recorded to have said himself was recorded to have said afterwards that while he usually fought afterwards that while he usually fought afterwards that while he usually fought for victory, at Munda, he fought for his for victory, at Munda, he fought for his for victory, at Munda, he fought for his life. Indeed, the battle was going life. Indeed, the battle was going life. Indeed, the battle was going against him for quite a while until he against him for quite a while until he against him for quite a while until he personally took charge of the right wing personally took charge of the right wing personally took charge of the right wing and rallied his belleaguered troops. The and rallied his belleaguered troops. The and rallied his belleaguered troops. The Pompeans reinforced the line in the face Pompeans reinforced the line in the face Pompeans reinforced the line in the face of Caesar's counterattack, but wound up of Caesar's counterattack, but wound up of Caesar's counterattack, but wound up losing the left as a result, allowing losing the left as a result, allowing losing the left as a result, allowing Caesar's cavalry to break through and Caesar's cavalry to break through and Caesar's cavalry to break through and surround them. Engulfed, the Pompean surround them. Engulfed, the Pompean surround them. Engulfed, the Pompean army broke. The final numbers of 30,000 army broke. The final numbers of 30,000 army broke. The final numbers of 30,000 dead Pompeans to a mere thousand for dead Pompeans to a mere thousand for dead Pompeans to a mere thousand for Caesar hide how close Caesar came to Caesar hide how close Caesar came to Caesar hide how close Caesar came to losing everything. But what hid nothing losing everything. But what hid nothing losing everything. But what hid nothing was the 13 legionary standards Caesar was the 13 legionary standards Caesar was the 13 legionary standards Caesar captured. Military resistance in Spain captured. Military resistance in Spain captured. Military resistance in Spain was shattered and the sons of Pompy was shattered and the sons of Pompy was shattered and the sons of Pompy fled. One would be captured a few months fled. One would be captured a few months fled. One would be captured a few months later and executed while the other would later and executed while the other would later and executed while the other would remain on the run for another decade remain on the run for another decade remain on the run for another decade before being caught and executed by before being caught and executed by before being caught and executed by Octavian. Caesar remained in Spain for a Octavian. Caesar remained in Spain for a Octavian. Caesar remained in Spain for a few months, consolidating his rule and few months, consolidating his rule and few months, consolidating his rule and repairing the damage done by the corrupt repairing the damage done by the corrupt repairing the damage done by the corrupt and ruthless governor he had left in

and ruthless governor he had left in and ruthless governor he had left in charge after winning the province in 49 charge after winning the province in 49 charge after winning the province in 49 BC. BC. BC. Then with autumn approaching and the Then with autumn approaching and the Then with autumn approaching and the situation in Spain dealt with, Caesar situation in Spain dealt with, Caesar situation in Spain dealt with, Caesar and his entourage headed back to Rome. and his entourage headed back to Rome. and his entourage headed back to Rome. Unlike his return to the city after the Unlike his return to the city after the Unlike his return to the city after the Alexandrian campaign or after his Alexandrian campaign or after his Alexandrian campaign or after his victory at Thapsis when he headed back victory at Thapsis when he headed back victory at Thapsis when he headed back to the capital this time, nowhere in the to the capital this time, nowhere in the to the capital this time, nowhere in the whole of the empire did there lurk an whole of the empire did there lurk an whole of the empire did there lurk an enemy army to challenge him. This time enemy army to challenge him. This time enemy army to challenge him. This time he really was the undisputed master of he really was the undisputed master of he really was the undisputed master of Rome. But of course it does not take an Rome. But of course it does not take an Rome. But of course it does not take an army to bring down a single man. With army to bring down a single man. With army to bring down a single man. With every opposition army destroyed, every opposition army destroyed, every opposition army destroyed, Caesar's enemies turned to conspiracy. Caesar's enemies turned to conspiracy. Caesar's enemies turned to conspiracy. The object now was not to defeat Caesar, The object now was not to defeat Caesar, The object now was not to defeat Caesar, but to kill but to kill but to kill him. At first, it was only a hardcore him. At first, it was only a hardcore him. At first, it was only a hardcore contingent of enemies who thirsted for contingent of enemies who thirsted for contingent of enemies who thirsted for Caesar's blood. But his attitude after Caesar's blood. But his attitude after Caesar's blood. But his attitude after becoming soulmaster of the empire becoming soulmaster of the empire becoming soulmaster of the empire alienated many who were ambivalent to alienated many who were ambivalent to alienated many who were ambivalent to his rule and embittered many who had his rule and embittered many who had his rule and embittered many who had been his greatest friends. Mark Antne been his greatest friends. Mark Antne been his greatest friends. Mark Antne though despite the recent falling out though despite the recent falling out though despite the recent falling out with his old friend and numerous with his old friend and numerous with his old friend and numerous overtures from the conspirators refused overtures from the conspirators refused overtures from the conspirators refused to join the ranks of the disaffected to join the ranks of the disaffected to join the ranks of the disaffected plotters. His continued loyalty was plotters. His continued loyalty was plotters. His continued loyalty was wellreceived and on his way back to Rome wellreceived and on his way back to Rome wellreceived and on his way back to Rome from Spain with his young great nephew from Spain with his young great nephew from Spain with his young great nephew Octavian by his side. Caesar picked up Octavian by his side. Caesar picked up Octavian by his side. Caesar picked up Antne from his political doghouse in Antne from his political doghouse in Antne from his political doghouse in Gaul and the two old friends patched Gaul and the two old friends patched Gaul and the two old friends patched things up. But while Anony's support things up. But while Anony's support things up. But while Anony's support never wavered, a man in whom Caesar never wavered, a man in whom Caesar never wavered, a man in whom Caesar support for never wavered, Marcus support for never wavered, Marcus support for never wavered, Marcus Brutus, would soon find himself at the Brutus, would soon find himself at the Brutus, would soon find himself at the forefront of the plot to kill his forefront of the plot to kill his forefront of the plot to kill his wouldbe father wouldbe father wouldbe father figure. The main controversy surrounding

