Roman History 08 - Caesar And the Gallic Wars 65 - 50 BC

Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Rome, episode 39, the young Julius Rome, episode 39, the young Julius Rome, episode 39, the young Julius Caesar Chronicles. Caesar Chronicles. Caesar Chronicles. [Music] [Music] [Music] Last time we covered Cataline's ill- Last time we covered Cataline's ill- Last time we covered Cataline's ill- fated conspiracy during the consil ship fated conspiracy during the consil ship fated conspiracy during the consil ship of Cicero in 63 BC. This week, I want to of Cicero in 63 BC. This week, I want to of Cicero in 63 BC. This week, I want to backtrack a bit and fill in some of the backtrack a bit and fill in some of the backtrack a bit and fill in some of the gaps on our way to the formation of the gaps on our way to the formation of the gaps on our way to the formation of the alliance between Pompy, Craus, and alliance between Pompy, Craus, and alliance between Pompy, Craus, and Julius Caesar in 60 BC, now called the Julius Caesar in 60 BC, now called the Julius Caesar in 60 BC, now called the First Triumvirate. In the aftermath of First Triumvirate. In the aftermath of First Triumvirate. In the aftermath of Spartacus' slave revolt, Pompy and Craus Spartacus' slave revolt, Pompy and Craus Spartacus' slave revolt, Pompy and Craus had served as co-consils. And though had served as co-consils. And though had served as co-consils. And though they functioned well enough publicly, they functioned well enough publicly, they functioned well enough publicly, personally, they were bitter rivals. Or personally, they were bitter rivals. Or personally, they were bitter rivals. Or at least Crass was bitter rivals with at least Crass was bitter rivals with at least Crass was bitter rivals with Pompy. I'm not really sure how much Pompy. I'm not really sure how much Pompy. I'm not really sure how much thought Pompy ever gave to Crass. After thought Pompy ever gave to Crass. After thought Pompy ever gave to Crass. After their shared console ship, they were their shared console ship, they were their shared console ship, they were glad to be rid of each other. It was not glad to be rid of each other. It was not glad to be rid of each other. It was not until a decade later that they were until a decade later that they were until a decade later that they were brought together again. This time by a brought together again. This time by a brought together again. This time by a man who would soon be consil himself and man who would soon be consil himself and man who would soon be consil himself and desperately needed allies in his coming desperately needed allies in his coming desperately needed allies in his coming flame war with the Senate. Gas Julius flame war with the Senate. Gas Julius flame war with the Senate. Gas Julius Caesar. And when I say fill in some Caesar. And when I say fill in some Caesar. And when I say fill in some gaps, it turns out what I really meant gaps, it turns out what I really meant gaps, it turns out what I really meant is write a sprawling double-length is write a sprawling double-length is write a sprawling double-length episode on Caesar's early career.

episode on Caesar's early career. episode on Caesar's early career. gas Julius Caesar was born in 100 BC gas Julius Caesar was born in 100 BC gas Julius Caesar was born in 100 BC into the ancient patrician Juli family. into the ancient patrician Juli family. into the ancient patrician Juli family. Though the family traced their lineage Though the family traced their lineage Though the family traced their lineage back to Anas and thus to the goddess back to Anas and thus to the goddess back to Anas and thus to the goddess Venus herself, they had in recent Venus herself, they had in recent Venus herself, they had in recent generations fallen on hard times. While generations fallen on hard times. While generations fallen on hard times. While they always maintained respectability, they always maintained respectability, they always maintained respectability, they had long since passed to the they had long since passed to the they had long since passed to the margins of Roman political life. margins of Roman political life. margins of Roman political life. Caesar's particular branch was on the Caesar's particular branch was on the Caesar's particular branch was on the margins of Roman economic life as well. margins of Roman economic life as well. margins of Roman economic life as well. And the boy grew up in a neighborhood And the boy grew up in a neighborhood And the boy grew up in a neighborhood called the Sububaru, which was far both called the Sububaru, which was far both called the Sububaru, which was far both geographically and culturally from the geographically and culturally from the geographically and culturally from the estates of his fellow Patrician nobles estates of his fellow Patrician nobles estates of his fellow Patrician nobles on the Palatine Hill. on the Palatine Hill. on the Palatine Hill. I think it goes without saying that I think it goes without saying that I think it goes without saying that being raised in what amounted to a being raised in what amounted to a being raised in what amounted to a tenement building owned by his parents tenement building owned by his parents tenement building owned by his parents had a great impact on Caesar's later had a great impact on Caesar's later had a great impact on Caesar's later populist politics. Yes, he had populist politics. Yes, he had populist politics. Yes, he had impeccable patrician credentials, but impeccable patrician credentials, but impeccable patrician credentials, but Caesar would always identify himself Caesar would always identify himself Caesar would always identify himself with the common man and position himself with the common man and position himself with the common man and position himself as their champion. as their champion. as their champion. His childhood and early career were His childhood and early career were His childhood and early career were defined by two women, his mother Aurelia defined by two women, his mother Aurelia defined by two women, his mother Aurelia and his aunt Julia.

and his aunt Julia. and his aunt Julia. With his father, also named guys Julius With his father, also named guys Julius With his father, also named guys Julius Caesar, forever away on state business Caesar, forever away on state business Caesar, forever away on state business and dead by the time Caesar was 15, it and dead by the time Caesar was 15, it and dead by the time Caesar was 15, it was up to his mother to raise him. An was up to his mother to raise him. An was up to his mother to raise him. An intelligent, independent woman, highly intelligent, independent woman, highly intelligent, independent woman, highly regarded in Rome at the time and held up regarded in Rome at the time and held up regarded in Rome at the time and held up as the ideal Roman woman by later as the ideal Roman woman by later as the ideal Roman woman by later historians. She came from a family of historians. She came from a family of historians. She came from a family of consoles and made sure that her son had consoles and made sure that her son had consoles and made sure that her son had the education and grooming necessary to the education and grooming necessary to the education and grooming necessary to follow in the footsteps of his maternal follow in the footsteps of his maternal follow in the footsteps of his maternal forefathers. forefathers. forefathers. The other great woman in Caesar's life The other great woman in Caesar's life The other great woman in Caesar's life was his aunt Julia, who was married to was his aunt Julia, who was married to was his aunt Julia, who was married to none other than our old friend Gas none other than our old friend Gas none other than our old friend Gas Marius. The marriage had been a boon to Marius. The marriage had been a boon to Marius. The marriage had been a boon to both families as Marius needed patrician both families as Marius needed patrician both families as Marius needed patrician endorsement to keep his political career endorsement to keep his political career endorsement to keep his political career moving forward and the Giuli needed the moving forward and the Giuli needed the moving forward and the Giuli needed the money and fame that Marius brought with money and fame that Marius brought with money and fame that Marius brought with him. Though Caesar and Marius probably him. Though Caesar and Marius probably him. Though Caesar and Marius probably had limited contact with one another, had limited contact with one another, had limited contact with one another, the marriage joined Caesar at the hip to the marriage joined Caesar at the hip to the marriage joined Caesar at the hip to Marius politically. In some years for Marius politically. In some years for Marius politically. In some years for better and in some years obviously for better and in some years obviously for better and in some years obviously for the worse. It is a testament though to the worse. It is a testament though to the worse. It is a testament though to the esteem Julia was held in that when the esteem Julia was held in that when the esteem Julia was held in that when Sullah returned to Rome, the wife of his Sullah returned to Rome, the wife of his Sullah returned to Rome, the wife of his worst enemy and mother of the young man worst enemy and mother of the young man worst enemy and mother of the young man he had so recently defeated on the he had so recently defeated on the he had so recently defeated on the battlefield was herself left off the battlefield was herself left off the battlefield was herself left off the prescription lists.