figure. The main controversy surrounding figure. The main controversy surrounding Caesar after his return to Rome in Caesar after his return to Rome in Caesar after his return to Rome in September of 45 BC and the one that was September of 45 BC and the one that was September of 45 BC and the one that was the primary catalyst for his the primary catalyst for his the primary catalyst for his assassination was the question of assassination was the question of assassination was the question of whether or not he was planning to have whether or not he was planning to have whether or not he was planning to have himself crowned king. himself crowned king. himself crowned king. Not being a dummy, Caesar always went to Not being a dummy, Caesar always went to Not being a dummy, Caesar always went to great lengths to prove that he had no great lengths to prove that he had no great lengths to prove that he had no desire to establish a monarchy. But the desire to establish a monarchy. But the desire to establish a monarchy. But the rumor persisted and overt attempts to so rumor persisted and overt attempts to so rumor persisted and overt attempts to so crown him kept popping up quote unquote crown him kept popping up quote unquote crown him kept popping up quote unquote spontaneously throughout the year 45. spontaneously throughout the year 45. spontaneously throughout the year 45. While he continued to serve officially While he continued to serve officially While he continued to serve officially as console, this time he had not as console, this time he had not as console, this time he had not bothered with the formality of naming a bothered with the formality of naming a bothered with the formality of naming a colleague, and he seemed to be drifting colleague, and he seemed to be drifting colleague, and he seemed to be drifting more and more towards overt autocracy. more and more towards overt autocracy. more and more towards overt autocracy. And unfortunately for Caesar, just as And unfortunately for Caesar, just as And unfortunately for Caesar, just as his attitude was becoming more hotty, his attitude was becoming more hotty, his attitude was becoming more hotty, his grasp of public relations, once his his grasp of public relations, once his his grasp of public relations, once his greatest asset, began to greatest asset, began to greatest asset, began to slip. First, Caesar proved that he had slip. First, Caesar proved that he had slip. First, Caesar proved that he had learned nothing from the outrage over learned nothing from the outrage over learned nothing from the outrage over his last triumph and staged an official his last triumph and staged an official his last triumph and staged an official event to celebrate his victory in Spain. event to celebrate his victory in Spain. event to celebrate his victory in Spain. Again, the people of Rome were dismayed Again, the people of Rome were dismayed Again, the people of Rome were dismayed by a parade glorifying the defeat of by a parade glorifying the defeat of by a parade glorifying the defeat of their countrymen. The sons of Pompy may their countrymen. The sons of Pompy may their countrymen. The sons of Pompy may have been personal enemies of Caesar, have been personal enemies of Caesar, have been personal enemies of Caesar, but were they really public enemies of but were they really public enemies of but were they really public enemies of Rome?

Rome? Rome? Second, Caesar managed to get himself Second, Caesar managed to get himself Second, Caesar managed to get himself embroiled in a pointless public spat embroiled in a pointless public spat embroiled in a pointless public spat with Cicero over the legacy of Ko. The with Cicero over the legacy of Ko. The with Cicero over the legacy of Ko. The great orator had published a eulogy of great orator had published a eulogy of great orator had published a eulogy of his dead colleague, lavishly praising his dead colleague, lavishly praising his dead colleague, lavishly praising the old defender of the Republican the old defender of the Republican the old defender of the Republican faith. Caesar flew into a rage and faith. Caesar flew into a rage and faith. Caesar flew into a rage and against all good sense, wrote a scathing against all good sense, wrote a scathing against all good sense, wrote a scathing reply called the antio in which he reply called the antio in which he reply called the antio in which he lobbed every smear he could think of lobbed every smear he could think of lobbed every smear he could think of against his old rival. Cicero was taken against his old rival. Cicero was taken against his old rival. Cicero was taken aback by the fury of Caesar's reaction, aback by the fury of Caesar's reaction, aback by the fury of Caesar's reaction, but delighted in how unhinged the attack but delighted in how unhinged the attack but delighted in how unhinged the attack seemed. Ko may have been a lot of seemed. Ko may have been a lot of seemed. Ko may have been a lot of things, but a drunken miser who pimped things, but a drunken miser who pimped things, but a drunken miser who pimped his wife was not among them. Though the his wife was not among them. Though the his wife was not among them. Though the latter charge, through some tortured latter charge, through some tortured latter charge, through some tortured logic, had some basis in truth. Ko had logic, had some basis in truth. Ko had logic, had some basis in truth. Ko had divorced his wife so she could marry divorced his wife so she could marry divorced his wife so she could marry another richer man, and then when the another richer man, and then when the another richer man, and then when the new husband died, remarried her and new husband died, remarried her and new husband died, remarried her and reaped the rewards of her inheritance. reaped the rewards of her inheritance. reaped the rewards of her inheritance. The people of Rome, though, did not see The people of Rome, though, did not see The people of Rome, though, did not see what Caesar wanted them to see about Ko. what Caesar wanted them to see about Ko. what Caesar wanted them to see about Ko. They focused instead on his petulent They focused instead on his petulent They focused instead on his petulent hystericss, a side of Caesar they had hystericss, a side of Caesar they had hystericss, a side of Caesar they had never seen before and did not like. His never seen before and did not like. His never seen before and did not like. His enemies could not print copies of the enemies could not print copies of the enemies could not print copies of the anti-Ko fast anti-Ko fast anti-Ko fast enough. In the midst of these public enough. In the midst of these public enough. In the midst of these public offenses, little things kept popping up offenses, little things kept popping up offenses, little things kept popping up that renewed fears of Caesar's that renewed fears of Caesar's that renewed fears of Caesar's monarchical ambitions. And despite his monarchical ambitions. And despite his monarchical ambitions. And despite his protests, he certainly began to act the protests, he certainly began to act the protests, he certainly began to act the part of king.

part of king. part of king. He secured the right to wear his He secured the right to wear his He secured the right to wear his triumphal regalia at public games, which triumphal regalia at public games, which triumphal regalia at public games, which may have seemed like no big deal, but may have seemed like no big deal, but may have seemed like no big deal, but the triumphal regalia was purple, just the triumphal regalia was purple, just the triumphal regalia was purple, just like the royal robes of old. Add to this like the royal robes of old. Add to this like the royal robes of old. Add to this the golden throne he had installed in the golden throne he had installed in the golden throne he had installed in the Senate house to sit in, and a the Senate house to sit in, and a the Senate house to sit in, and a pattern started to emerge. To top things pattern started to emerge. To top things pattern started to emerge. To top things off, he ordered that a statue of himself off, he ordered that a statue of himself off, he ordered that a statue of himself be carried along with the procession of be carried along with the procession of be carried along with the procession of gods that would make its way through the gods that would make its way through the gods that would make its way through the city on holy days. So, not only was he city on holy days. So, not only was he city on holy days. So, not only was he planning to make himself king, but he planning to make himself king, but he planning to make himself king, but he was already claiming to be a god. was already claiming to be a god. was already claiming to be a god. One morning, the citizens of Rome awoke One morning, the citizens of Rome awoke One morning, the citizens of Rome awoke to find that someone had placed a crown to find that someone had placed a crown to find that someone had placed a crown on a public statue of Caesar during the on a public statue of Caesar during the on a public statue of Caesar during the night. Two tribions, vocal opponents of night. Two tribions, vocal opponents of night. Two tribions, vocal opponents of Caesar, ordered that the crown be Caesar, ordered that the crown be Caesar, ordered that the crown be removed and made a great fuss about the removed and made a great fuss about the removed and made a great fuss about the outrage. And not long after this outrage. And not long after this outrage. And not long after this incident, while he made his way through incident, while he made his way through incident, while he made his way through town, Caesar was hailed as king by a man town, Caesar was hailed as king by a man town, Caesar was hailed as king by a man in the crowd. The same two tribunes had in the crowd. The same two tribunes had in the crowd. The same two tribunes had the man hauled off to stand trial, but the man hauled off to stand trial, but the man hauled off to stand trial, but Caesar ordered the man freed and instead Caesar ordered the man freed and instead Caesar ordered the man freed and instead turned his wrath against the two turned his wrath against the two turned his wrath against the two agitating tribunes, stripping them of agitating tribunes, stripping them of agitating tribunes, stripping them of their property and forcing them to their property and forcing them to their property and forcing them to resign from office.