prescription lists. prescription lists. Caesar's first step into public life was Caesar's first step into public life was Caesar's first step into public life was very nearly his last. At the age of 16 very nearly his last. At the age of 16 very nearly his last. At the age of 16 while Sa ruled Rome and Solah was off while Sa ruled Rome and Solah was off while Sa ruled Rome and Solah was off fighting Mithrates, Caesar was named fighting Mithrates, Caesar was named fighting Mithrates, Caesar was named Flame and Diialis or priest of Jupiter. Flame and Diialis or priest of Jupiter. Flame and Diialis or priest of Jupiter. One of the oldest priesthoods in Rome. One of the oldest priesthoods in Rome. One of the oldest priesthoods in Rome. It was also smothered by archaic and It was also smothered by archaic and It was also smothered by archaic and bizarre traditions that among other bizarre traditions that among other bizarre traditions that among other things required the priest to wear a things required the priest to wear a things required the priest to wear a pointed hat at all times, forbade him pointed hat at all times, forbade him pointed hat at all times, forbade him from seeing a dead body, riding a horse, from seeing a dead body, riding a horse, from seeing a dead body, riding a horse, wearing knots on his clothing, or wearing knots on his clothing, or wearing knots on his clothing, or critically being absent from the city critically being absent from the city critically being absent from the city for even a single night. for even a single night. for even a single night. It also required that the priest be It also required that the priest be It also required that the priest be married to a patrician. So Caesar was married to a patrician. So Caesar was married to a patrician. So Caesar was arranged to be married to the daughter arranged to be married to the daughter arranged to be married to the daughter of Sa, which briefly made him the of Sa, which briefly made him the of Sa, which briefly made him the son-in-law to the most powerful man in son-in-law to the most powerful man in son-in-law to the most powerful man in Rome. Not that this connection would do Rome. Not that this connection would do Rome. Not that this connection would do him any good personally, of course, as him any good personally, of course, as him any good personally, of course, as the appointment to the flameales the appointment to the flameales the appointment to the flameales precluded any political or military precluded any political or military precluded any political or military career. Luckily for the ambitious career. Luckily for the ambitious career. Luckily for the ambitious Caesar, the appointment was for life. Caesar, the appointment was for life. Caesar, the appointment was for life. But really luckily for Caesar, Sull But really luckily for Caesar, Sull But really luckily for Caesar, Sull returned and the appointment was returned and the appointment was returned and the appointment was nullified. The new dictator cleared the nullified. The new dictator cleared the nullified. The new dictator cleared the city of his enemies and he had no use city of his enemies and he had no use city of his enemies and he had no use for Senna's son-in-law and Marius's for Senna's son-in-law and Marius's for Senna's son-in-law and Marius's nephew in any public position. He nephew in any public position. He nephew in any public position. He demanded further that Caesar divorce demanded further that Caesar divorce demanded further that Caesar divorce Cornelia, Sa's daughter. But in an act Cornelia, Sa's daughter. But in an act Cornelia, Sa's daughter. But in an act of reckless or bold defiance, depending of reckless or bold defiance, depending of reckless or bold defiance, depending on your point of view, Caesar refused.

on your point of view, Caesar refused. on your point of view, Caesar refused. After this, Sullah decided that he had After this, Sullah decided that he had After this, Sullah decided that he had no use for Sin's son-in-law and Marius's no use for Sin's son-in-law and Marius's no use for Sin's son-in-law and Marius's nephew. Period. And young Caesar found nephew. Period. And young Caesar found nephew. Period. And young Caesar found his name on the prescription list. At his name on the prescription list. At his name on the prescription list. At the age of 19, Caesar ran for his life the age of 19, Caesar ran for his life the age of 19, Caesar ran for his life into the Italian countryside, hiding out into the Italian countryside, hiding out into the Italian countryside, hiding out with sympathetic relatives and keeping with sympathetic relatives and keeping with sympathetic relatives and keeping on the move. But in the city, his on the move. But in the city, his on the move. But in the city, his mother, Representative Vestal Virgins, mother, Representative Vestal Virgins, mother, Representative Vestal Virgins, and allies of Solo with familial and allies of Solo with familial and allies of Solo with familial connections to the young fugitive, connections to the young fugitive, connections to the young fugitive, pleaded with SOA to remove Caesar's name pleaded with SOA to remove Caesar's name pleaded with SOA to remove Caesar's name from the list. Finally, with his hold on from the list. Finally, with his hold on from the list. Finally, with his hold on power more secure, Sulla let himself be power more secure, Sulla let himself be power more secure, Sulla let himself be persuaded, and Caesar was allowed to persuaded, and Caesar was allowed to persuaded, and Caesar was allowed to come out of hiding. come out of hiding. come out of hiding. In 80 BC, the 20-year-old Caesar knew In 80 BC, the 20-year-old Caesar knew In 80 BC, the 20-year-old Caesar knew that he was borrowing trouble by that he was borrowing trouble by that he was borrowing trouble by remaining in the city and got himself remaining in the city and got himself remaining in the city and got himself attached to the military staff of the attached to the military staff of the attached to the military staff of the governor of Asia. governor of Asia. governor of Asia. He would keep his head down and try to He would keep his head down and try to He would keep his head down and try to advance his career abroad, at least advance his career abroad, at least advance his career abroad, at least until Solo was gone and the coast was until Solo was gone and the coast was until Solo was gone and the coast was truly clear. In Asia, Caesar served with truly clear. In Asia, Caesar served with truly clear. In Asia, Caesar served with distinction and was awarded the civic distinction and was awarded the civic distinction and was awarded the civic crown for his role in winning the siege crown for his role in winning the siege crown for his role in winning the siege of Molini. For the rest of his life, of Molini. For the rest of his life, of Molini. For the rest of his life, whenever he wore the simple oak wreath, whenever he wore the simple oak wreath, whenever he wore the simple oak wreath, all men from the lowiest beggar to the all men from the lowiest beggar to the all men from the lowiest beggar to the greatest senator would be required to greatest senator would be required to greatest senator would be required to stand when he entered a public festival.