resign from office. resign from office. What remains a mystery is whether Caesar What remains a mystery is whether Caesar What remains a mystery is whether Caesar himself planted first the crown and then himself planted first the crown and then himself planted first the crown and then the man in the crowd as trial balloons the man in the crowd as trial balloons the man in the crowd as trial balloons or whether the two tribunes hoping to or whether the two tribunes hoping to or whether the two tribunes hoping to score political points engineered both score political points engineered both score political points engineered both events or whether one was engineered by events or whether one was engineered by events or whether one was engineered by one side and the other by the other or one side and the other by the other or one side and the other by the other or whether they were both just signs of whether they were both just signs of whether they were both just signs of organic public support for a king organic public support for a king organic public support for a king Caesar. Whoever had done what though Caesar. Whoever had done what though Caesar. Whoever had done what though talk of monarchy was in the air. talk of monarchy was in the air. talk of monarchy was in the air. For many who would take part in the For many who would take part in the For many who would take part in the assassination plot though, the last assassination plot though, the last assassination plot though, the last straw was when a group of senators came straw was when a group of senators came straw was when a group of senators came to bestow upon Caesar a long list of new to bestow upon Caesar a long list of new to bestow upon Caesar a long list of new honors, father of the fatherland, honors, father of the fatherland, honors, father of the fatherland, empirator, that sort of thing. And empirator, that sort of thing. And empirator, that sort of thing. And Caesar had failed to rise to greet them. Caesar had failed to rise to greet them. Caesar had failed to rise to greet them. There are conflicting reports about There are conflicting reports about There are conflicting reports about whether Caesar was sick at the time and whether Caesar was sick at the time and whether Caesar was sick at the time and the whole incident was blown out of the whole incident was blown out of the whole incident was blown out of proportion by his enemies or whether he proportion by his enemies or whether he proportion by his enemies or whether he simply miscalculated the depths of the simply miscalculated the depths of the simply miscalculated the depths of the Senate's new subservience. But Senate's new subservience. But Senate's new subservience. But regardless, the story got out and the regardless, the story got out and the regardless, the story got out and the rumor mill was fed. rumor mill was fed. rumor mill was fed. Caesar downplayed all this kingly talk, Caesar downplayed all this kingly talk, Caesar downplayed all this kingly talk, but continued to consolidate power at but continued to consolidate power at but continued to consolidate power at the same time. He stepped down from the the same time. He stepped down from the the same time. He stepped down from the consil ship in October and placed two consil ship in October and placed two consil ship in October and placed two loyal politicians in the office, loyal politicians in the office, loyal politicians in the office, bypassing both the Senate and public bypassing both the Senate and public bypassing both the Senate and public elections. But his successors were just elections. But his successors were just elections. But his successors were just placeholders. Next, he had the Senate placeholders. Next, he had the Senate placeholders. Next, he had the Senate formally appoint him dictator, but formally appoint him dictator, but formally appoint him dictator, but unlike his previous flirtations with the unlike his previous flirtations with the unlike his previous flirtations with the office, this time he would not be office, this time he would not be office, this time he would not be stepping down anytime soon. He was stepping down anytime soon. He was stepping down anytime soon. He was granted a sequence of 10 consecutive granted a sequence of 10 consecutive granted a sequence of 10 consecutive one-year terms as dictator. But even one-year terms as dictator. But even one-year terms as dictator. But even this proved not to be enough. And in this proved not to be enough. And in this proved not to be enough. And in early 44 BC, he cast aside the

early 44 BC, he cast aside the early 44 BC, he cast aside the expiration date and had himself named expiration date and had himself named expiration date and had himself named dictator in perpetuity. Dictator for dictator in perpetuity. Dictator for dictator in perpetuity. Dictator for life. He may not be a king, but it was life. He may not be a king, but it was life. He may not be a king, but it was in name only. And even the in name only in name only. And even the in name only in name only. And even the in name only part seemed destined to be cast aside. part seemed destined to be cast aside. part seemed destined to be cast aside. as Caesar had a priest announce a as Caesar had a priest announce a as Caesar had a priest announce a contrived prophecy that only a king contrived prophecy that only a king contrived prophecy that only a king could conquer the Parthion Empire and could conquer the Parthion Empire and could conquer the Parthion Empire and everyone knew that Caesar was planning everyone knew that Caesar was planning everyone knew that Caesar was planning with the full support of the Roman with the full support of the Roman with the full support of the Roman people to launch a war with Partha to people to launch a war with Partha to people to launch a war with Partha to revenge the losses of Cassus. So if they revenge the losses of Cassus. So if they revenge the losses of Cassus. So if they wanted the mission to succeed, well, you wanted the mission to succeed, well, you wanted the mission to succeed, well, you heard the heard the heard the prophecy. But the movement to make prophecy. But the movement to make prophecy. But the movement to make Caesar a king seems to have died in Caesar a king seems to have died in Caesar a king seems to have died in February of 44 BC during a rather February of 44 BC during a rather February of 44 BC during a rather strange, it was even considered strange strange, it was even considered strange strange, it was even considered strange by Roman standards, religious festival by Roman standards, religious festival by Roman standards, religious festival that involved men running through the that involved men running through the that involved men running through the streets naked. Mark Anthony