stand when he entered a public festival. stand when he entered a public festival. Caesar loved wearing the crown, Caesar loved wearing the crown, Caesar loved wearing the crown, delighting in how much it annoyed his delighting in how much it annoyed his delighting in how much it annoyed his senatorial enemies to stand respectfully senatorial enemies to stand respectfully senatorial enemies to stand respectfully in acknowledgement of what a brave in acknowledgement of what a brave in acknowledgement of what a brave soldier and all-around wonderful guy he soldier and all-around wonderful guy he soldier and all-around wonderful guy he was. But the siege of Mellini would also was. But the siege of Mellini would also was. But the siege of Mellini would also prove the source of persistent glee for prove the source of persistent glee for prove the source of persistent glee for those same enemies. those same enemies. those same enemies. In order to break the resistance of the In order to break the resistance of the In order to break the resistance of the city, which was located on Turkeykey's city, which was located on Turkeykey's city, which was located on Turkeykey's Aian coast, the Romans needed naval Aian coast, the Romans needed naval Aian coast, the Romans needed naval reinforcement. Caesar was sent to reinforcement. Caesar was sent to reinforcement. Caesar was sent to Bethnia to request aid from King Bethnia to request aid from King Bethnia to request aid from King Nicamedes, who you will recall will die Nicamedes, who you will recall will die Nicamedes, who you will recall will die in a few years, leaving his kingdom to in a few years, leaving his kingdom to in a few years, leaving his kingdom to Rome and touching off the last Rome and touching off the last Rome and touching off the last Mithridatic war. But Caesar seems to Mithridatic war. But Caesar seems to Mithridatic war. But Caesar seems to have done a little too well on his have done a little too well on his have done a little too well on his mission and lingered a little too long mission and lingered a little too long mission and lingered a little too long in Bethnia while doing it, and rumors in Bethnia while doing it, and rumors in Bethnia while doing it, and rumors began to fly that he had carried on an began to fly that he had carried on an began to fly that he had carried on an affair with King Nicamedes. Caesar affair with King Nicamedes. Caesar affair with King Nicamedes. Caesar denied it all his life, but it did not denied it all his life, but it did not denied it all his life, but it did not stop his enemies from referring to him stop his enemies from referring to him stop his enemies from referring to him as the queen of Bethnia. Nor did it stop as the queen of Bethnia. Nor did it stop as the queen of Bethnia. Nor did it stop graffiti from later showing up on the graffiti from later showing up on the graffiti from later showing up on the walls of Rome that read, "Caesar walls of Rome that read, "Caesar walls of Rome that read, "Caesar conquered Gaul, but Nicamedes conquered conquered Gaul, but Nicamedes conquered conquered Gaul, but Nicamedes conquered Caesar."

Caesar." Caesar." When Solah died in 78 BC, it was finally When Solah died in 78 BC, it was finally When Solah died in 78 BC, it was finally safe for Caesar in Rome. So, he returned safe for Caesar in Rome. So, he returned safe for Caesar in Rome. So, he returned from Asia and began a legal career that from Asia and began a legal career that from Asia and began a legal career that would fill his time and enhance his would fill his time and enhance his would fill his time and enhance his reputation while he waited to begin the reputation while he waited to begin the reputation while he waited to begin the climb up the curses honor. Like Cicero, climb up the curses honor. Like Cicero, climb up the curses honor. Like Cicero, Caesar would make a name for himself as Caesar would make a name for himself as Caesar would make a name for himself as a distinguished ortor while combating a distinguished ortor while combating a distinguished ortor while combating the excessive corruption of greedy the excessive corruption of greedy the excessive corruption of greedy proconsuls. But unlike Cicero, his proconsuls. But unlike Cicero, his proconsuls. But unlike Cicero, his efforts were largely wasted on losing efforts were largely wasted on losing efforts were largely wasted on losing efforts, and his words were no match for efforts, and his words were no match for efforts, and his words were no match for the bribes his defendants used in order the bribes his defendants used in order the bribes his defendants used in order to avoid prosecution. to avoid prosecution. to avoid prosecution. But win or losing mattered little to But win or losing mattered little to But win or losing mattered little to Caesar in the long run. It was only Caesar in the long run. It was only Caesar in the long run. It was only important that powerful men acknowledged important that powerful men acknowledged important that powerful men acknowledged his ortorical skill and that unimportant his ortorical skill and that unimportant his ortorical skill and that unimportant men knew that he was on their side. men knew that he was on their side. men knew that he was on their side. In an effort to build on his natural In an effort to build on his natural In an effort to build on his natural rhetorical talent, Caesar arranged to be rhetorical talent, Caesar arranged to be rhetorical talent, Caesar arranged to be tutored in roads by the same master tutored in roads by the same master tutored in roads by the same master Greek who had brought Cicero<unk>'s Greek who had brought Cicero<unk>'s Greek who had brought Cicero<unk>'s skills to such great heights. skills to such great heights. skills to such great heights. But he never reached the city. Along the But he never reached the city. Along the But he never reached the city. Along the way, his ship was attacked by Cissian way, his ship was attacked by Cissian way, his ship was attacked by Cissian pirates. Caesar was captured and held pirates. Caesar was captured and held pirates. Caesar was captured and held for ransom, a typical and lucrative for ransom, a typical and lucrative for ransom, a typical and lucrative practice among the pirates of the day.

practice among the pirates of the day. practice among the pirates of the day. The pirates took a liking to their The pirates took a liking to their The pirates took a liking to their hostage almost immediately. Discovering hostage almost immediately. Discovering hostage almost immediately. Discovering that they were asking only 20 talents that they were asking only 20 talents that they were asking only 20 talents for him. Caesar was outraged and for him. Caesar was outraged and for him. Caesar was outraged and demanded that they ask for no less than demanded that they ask for no less than demanded that they ask for no less than 50. The pirates agreed to this humorous 50. The pirates agreed to this humorous 50. The pirates agreed to this humorous demand and Caesar sent away a few of his demand and Caesar sent away a few of his demand and Caesar sent away a few of his slaves to collect the money. For the slaves to collect the money. For the slaves to collect the money. For the next 40 days, Caesar lived with the next 40 days, Caesar lived with the next 40 days, Caesar lived with the pirates, never once showing any sign of pirates, never once showing any sign of pirates, never once showing any sign of the terror the pirates were used to the terror the pirates were used to the terror the pirates were used to seeing in their victims. He ate his seeing in their victims. He ate his seeing in their victims. He ate his meals with them, participated in meals with them, participated in meals with them, participated in athletic contests, demanded that they athletic contests, demanded that they athletic contests, demanded that they keep it down while he was trying to keep it down while he was trying to keep it down while he was trying to sleep, and generally acted as if the sleep, and generally acted as if the sleep, and generally acted as if the whole affair was no big deal. He also whole affair was no big deal. He also whole affair was no big deal. He also joked that when he was free, he was joked that when he was free, he was joked that when he was free, he was going to raise a fleet, come back, and going to raise a fleet, come back, and going to raise a fleet, come back, and crucify the whole lot of them. They crucify the whole lot of them. They crucify the whole lot of them. They laughed, of course, but when the ransom laughed, of course, but when the ransom laughed, of course, but when the ransom was paid and Caesar was let go, he was paid and Caesar was let go, he was paid and Caesar was let go, he immediately raised a fleet, and did just immediately raised a fleet, and did just immediately raised a fleet, and did just that. He returned to his place of that. He returned to his place of that. He returned to his place of capture, sacked the hideout, and capture, sacked the hideout, and capture, sacked the hideout, and mercilessly crucified his former mercilessly crucified his former mercilessly crucified his former captives. Well, I shouldn't say captives. Well, I shouldn't say captives. Well, I shouldn't say mercilessly. He did slit their throats mercilessly. He did slit their throats mercilessly. He did slit their throats before posting them on the cross.