produced a streets naked. Mark Anthony produced a streets naked. Mark Anthony produced a laurel crown announcing that the people laurel crown announcing that the people laurel crown announcing that the people had asked him to offer it to Caesar. But had asked him to offer it to Caesar. But had asked him to offer it to Caesar. But the reception from those same people the reception from those same people the reception from those same people seemed to indicate that they felt seemed to indicate that they felt seemed to indicate that they felt exactly the opposite. Roman crowds exactly the opposite. Roman crowds exactly the opposite. Roman crowds cheered when they approved of something cheered when they approved of something cheered when they approved of something and were silent when they did not. When and were silent when they did not. When and were silent when they did not. When Antne offered the crown, you could have Antne offered the crown, you could have Antne offered the crown, you could have heard a pin drop. Caesar immediately heard a pin drop. Caesar immediately heard a pin drop. Caesar immediately read the crowd's reaction and used the read the crowd's reaction and used the read the crowd's reaction and used the opportunity not to crown himself monarch opportunity not to crown himself monarch opportunity not to crown himself monarch as he may have planned, but to declare as he may have planned, but to declare as he may have planned, but to declare forcefully that Jupiter alone was the forcefully that Jupiter alone was the forcefully that Jupiter alone was the king of Rome. At this, the crowd king of Rome. At this, the crowd king of Rome. At this, the crowd exploded in cheers. They may accept exploded in cheers. They may accept exploded in cheers. They may accept autocracy, but they would never accept autocracy, but they would never accept autocracy, but they would never accept monarchy. Whether or not it was Caesar's monarchy. Whether or not it was Caesar's monarchy. Whether or not it was Caesar's plan all along to win support of the plan all along to win support of the plan all along to win support of the masses by engineering a very public masses by engineering a very public masses by engineering a very public rebuke of monarchy, it was clear that a

rebuke of monarchy, it was clear that a rebuke of monarchy, it was clear that a king would not be conquering Partha king would not be conquering Partha king would not be conquering Partha anytime soon. It was a good thing for anytime soon. It was a good thing for anytime soon. It was a good thing for Caesar that the prophecy was a complete Caesar that the prophecy was a complete Caesar that the prophecy was a complete fabrication. The last months of Caesar's fabrication. The last months of Caesar's fabrication. The last months of Caesar's life were consumed with this planned life were consumed with this planned life were consumed with this planned invasion of Partha. He had already moved invasion of Partha. He had already moved invasion of Partha. He had already moved 16 legions and 10,000 cavalry across the 16 legions and 10,000 cavalry across the 16 legions and 10,000 cavalry across the Adriatic and was preparing to launch his Adriatic and was preparing to launch his Adriatic and was preparing to launch his campaign in April of 44 BC. campaign in April of 44 BC. campaign in April of 44 BC. What Caesar had in mind seemed crazy for What Caesar had in mind seemed crazy for What Caesar had in mind seemed crazy for a man nearing the age of retirement. But a man nearing the age of retirement. But a man nearing the age of retirement. But his self-confidence was unwavering, and his self-confidence was unwavering, and his self-confidence was unwavering, and he dreamed of nothing less than the he dreamed of nothing less than the he dreamed of nothing less than the greatest series of conquests in Roman greatest series of conquests in Roman greatest series of conquests in Roman history. Conquests to rival Alexander history. Conquests to rival Alexander history. Conquests to rival Alexander himself. Caesar planned to invade Partha himself. Caesar planned to invade Partha himself. Caesar planned to invade Partha via Armenia. And after defeating the via Armenia. And after defeating the via Armenia. And after defeating the Parththeians, which he took to be a Parththeians, which he took to be a Parththeians, which he took to be a foregone conclusion based off of what he foregone conclusion based off of what he foregone conclusion based off of what he had seen of their armies while passing had seen of their armies while passing had seen of their armies while passing through the east, he would march north through the east, he would march north through the east, he would march north through the Caucuses, pacifying the through the Caucuses, pacifying the through the Caucuses, pacifying the fierce nomadic tribes of the steps, and fierce nomadic tribes of the steps, and fierce nomadic tribes of the steps, and then follow the Danube River back into then follow the Danube River back into then follow the Danube River back into Europe, capping off his run by Europe, capping off his run by Europe, capping off his run by conquering Germania. His plan, in short, conquering Germania. His plan, in short, conquering Germania. His plan, in short, was to return to Italy, the greatest was to return to Italy, the greatest was to return to Italy, the greatest Roman who had ever lived. If only he had Roman who had ever lived. If only he had Roman who had ever lived. If only he had lived.

lived. lived. Caesar's enemies realized that time was Caesar's enemies realized that time was Caesar's enemies realized that time was running out for them to do something. It running out for them to do something. It running out for them to do something. It could be years before he was back in could be years before he was back in could be years before he was back in Rome. And if he managed to accomplish Rome. And if he managed to accomplish Rome. And if he managed to accomplish half of what he was setting out to do, half of what he was setting out to do, half of what he was setting out to do, there would be no stopping him upon his there would be no stopping him upon his there would be no stopping him upon his return. The people would beg Caesar to return. The people would beg Caesar to return. The people would beg Caesar to be their king. The republic would be be their king. The republic would be be their king. The republic would be destroyed forever. The time to act was destroyed forever. The time to act was destroyed forever. The time to act was now. In the months since Caesar's now. In the months since Caesar's now. In the months since Caesar's victory in Spain, the list of victory in Spain, the list of victory in Spain, the list of conspirators had grown to some 60 