before posting them on the cross. before posting them on the cross. Caesar remained in Asia after his pirate Caesar remained in Asia after his pirate Caesar remained in Asia after his pirate adventure and raised a local militia to adventure and raised a local militia to adventure and raised a local militia to help defend Roman interests from the help defend Roman interests from the help defend Roman interests from the allies of Mithrates, but was recalled to allies of Mithrates, but was recalled to allies of Mithrates, but was recalled to Rome in 73 to join a spot in the Rome in 73 to join a spot in the Rome in 73 to join a spot in the priesthood vacated by his recently priesthood vacated by his recently priesthood vacated by his recently deceased cousin. deceased cousin. deceased cousin. Unlike the restrictive Flame Diialis, Unlike the restrictive Flame Diialis, Unlike the restrictive Flame Diialis, this new priesthood carried with it no this new priesthood carried with it no this new priesthood carried with it no arcane restrictions. And in the same arcane restrictions. And in the same arcane restrictions. And in the same year, Caesar was elected military year, Caesar was elected military year, Caesar was elected military tribune, his first official step in the tribune, his first official step in the tribune, his first official step in the curses honor. It is likely, though not curses honor. It is likely, though not curses honor. It is likely, though not verified, that Caesar served in Crass's verified, that Caesar served in Crass's verified, that Caesar served in Crass's legions during the slave revolt during legions during the slave revolt during legions during the slave revolt during this time. this time. this time. In 69, he took his next step and was In 69, he took his next step and was In 69, he took his next step and was elected quester for a term to be served elected quester for a term to be served elected quester for a term to be served in Spain. in Spain. in Spain. But before he left, he was hit with a But before he left, he was hit with a But before he left, he was hit with a tragedy. his aunt Julia passed away and tragedy. his aunt Julia passed away and tragedy. his aunt Julia passed away and in response the bold and unpredictable in response the bold and unpredictable in response the bold and unpredictable young man was well bold and young man was well bold and young man was well bold and unpredictable. unpredictable. unpredictable. It was customary for the head of the It was customary for the head of the It was customary for the head of the household Caesar in this case to deliver household Caesar in this case to deliver household Caesar in this case to deliver a funeral oration in the forum for the a funeral oration in the forum for the a funeral oration in the forum for the deceased matron. But Caesar took things deceased matron. But Caesar took things deceased matron. But Caesar took things one step further. Since the reign of one step further. Since the reign of one step further. Since the reign of Sullah gas marius had been legally Sullah gas marius had been legally Sullah gas marius had been legally declared persona nonrada in Rome and his declared persona nonrada in Rome and his declared persona nonrada in Rome and his likeness was banned from the public likeness was banned from the public likeness was banned from the public sphere. But funeral processions of noble sphere. But funeral processions of noble sphere. But funeral processions of noble women usually included a depiction of women usually included a depiction of women usually included a depiction of their husbands. Caesar never hesitated their husbands. Caesar never hesitated their husbands. Caesar never hesitated and marched through the streets of Rome and marched through the streets of Rome and marched through the streets of Rome at the head of a column that bore with at the head of a column that bore with at the head of a column that bore with it images of gas marius. Images that had it images of gas marius. Images that had it images of gas marius. Images that had not been seen publicly for more than a not been seen publicly for more than a not been seen publicly for more than a decade.

decade. decade. Throughout the city, citizens and former Throughout the city, citizens and former Throughout the city, citizens and former soldiers began remembering Marius not soldiers began remembering Marius not soldiers began remembering Marius not for what he was in his final years, but for what he was in his final years, but for what he was in his final years, but for the great man who had picked beggars for the great man who had picked beggars for the great man who had picked beggars up from the slums and made them up from the slums and made them up from the slums and made them honorable soldiers, who had ended the honorable soldiers, who had ended the honorable soldiers, who had ended the needlessly extended war with Jagartha, needlessly extended war with Jagartha, needlessly extended war with Jagartha, and who had defeated the invading Gauls. and who had defeated the invading Gauls. and who had defeated the invading Gauls. This procession marked the beginning of This procession marked the beginning of This procession marked the beginning of Marius's rehabilitation and earned Marius's rehabilitation and earned Marius's rehabilitation and earned Caesar much acclaim from the common Caesar much acclaim from the common Caesar much acclaim from the common people for whom Marius had done so much. people for whom Marius had done so much. people for whom Marius had done so much. The conservative Senate, who would have The conservative Senate, who would have The conservative Senate, who would have been fine never hearing the name Marius been fine never hearing the name Marius been fine never hearing the name Marius again, were annoyed. But there was again, were annoyed. But there was again, were annoyed. But there was little they could do to censor Caesar little they could do to censor Caesar little they could do to censor Caesar after the outpouring of goodwill from after the outpouring of goodwill from after the outpouring of goodwill from the masses. the masses. the masses. But that wouldn't be the only tragedy But that wouldn't be the only tragedy But that wouldn't be the only tragedy that befell Caesar, nor the last time that befell Caesar, nor the last time that befell Caesar, nor the last time the people would embrace him before he the people would embrace him before he the people would embrace him before he left for Spain. left for Spain. left for Spain. Not long after Julia's death, Cornelia, Not long after Julia's death, Cornelia, Not long after Julia's death, Cornelia, the wife Caesar had defied Sullah to the wife Caesar had defied Sullah to the wife Caesar had defied Sullah to stand beside, suddenly died. stand beside, suddenly died. stand beside, suddenly died. There were traditions dictating who There were traditions dictating who There were traditions dictating who deserved funeralations in the forum and deserved funeralations in the forum and deserved funeralations in the forum and young women almost never qualified for young women almost never qualified for young women almost never qualified for the honor. But Caesar defied convention the honor. But Caesar defied convention the honor. But Caesar defied convention and delivered a moving eulogy for and delivered a moving eulogy for and delivered a moving eulogy for Cornelia. Whether it was his intention Cornelia. Whether it was his intention Cornelia. Whether it was his intention or just a lucky byproduct, the common or just a lucky byproduct, the common or just a lucky byproduct, the common people of Rome were moved by his obvious people of Rome were moved by his obvious people of Rome were moved by his obvious griefstricken love. This was not just griefstricken love. This was not just griefstricken love. This was not just another stoic noble. This was a man with another stoic noble. This was a man with another stoic noble. This was a man with a heart, a man of passion. They loved a heart, a man of passion. They loved a heart, a man of passion. They loved him for it.