names. conspirators had grown to some 60 names. conspirators had grown to some 60 names. Some like Casius were on board because Some like Casius were on board because Some like Casius were on board because they had been Caesar's enemies from the they had been Caesar's enemies from the they had been Caesar's enemies from the start. Others like gas trebionis had start. Others like gas trebionis had start. Others like gas trebionis had been with Caesar from the time of the been with Caesar from the time of the been with Caesar from the time of the gic wars but felt sidelined in his new gic wars but felt sidelined in his new gic wars but felt sidelined in his new regime. In his zeal to embrace his regime. In his zeal to embrace his regime. In his zeal to embrace his enemies, Caesar had pushed aside the enemies, Caesar had pushed aside the enemies, Caesar had pushed aside the friends who had got him to where he was. friends who had got him to where he was. friends who had got him to where he was. To men like Trebbianis, Caesar was no To men like Trebbianis, Caesar was no To men like Trebbianis, Caesar was no longer a vehicle for their own personal longer a vehicle for their own personal longer a vehicle for their own personal ambition, but rather an obstacle in its ambition, but rather an obstacle in its ambition, but rather an obstacle in its path. path. path. Finally, there were men like Marcus Finally, there were men like Marcus Finally, there were men like Marcus Brutus, the tortured Judas of the eyides Brutus, the tortured Judas of the eyides Brutus, the tortured Judas of the eyides of March, who seems to have simply been of March, who seems to have simply been of March, who seems to have simply been a Republican idealist pushed into the a Republican idealist pushed into the a Republican idealist pushed into the plot by doineering friends. They plot by doineering friends. They plot by doineering friends. They reminded him constantly of his ancestor reminded him constantly of his ancestor reminded him constantly of his ancestor Marcus Junius Brutus, who had led the Marcus Junius Brutus, who had led the Marcus Junius Brutus, who had led the revolution against the Tarwins and sworn revolution against the Tarwins and sworn revolution against the Tarwins and sworn the Romans to their sacred oath of the Romans to their sacred oath of the Romans to their sacred oath of opposing monarchy forever. Every night opposing monarchy forever. Every night opposing monarchy forever. Every night on a statue of that Brutus, graffiti on a statue of that Brutus, graffiti on a statue of that Brutus, graffiti would appear asking if the Brutus name would appear asking if the Brutus name would appear asking if the Brutus name was dead. Though he loved Caesar was dead. Though he loved Caesar was dead. Though he loved Caesar personally, Brutus finally caved to the personally, Brutus finally caved to the personally, Brutus finally caved to the pressure and agreed to join the plot and pressure and agreed to join the plot and pressure and agreed to join the plot and exploit the fact that he was the last exploit the fact that he was the last exploit the fact that he was the last person Caesar would suspect of person Caesar would suspect of person Caesar would suspect of treachery. For the most part, the

treachery. For the most part, the treachery. For the most part, the collection of plotters were personal collection of plotters were personal collection of plotters were personal rivals who on any normal day would have rivals who on any normal day would have rivals who on any normal day would have had nothing to do with each other. But had nothing to do with each other. But had nothing to do with each other. But this was no ordinary day. Today, they this was no ordinary day. Today, they this was no ordinary day. Today, they all agreed that Caesar must be killed. all agreed that Caesar must be killed. all agreed that Caesar must be killed. Numerous assassination scenarios were Numerous assassination scenarios were Numerous assassination scenarios were hashed out, but the conspirators finally hashed out, but the conspirators finally hashed out, but the conspirators finally settled on a meeting of the Senate as settled on a meeting of the Senate as settled on a meeting of the Senate as the right time and place. Only senators the right time and place. Only senators the right time and place. Only senators would be allowed into Pompy's theater, would be allowed into Pompy's theater, would be allowed into Pompy's theater, which is where the body had temporarily which is where the body had temporarily which is where the body had temporarily moved to, leaving Caesar without the moved to, leaving Caesar without the moved to, leaving Caesar without the protection of his bodyguards. Formal protection of his bodyguards. Formal protection of his bodyguards. Formal senatorial togas would also allow the senatorial togas would also allow the senatorial togas would also allow the assassins to easily conceal their assassins to easily conceal their assassins to easily conceal their daggers, the agreed upon murder weapon. daggers, the agreed upon murder weapon. daggers, the agreed upon murder weapon. The plan was simple. lure Caesar into The plan was simple. lure Caesar into The plan was simple. lure Caesar into the Senate, surround him, and then stab the Senate, surround him, and then stab the Senate, surround him, and then stab him to him to him to death. With Caesar planning to leave death. With Caesar planning to leave death. With Caesar planning to leave Rome in just a few days, the Rome in just a few days, the Rome in just a few days, the conspirators also set a date, the 15th conspirators also set a date, the 15th conspirators also set a date, the 15th of March. Being the midpoint of the of March. Being the midpoint of the of March. Being the midpoint of the month, the 15th was also known by the month, the 15th was also known by the month, the 15th was also known by the name we are all familiar with today, the name we are all familiar with today, the name we are all familiar with today, the eyides of eyides of eyides of March. Caesar awoke on the morning of March. Caesar awoke on the morning of March. Caesar awoke on the morning of the 15th and tried to go about his the 15th and tried to go about his the 15th and tried to go about his business as usual. There were final business as usual. There were final business as usual. There were final preparations to sort out before he left preparations to sort out before he left preparations to sort out before he left for the east and the senate had been for the east and the senate had been for the east and the senate had been called into the session that day so that called into the session that day so that called into the session that day so that he could review some new petition.