him for it. him for it. Eventually, Caesar did make it to Spain, Eventually, Caesar did make it to Spain, Eventually, Caesar did make it to Spain, and while there began to set up a and while there began to set up a and while there began to set up a network of clients, subjects, and allies network of clients, subjects, and allies network of clients, subjects, and allies that would serve him well for the rest that would serve him well for the rest that would serve him well for the rest of his career. Wherever he went, Caesar of his career. Wherever he went, Caesar of his career. Wherever he went, Caesar brought with him a reputation for fair brought with him a reputation for fair brought with him a reputation for fair dealing, competent administration, and dealing, competent administration, and dealing, competent administration, and mercy. He always governed with a stern mercy. He always governed with a stern mercy. He always governed with a stern but understanding hand. but understanding hand. but understanding hand. When Spanish debtors were beingounded When Spanish debtors were beingounded When Spanish debtors were beingounded into insolvency by their Roman into insolvency by their Roman into insolvency by their Roman creditors, for example, Caesar managed creditors, for example, Caesar managed creditors, for example, Caesar managed to broker a deal limiting the allowed to broker a deal limiting the allowed to broker a deal limiting the allowed wage garnishment percentage. But in his wage garnishment percentage. But in his wage garnishment percentage. But in his apparent populism, Caesar was savvy apparent populism, Caesar was savvy apparent populism, Caesar was savvy enough not to alienate the lenders who enough not to alienate the lenders who enough not to alienate the lenders who were a the men who could make or break were a the men who could make or break were a the men who could make or break his further political career and b the his further political career and b the his further political career and b the very men who Caesar would be borrowing very men who Caesar would be borrowing very men who Caesar would be borrowing money from to advance that political money from to advance that political money from to advance that political career. The wage garnishment limit was career. The wage garnishment limit was career. The wage garnishment limit was thus set at 66%. thus set at 66%. thus set at 66%. Enough that the lenders did not feel Enough that the lenders did not feel Enough that the lenders did not feel cheated, but not so much that the cheated, but not so much that the cheated, but not so much that the borrowers were run out of their homes. borrowers were run out of their homes. borrowers were run out of their homes. It was the kind of practical It was the kind of practical It was the kind of practical administrative decision-making that was administrative decision-making that was administrative decision-making that was the hallmark of Caesar's career. Much is the hallmark of Caesar's career. Much is the hallmark of Caesar's career. Much is made of his military acumen, but he was made of his military acumen, but he was made of his military acumen, but he was as deaf with legislation as he was with as deaf with legislation as he was with as deaf with legislation as he was with the sword. His laws, as we will see the sword. His laws, as we will see the sword. His laws, as we will see moving forward, were brilliantly moving forward, were brilliantly moving forward, were brilliantly written, impossible to attack, realistic written, impossible to attack, realistic written, impossible to attack, realistic in scope, and functional in in scope, and functional in in scope, and functional in implementation.

implementation. implementation. Honestly, as dictators go, Julius Caesar Honestly, as dictators go, Julius Caesar Honestly, as dictators go, Julius Caesar was a man at least capable of doing the was a man at least capable of doing the was a man at least capable of doing the job right. job right. job right. When his work in Spain was completed, When his work in Spain was completed, When his work in Spain was completed, Caesar made his way back to Rome along Caesar made his way back to Rome along Caesar made his way back to Rome along the Mediterranean coast through Gaul. on the Mediterranean coast through Gaul. on the Mediterranean coast through Gaul. on the European side of the Alps and then the European side of the Alps and then the European side of the Alps and then on the Italian side. Caesar moved on the Italian side. Caesar moved on the Italian side. Caesar moved slowly, lending a sympathetic ear to the slowly, lending a sympathetic ear to the slowly, lending a sympathetic ear to the populace, settling disputes and populace, settling disputes and populace, settling disputes and generally ingratiating himself with the generally ingratiating himself with the generally ingratiating himself with the community. As in Spain, he earned a community. As in Spain, he earned a community. As in Spain, he earned a broad base of support that he could broad base of support that he could broad base of support that he could count on for the rest of his life, count on for the rest of his life, count on for the rest of his life, particularly of course during the Galla particularly of course during the Galla particularly of course during the Galla campaigns a few years hence. campaigns a few years hence. campaigns a few years hence. Back in Rome, Caesar remarried, this Back in Rome, Caesar remarried, this Back in Rome, Caesar remarried, this time choosing, to the surprise of time choosing, to the surprise of time choosing, to the surprise of everyone the granddaughter of Sullah. everyone the granddaughter of Sullah. everyone the granddaughter of Sullah. While the arrangement seemed to signal a While the arrangement seemed to signal a While the arrangement seemed to signal a shift towards more conservative shift towards more conservative shift towards more conservative policies, Caesar used the benefits of policies, Caesar used the benefits of policies, Caesar used the benefits of the familial ties he gained without the familial ties he gained without the familial ties he gained without letting it interfere with his populous letting it interfere with his populous letting it interfere with his populous politics. Savvy and unpredictable, 100% politics. Savvy and unpredictable, 100% politics. Savvy and unpredictable, 100% pure Caesar. pure Caesar. pure Caesar. His career continued to advance and he His career continued to advance and he His career continued to advance and he was placed in charge of the Aion way, a was placed in charge of the Aion way, a was placed in charge of the Aion way, a highly covered administrative post and highly covered administrative post and highly covered administrative post and then was elected adile.