he could review some new petition. he could review some new petition. Caesar had been warned previously by a Caesar had been warned previously by a Caesar had been warned previously by a susair to be on guard on the eyides of susair to be on guard on the eyides of susair to be on guard on the eyides of march and he was further troubled by the march and he was further troubled by the march and he was further troubled by the fevered nightmares of his wife Kalpernia fevered nightmares of his wife Kalpernia fevered nightmares of his wife Kalpernia who had dreamed just that night of his who had dreamed just that night of his who had dreamed just that night of his death. His wife and friends begged him death. His wife and friends begged him death. His wife and friends begged him to listen to the ill omens that to listen to the ill omens that to listen to the ill omens that surrounded the day and stay home. And surrounded the day and stay home. And surrounded the day and stay home. And while Caesar considered the option, he while Caesar considered the option, he while Caesar considered the option, he was convinced by his old surrogate son was convinced by his old surrogate son was convinced by his old surrogate son Brutus, that to ignore the Senate's Brutus, that to ignore the Senate's Brutus, that to ignore the Senate's request for his presence would be seen request for his presence would be seen request for his presence would be seen as a great insult. They were already as a great insult. They were already as a great insult. They were already assembled in awaiting his appearance, to assembled in awaiting his appearance, to assembled in awaiting his appearance, to simply blow them off, would be the simply blow them off, would be the simply blow them off, would be the height of bad manners, and feed royal height of bad manners, and feed royal height of bad manners, and feed royal rumors. Caesar was convinced he would go rumors. Caesar was convinced he would go rumors. Caesar was convinced he would go and humor the old men one last time and humor the old men one last time and humor the old men one last time before leaving for the simple comforts before leaving for the simple comforts before leaving for the simple comforts of his military tent. The worst he was of his military tent. The worst he was of his military tent. The worst he was likely to suffer listening to whatever likely to suffer listening to whatever likely to suffer listening to whatever overroought petition the Senate had overroought petition the Senate had overroought petition the Senate had deemed worthy of his attention was acute deemed worthy of his attention was acute deemed worthy of his attention was acute boredom. The petition, of course, was a boredom. The petition, of course, was a boredom. The petition, of course, was a fake, entered for public consideration fake, entered for public consideration fake, entered for public consideration by the plotting senators to lure their by the plotting senators to lure their by the plotting senators to lure their prey into a trap. Caesar made his way prey into a trap. Caesar made his way prey into a trap. Caesar made his way through the streets, carefully led by through the streets, carefully led by through the streets, carefully led by Brutus. Mark Anthony had learned the Brutus. Mark Anthony had learned the Brutus. Mark Anthony had learned the night before that some plot was a foot, night before that some plot was a foot, night before that some plot was a foot, though he did not know the details of though he did not know the details of though he did not know the details of the plan, and hurried to try and warn the plan, and hurried to try and warn the plan, and hurried to try and warn Caesar. But Brutus carefully steered the Caesar. But Brutus carefully steered the Caesar. But Brutus carefully steered the dictator in through a back door. Anthony dictator in through a back door. Anthony dictator in through a back door. Anthony was unable to reach him through the was unable to reach him through the was unable to reach him through the crowd. Caesar took his place at the crowd. Caesar took his place at the crowd. Caesar took his place at the front of the chamber and requested the front of the chamber and requested the front of the chamber and requested the petition. The senator who brought the petition. The senator who brought the petition. The senator who brought the scroll forward handed it over, but as he scroll forward handed it over, but as he scroll forward handed it over, but as he did so, he grabbed at Caesar's toga.

did so, he grabbed at Caesar's toga. did so, he grabbed at Caesar's toga. Caesar was shocked by the move and Caesar was shocked by the move and Caesar was shocked by the move and exclaimed, "Why, this is violence." With exclaimed, "Why, this is violence." With exclaimed, "Why, this is violence." With Caesar held in place, another senator Caesar held in place, another senator Caesar held in place, another senator named Cervilius Casa approached from named Cervilius Casa approached from named Cervilius Casa approached from behind and pulling a dagger from his behind and pulling a dagger from his behind and pulling a dagger from his robes, stabbed at Caesar's throat. robes, stabbed at Caesar's throat. robes, stabbed at Caesar's throat. Military instinct taking over. Caesar Military instinct taking over. Caesar Military instinct taking over. Caesar dodged the attack and seized Casa's arm, dodged the attack and seized Casa's arm, dodged the attack and seized Casa's arm, crying, "Casa, you villain! What are you crying, "Casa, you villain! What are you crying, "Casa, you villain! What are you doing?" Casa, having lost the element of doing?" Casa, having lost the element of doing?" Casa, having lost the element of surprise, called out for his brothers to surprise, called out for his brothers to surprise, called out for his brothers to help him. At this word, the 60 members help him. At this word, the 60 members help him. At this word, the 60 members of the conspiracy rushed in and of the conspiracy rushed in and of the conspiracy rushed in and surrounded Caesar, stabbing at him surrounded Caesar, stabbing at him surrounded Caesar, stabbing at him recklessly. recklessly. recklessly. Caesar tried to run but blinded by blood Caesar tried to run but blinded by blood Caesar tried to run but blinded by blood and confusion tripped and fell. As he and confusion tripped and fell. As he and confusion tripped and fell. As he lay on the ground, the stabbing lay on the ground, the stabbing lay on the ground, the stabbing continued. In the end, all Caesar could continued. In the end, all Caesar could continued. In the end, all Caesar could do was cover his face with his toga and do was cover his face with his toga and do was cover his face with his toga and die in a pool of his own die in a pool of his own die in a pool of his own blood. The legend surrounding the blood. The legend surrounding the blood. The legend surrounding the assassination has Caesar in anguish assassination has Caesar in anguish assassination has Caesar in anguish seeing Brutus among his attackers and seeing Brutus among his attackers and seeing Brutus among his attackers and crying either you too child or in crying either you too child or in crying either you too child or in Shakespeare's poetic turn it to brute. Shakespeare's poetic turn it to brute. Shakespeare's poetic turn it to brute. But these last words did not begin to But these last words did not begin to But these last words did not begin to appear in the historical record until appear in the historical record until appear in the historical record until much later. And even then, as in the much later. And even then, as in the much later. And even then, as in the case of Sutanius, the quotes are simply case of Sutanius, the quotes are simply case of Sutanius, the quotes are simply noted but dismissed as inaccurate. A noted but dismissed as inaccurate. A noted but dismissed as inaccurate. A similar embellishment has Brutus crying similar embellishment has Brutus crying similar embellishment has Brutus crying ser tyrannis thus always to tyrants over ser tyrannis thus always to tyrants over ser tyrannis thus always to tyrants over Caesar's dead body. Dramatic and Caesar's dead body. Dramatic and Caesar's dead body. Dramatic and memorable, yes, but a complete memorable, yes, but a complete memorable, yes, but a complete fiction. Instead, the assassins are fiction. Instead, the assassins are fiction. Instead, the assassins are reported to have simply marched out of reported to have simply marched out of reported to have simply marched out of the chamber, leaving Caesar's body the chamber, leaving Caesar's body the chamber, leaving Caesar's body behind. They are said to have then behind. They are said to have then behind. They are said to have then paraded through the streets announcing paraded through the streets announcing paraded through the streets announcing that they had killed Caesar and set Rome

that they had killed Caesar and set Rome that they had killed Caesar and set Rome free. But to their surprise, they were free. But to their surprise, they were free. But to their surprise, they were not met as the liberators they imagined not met as the liberators they imagined not met as the liberators they imagined themselves to be. The people of Rome themselves to be. The people of Rome themselves to be. The people of Rome greeted them instead with stunned greeted them instead with stunned greeted them instead with stunned silence. Then they went home. Then they silence. Then they went home. Then they silence. Then they went home. Then they locked their doors. They knew that locked their doors. They knew that locked their doors. They knew that whatever stability Caesar had brought whatever stability Caesar had brought whatever stability Caesar had brought was about to be blown was about to be blown was about to be blown apart. Julius Caesar died on the 15th of apart. Julius Caesar died on the 15th of apart. Julius Caesar died on the 15th of March, 44 BC. He had been stabbed 23 March, 44 BC. He had been stabbed 23 March, 44 BC. He had been stabbed 23 times, though doctors determined that in times, though doctors determined that in times, though doctors determined that in the end only a single thrust to his the end only a single thrust to his the end only a single thrust to his heart had been fatal. He was the last heart had been fatal. He was the last heart had been fatal. He was the last and greatest of the old triumvors. But and greatest of the old triumvors. But and greatest of the old triumvors. But in the end, just like Craus and Pompy in the end, just like Craus and Pompy in the end, just like Craus and Pompy before him, he died a violent death, a before him, he died a violent death, a before him, he died a violent death, a victim of his own outsized victim of his own outsized victim of his own outsized ambition. For a brief moment, the fate ambition. For a brief moment, the fate ambition. For a brief moment, the fate of Rome hung in the balance. Would the of Rome hung in the balance. Would the of Rome hung in the balance. Would the Liberators, as they were now calling Liberators, as they were now calling Liberators, as they were now calling themselves, see their dream of a themselves, see their dream of a themselves, see their dream of a restored republic come true? Or would restored republic come true? Or would restored republic come true? Or would Julius Caesar be revealed as merely a Julius Caesar be revealed as merely a Julius Caesar be revealed as merely a symptom of the disease that plagued Rome symptom of the disease that plagued Rome symptom of the disease that plagued Rome rather than the rather than the rather than the cause? Next week, the full extent of the cause? Next week, the full extent of the cause? Next week, the full extent of the rod at the core of the Republican system rod at the core of the Republican system rod at the core of the Republican system will be revealed. Mark Antne will turn will be revealed. Mark Antne will turn will be revealed. Mark Antne will turn the people against the supposed the people against the supposed the people against the supposed liberators, reminding the masses that liberators, reminding the masses that liberators, reminding the masses that all Caesar had ever done was remove the all Caesar had ever done was remove the all Caesar had ever done was remove the unjust chains placed upon them by greedy unjust chains placed upon them by greedy unjust chains placed upon them by greedy oligarchs. Brutus and Casius, who oligarchs. Brutus and Casius, who oligarchs. Brutus and Casius, who fancied themselves heroes, will be fancied themselves heroes, will be fancied themselves heroes, will be driven from the city they thought they driven from the city they thought they driven from the city they thought they had saved. and Caesar's revealed heir, had saved. and Caesar's revealed heir, had saved. and Caesar's revealed heir, Gas Octavius, the bright young great Gas Octavius, the bright young great Gas Octavius, the bright young great nephew of the dead dictator, will make nephew of the dead dictator, will make nephew of the dead dictator, will make his first appearance on the public his first appearance on the public his first appearance on the public stage. The Romans will be forced to stage. The Romans will be forced to stage. The Romans will be forced to endure another 13 years of chaos and

endure another 13 years of chaos and endure another 13 years of chaos and civil war before they are once again civil war before they are once again civil war before they are once again granted peace. After all the violence, granted peace. After all the violence, granted peace. After all the violence, it will not matter to anyone that the it will not matter to anyone that the it will not matter to anyone that the peace will be guaranteed by the rule of peace will be guaranteed by the rule of peace will be guaranteed by the rule of a single man, Gas Octavius, Caesar a single man, Gas Octavius, Caesar a single man, Gas Octavius, Caesar Augustus, the first emperor of Rome. Augustus, the first emperor of Rome. Augustus, the first emperor of Rome. [Music]