then was elected adile. then was elected adile. While serving in both functions, Caesar While serving in both functions, Caesar While serving in both functions, Caesar borrowed enormous sums of money to fund borrowed enormous sums of money to fund borrowed enormous sums of money to fund public works projects, festivals, public works projects, festivals, public works projects, festivals, gladatorial games, and all manner of gladatorial games, and all manner of gladatorial games, and all manner of minor expenses. minor expenses. minor expenses. It was all for the good of Rome and his It was all for the good of Rome and his It was all for the good of Rome and his career, of course, but the scope of the career, of course, but the scope of the career, of course, but the scope of the debt was staggering, and Caesar's life debt was staggering, and Caesar's life debt was staggering, and Caesar's life would be defined for years by his would be defined for years by his would be defined for years by his running battles with and sometimes running battles with and sometimes running battles with and sometimes literally running away from his literally running away from his literally running away from his creditors. creditors. creditors. It was during this period that his It was during this period that his It was during this period that his alliance with Craas was really alliance with Craas was really alliance with Craas was really solidified. solidified. solidified. Anyone with half a brain could see that Anyone with half a brain could see that Anyone with half a brain could see that Caesar was a man on the rise and Craas Caesar was a man on the rise and Craas Caesar was a man on the rise and Craas was no dummy. Yes, he was rich beyond was no dummy. Yes, he was rich beyond was no dummy. Yes, he was rich beyond measure, but he lacked the kind of measure, but he lacked the kind of measure, but he lacked the kind of charisma that oozed out of Caesar. charisma that oozed out of Caesar. charisma that oozed out of Caesar. By patronizing the young noble, Craas By patronizing the young noble, Craas By patronizing the young noble, Craas was making sure both that Caesar never was making sure both that Caesar never was making sure both that Caesar never became his enemy and that some of the became his enemy and that some of the became his enemy and that some of the magic would rub off on old Scrooge magic would rub off on old Scrooge magic would rub off on old Scrooge Mcrais. Mcrais. Mcrais. And Caesar needed patronage. Numerous And Caesar needed patronage. Numerous And Caesar needed patronage. Numerous times, Crass stepped in when Caesar's times, Crass stepped in when Caesar's times, Crass stepped in when Caesar's creditors were working themselves into a creditors were working themselves into a creditors were working themselves into a murderous frenzy and pledged himself as murderous frenzy and pledged himself as murderous frenzy and pledged himself as security against a fault. This would security against a fault. This would security against a fault. This would generally quell the immediate uproar, generally quell the immediate uproar, generally quell the immediate uproar, leaving Caesar free to continue planting leaving Caesar free to continue planting leaving Caesar free to continue planting his seed money across the Roman Empire.

his seed money across the Roman Empire. his seed money across the Roman Empire. He wasn't just investing in any old He wasn't just investing in any old He wasn't just investing in any old career. As he once said to a compatriate career. As he once said to a compatriate career. As he once said to a compatriate while passing through a tiny village in while passing through a tiny village in while passing through a tiny village in Gaul, "He would rather be the first man Gaul, "He would rather be the first man Gaul, "He would rather be the first man there than second man in Rome." there than second man in Rome." there than second man in Rome." Power of the kind Caesar sought was Power of the kind Caesar sought was Power of the kind Caesar sought was expensive. expensive. expensive. But there was only so much Crassis could But there was only so much Crassis could But there was only so much Crassis could do to help. After his term as Adile, do to help. After his term as Adile, do to help. After his term as Adile, Caesar next needed a post that did not Caesar next needed a post that did not Caesar next needed a post that did not just push him further into the red. He just push him further into the red. He just push him further into the red. He needed to at least make some move needed to at least make some move needed to at least make some move towards the black. So in 63 BC, the same towards the black. So in 63 BC, the same towards the black. So in 63 BC, the same year as the Catalinian conspiracy, he year as the Catalinian conspiracy, he year as the Catalinian conspiracy, he took the unprecedented step of running took the unprecedented step of running took the unprecedented step of running for Pontifffects Maximus, the high for Pontifffects Maximus, the high for Pontifffects Maximus, the high priest of Rome. priest of Rome. priest of Rome. It was not only an important position It was not only an important position It was not only an important position politically but came with it numerous politically but came with it numerous politically but came with it numerous opportunities to generate personal opportunities to generate personal opportunities to generate personal income. The thing was normally the income. The thing was normally the income. The thing was normally the pontifffects maximus was an elderly pontifffects maximus was an elderly pontifffects maximus was an elderly statesman near the end of his career. It statesman near the end of his career. It statesman near the end of his career. It was unheard of for a man so young to was unheard of for a man so young to was unheard of for a man so young to aspire to the office. But Caesar needed aspire to the office. But Caesar needed aspire to the office. But Caesar needed to do something bold quickly or he would to do something bold quickly or he would to do something bold quickly or he would be consumed by his debt.

be consumed by his debt. be consumed by his debt. Upon leaving for the forum on the day of Upon leaving for the forum on the day of Upon leaving for the forum on the day of his election, Caesar told his mother, his election, Caesar told his mother, his election, Caesar told his mother, "When I return, you will either find me "When I return, you will either find me "When I return, you will either find me high priest or in exile." high priest or in exile." high priest or in exile." Melodramama aside, the outcome was in Melodramama aside, the outcome was in Melodramama aside, the outcome was in little doubt. Caesar had bribed all the little doubt. Caesar had bribed all the little doubt. Caesar had bribed all the key electors to ensure that democracy key electors to ensure that democracy key electors to ensure that democracy did not interfere with the election. did not interfere with the election. did not interfere with the election. This lifetime appointmented Caesar's This lifetime appointmented Caesar's This lifetime appointmented Caesar's reputation as well as his financial reputation as well as his financial reputation as well as his financial portfolio. portfolio. portfolio. It also came with it an official It also came with it an official It also came with it an official residence which moved his family from residence which moved his family from residence which moved his family from the out of the way home in the subarro the out of the way home in the subarro the out of the way home in the subarro he had known his whole life right into he had known his whole life right into he had known his whole life right into the heart of the most prestigious the heart of the most prestigious the heart of the most prestigious neighborhood in Rome. neighborhood in Rome. neighborhood in Rome. But the office of Pontifffects Maximus But the office of Pontifffects Maximus But the office of Pontifffects Maximus was part-time at best and did not was part-time at best and did not was part-time at best and did not preclude the office holder from pursuing preclude the office holder from pursuing preclude the office holder from pursuing military or political office. military or political office. military or political office. So later in that same year Caesar ran So later in that same year Caesar ran So later in that same year Caesar ran for and won a predatorship leaving him for and won a predatorship leaving him for and won a predatorship leaving him one step away from the highest office in one step away from the highest office in one step away from the highest office in Rome. Throughout Rome. Throughout Rome. Throughout this period in his role both as high this period in his role both as high this period in his role both as high priest and prader, Caesar openly priest and prader, Caesar openly priest and prader, Caesar openly supported the allies of Pompy in the supported the allies of Pompy in the supported the allies of Pompy in the Senate and popular assemblies.

Senate and popular assemblies. Senate and popular assemblies. Pompy was wrapping up his eastern Pompy was wrapping up his eastern Pompy was wrapping up his eastern campaigns and sending home instructions campaigns and sending home instructions campaigns and sending home instructions that his conquest needed to be ratified that his conquest needed to be ratified that his conquest needed to be ratified and that his veterans would need land and that his veterans would need land and that his veterans would need land upon their return to Italy. Caesar had upon their return to Italy. Caesar had upon their return to Italy. Caesar had already distinguished himself as one of already distinguished himself as one of already distinguished himself as one of the few senators to support Pompy's the few senators to support Pompy's the few senators to support Pompy's grant of Mediterranean imperium to fight grant of Mediterranean imperium to fight grant of Mediterranean imperium to fight the pirates a few years earlier and the pirates a few years earlier and the pirates a few years earlier and spent his time now backing whatever spent his time now backing whatever spent his time now backing whatever Pompy indicated he required. With his Pompy indicated he required. With his Pompy indicated he required. With his eye on the console ship and his dreams eye on the console ship and his dreams eye on the console ship and his dreams of reforming practically everything of reforming practically everything of reforming practically everything about the way the empire was about the way the empire was about the way the empire was administered, Caesar was keenly aware of administered, Caesar was keenly aware of administered, Caesar was keenly aware of the need for powerful friends. His the need for powerful friends. His the need for powerful friends. His populist stances and obviously high populist stances and obviously high populist stances and obviously high ambition had won him no friends in the ambition had won him no friends in the ambition had won him no friends in the Senate. If he was going to do half of Senate. If he was going to do half of Senate. If he was going to do half of what he planned, he would need a way to what he planned, he would need a way to what he planned, he would need a way to blunt the obstructionist senators. blunt the obstructionist senators. blunt the obstructionist senators. Caesar recognized Pompy as the perfect Caesar recognized Pompy as the perfect Caesar recognized Pompy as the perfect ally, a wildly popular general who made ally, a wildly popular general who made ally, a wildly popular general who made the Senate as queasy as Caesar seemed to the Senate as queasy as Caesar seemed to the Senate as queasy as Caesar seemed to make them. By supporting Pompy now, make them. By supporting Pompy now, make them. By supporting Pompy now, Caesar hoped that when the general came Caesar hoped that when the general came Caesar hoped that when the general came home, the favor would be returned. home, the favor would be returned. home, the favor would be returned. When his prior ship ended, Caesar was When his prior ship ended, Caesar was When his prior ship ended, Caesar was named proconsular governor of Hispania named proconsular governor of Hispania named proconsular governor of Hispania Ultior or further Spain, a province that Ultior or further Spain, a province that Ultior or further Spain, a province that hugged the southern coast of Spain from hugged the southern coast of Spain from hugged the southern coast of Spain from roughly modern-day Valencia to the roughly modern-day Valencia to the roughly modern-day Valencia to the Atlantic.

Atlantic. Atlantic. The governorship was a turning point in The governorship was a turning point in The governorship was a turning point in Caesar's career. It gave him his first Caesar's career. It gave him his first Caesar's career. It gave him his first crack at true military command, which, crack at true military command, which, crack at true military command, which, as you can imagine, he excelled at as you can imagine, he excelled at as you can imagine, he excelled at brilliantly, but it also set him up in a brilliantly, but it also set him up in a brilliantly, but it also set him up in a position to really make some money. position to really make some money. position to really make some money. Governorships of the provinces during Governorships of the provinces during Governorships of the provinces during this period was seen by most Roman this period was seen by most Roman this period was seen by most Roman politicians as their reward for the politicians as their reward for the politicians as their reward for the sacrifices and financial investments sacrifices and financial investments sacrifices and financial investments they had made on behalf of the state they had made on behalf of the state they had made on behalf of the state over the course of their careers. The over the course of their careers. The over the course of their careers. The personal milking of the provinces was personal milking of the provinces was personal milking of the provinces was not a scandal unless it reached not a scandal unless it reached not a scandal unless it reached egregious proportions. egregious proportions. egregious proportions. It was one of the things Caesar intended It was one of the things Caesar intended It was one of the things Caesar intended to change if he was ever given the to change if he was ever given the to change if he was ever given the chance. Anyone who thought about it chance. Anyone who thought about it chance. Anyone who thought about it could see that the annual arrival of could see that the annual arrival of could see that the annual arrival of some new governor who planned to make some new governor who planned to make some new governor who planned to make himself rich on the backs of the himself rich on the backs of the himself rich on the backs of the provincials was not a sustainable provincials was not a sustainable provincials was not a sustainable practice. Eventually, the cow would be practice. Eventually, the cow would be practice. Eventually, the cow would be milked dry. milked dry. milked dry. But while it was something Caesar But while it was something Caesar But while it was something Caesar intended to change, he had major major intended to change, he had major major intended to change, he had major major debts to worry about. So upon arrival, debts to worry about. So upon arrival, debts to worry about. So upon arrival, he promptly picked a fight with the hill he promptly picked a fight with the hill he promptly picked a fight with the hill tribes in the west that had never been tribes in the west that had never been tribes in the west that had never been fully pacified and drove them off, fully pacified and drove them off, fully pacified and drove them off, seizing the lucrative silver mines they seizing the lucrative silver mines they seizing the lucrative silver mines they control. At the same time, this meant control. At the same time, this meant control. At the same time, this meant more revenue for the state, massive more revenue for the state, massive more revenue for the state, massive amounts of cash for Caesar himself, and amounts of cash for Caesar himself, and amounts of cash for Caesar himself, and bonus, territorial expansion for the bonus, territorial expansion for the bonus, territorial expansion for the empire, the thing that triumphs are made empire, the thing that triumphs are made empire, the thing that triumphs are made of. And upon completion of this little of. And upon completion of this little of. And upon completion of this little war in Spain, Caesar demanded just that.

war in Spain, Caesar demanded just that. war in Spain, Caesar demanded just that. The Senate had no desire to grant Caesar The Senate had no desire to grant Caesar The Senate had no desire to grant Caesar his triumph, but there was no denying his triumph, but there was no denying his triumph, but there was no denying what he had accomplished. what he had accomplished. what he had accomplished. But Caesar further indicated that he But Caesar further indicated that he But Caesar further indicated that he intended to run for the consil ship that intended to run for the consil ship that intended to run for the consil ship that year as well. year as well. year as well. The prospect of the wildly popular The prospect of the wildly popular The prospect of the wildly popular Caesar returning in triumph from Spain Caesar returning in triumph from Spain Caesar returning in triumph from Spain and immediately taking the reigns of and immediately taking the reigns of and immediately taking the reigns of power petrify the Senate. But what could power petrify the Senate. But what could power petrify the Senate. But what could they do? Into this dilemma stepped Ko they do? Into this dilemma stepped Ko they do? Into this dilemma stepped Ko the younger, leader of the conservative the younger, leader of the conservative the younger, leader of the conservative faction in the Senate, defender of faction in the Senate, defender of faction in the Senate, defender of Republican virtue and implacable foe, Republican virtue and implacable foe, Republican virtue and implacable foe, Caesar, who proposed a way to at least Caesar, who proposed a way to at least Caesar, who proposed a way to at least hold off Caesar's consilhip. hold off Caesar's consilhip. hold off Caesar's consilhip. In order to qualify for candidacy, a man In order to qualify for candidacy, a man In order to qualify for candidacy, a man had to be physically present in Rome. had to be physically present in Rome. had to be physically present in Rome. But if a returning general entered the But if a returning general entered the But if a returning general entered the city before his triumph, the honor was city before his triumph, the honor was city before his triumph, the honor was nullified and the great victory parade nullified and the great victory parade nullified and the great victory parade canled. As Caesar waited at Rome's canled. As Caesar waited at Rome's canled. As Caesar waited at Rome's gates, Ko did everything in his power to gates, Ko did everything in his power to gates, Ko did everything in his power to put the triumph off until after the put the triumph off until after the put the triumph off until after the deadline for candidate filing. deadline for candidate filing. deadline for candidate filing. Caesar asked for an exception to the Caesar asked for an exception to the Caesar asked for an exception to the rule, but the request was denied. Kato rule, but the request was denied. Kato rule, but the request was denied. Kato went so far as to filibuster all went so far as to filibuster all went so far as to filibuster all business on the final day of the business on the final day of the business on the final day of the senatorial session to prevent the senatorial session to prevent the senatorial session to prevent the triumph from being scheduled prior to triumph from being scheduled prior to triumph from being scheduled prior to the deadline.

the deadline. the deadline. Kada left that evening feeling quite Kada left that evening feeling quite Kada left that evening feeling quite satisfied with himself. Surely vain satisfied with himself. Surely vain satisfied with himself. Surely vain Caesar would not pass up an opportunity Caesar would not pass up an opportunity Caesar would not pass up an opportunity for a triumph which may only come around for a triumph which may only come around for a triumph which may only come around once in a lifetime just to run for an once in a lifetime just to run for an once in a lifetime just to run for an office he was destined to win anyway. office he was destined to win anyway. office he was destined to win anyway. Imagine his shock when Caesar, bold and Imagine his shock when Caesar, bold and Imagine his shock when Caesar, bold and unpredictable Caesar, abandoned his unpredictable Caesar, abandoned his unpredictable Caesar, abandoned his opportunity for a triumph and entered opportunity for a triumph and entered opportunity for a triumph and entered the city. He would stand for election the city. He would stand for election the city. He would stand for election that year, an election he would win that year, an election he would win that year, an election he would win handily to serve as console of Rome in handily to serve as console of Rome in handily to serve as console of Rome in 59 BC. 59 BC. 59 BC. Next week, we will delve into Caesar's Next week, we will delve into Caesar's Next week, we will delve into Caesar's eventful term in office, the reforms he eventful term in office, the reforms he eventful term in office, the reforms he tried to implement, and the reforms the tried to implement, and the reforms the tried to implement, and the reforms the Senate did everything in their power to Senate did everything in their power to Senate did everything in their power to block. But Caesar's support of Pompy did block. But Caesar's support of Pompy did block. But Caesar's support of Pompy did indeed pay off, and his long-standing indeed pay off, and his long-standing indeed pay off, and his long-standing relationship with Craas was formalized relationship with Craas was formalized relationship with Craas was formalized in a secret pact to push forward the in a secret pact to push forward the in a secret pact to push forward the aims of all three men. The secret pact aims of all three men. The secret pact aims of all three men. The secret pact did not remain secret for long though did not remain secret for long though did not remain secret for long though for when Caesar stood before the popular for when Caesar stood before the popular for when Caesar stood before the popular assembly in order to bypass the assembly in order to bypass the assembly in order to bypass the opposition senate he was flanked by both opposition senate he was flanked by both opposition senate he was flanked by both Pompy and Crass. It was instantly clear Pompy and Crass. It was instantly clear Pompy and Crass. It was instantly clear that the three most powerful men in Rome that the three most powerful men in Rome that the three most powerful men in Rome were working together. And as the masses were working together. And as the masses were working together. And as the masses cheered, the Senate cringed. How in the cheered, the Senate cringed. How in the cheered, the Senate cringed. How in the world could they stop this political world could they stop this political world could they stop this political juggernaut?

Hello and welcome to the history of Rome Hello and welcome to the history of Rome episode 40 in the consil ship of Julius episode 40 in the consil ship of Julius episode 40 in the consil ship of Julius and Caesar. and Caesar. and Caesar. Last week we followed Julius Caesar's Last week we followed Julius Caesar's Last week we followed Julius Caesar's rise of the curses honorum which was rise of the curses honorum which was rise of the curses honorum which was capped by a successful election to the capped by a successful election to the capped by a successful election to the consil ship for a term to be served in consil ship for a term to be served in consil ship for a term to be served in 59 BC. On his way up the political 59 BC. On his way up the political 59 BC. On his way up the political ladder, Caesar had spent lavishly, ladder, Caesar had spent lavishly, ladder, Caesar had spent lavishly, bribed when necessary, made a lot of bribed when necessary, made a lot of bribed when necessary, made a lot of friends, and even more enemies. More friends, and even more enemies. More friends, and even more enemies. More than anything else, he had established than anything else, he had established than anything else, he had established himself as a man to be reckoned with. He himself as a man to be reckoned with. He himself as a man to be reckoned with. He was an able governor and a brilliant was an able governor and a brilliant was an able governor and a brilliant military commander, a master orator, and military commander, a master orator, and military commander, a master orator, and a shrewd politician. a shrewd politician. a shrewd politician. For most Romans, the consil ship marked For most Romans, the consil ship marked For most Romans, the consil ship marked the end of a long career. For Julius the end of a long career. For Julius the end of a long career. For Julius Caesar, it was only the beginning. Caesar, it was only the beginning. Caesar, it was only the beginning. The consular elections that saw Caesar The consular elections that saw Caesar The consular elections that saw Caesar emerge triumphant was a dirty affair, emerge triumphant was a dirty affair, emerge triumphant was a dirty affair, one that saw rampant bribery on all one that saw rampant bribery on all one that saw rampant bribery on all sides. It was obvious that Caesar was sides. It was obvious that Caesar was sides. It was obvious that Caesar was going to win in a walk. So the important going to win in a walk. So the important going to win in a walk. So the important thing to the conservative Senate was to thing to the conservative Senate was to thing to the conservative Senate was to elect someone who would stand as a bull elect someone who would stand as a bull elect someone who would stand as a bull work against any radical reforms they work against any radical reforms they work against any radical reforms they suspected Caesar would try and push suspected Caesar would try and push suspected Caesar would try and push through. To this end, they threw all through. To this end, they threw all through. To this end, they threw all their support behind Marcus Kalpernius their support behind Marcus Kalpernius their support behind Marcus Kalpernius Bibilis, who had served as Adidle Bibilis, who had served as Adidle Bibilis, who had served as Adidle alongside Caesar years earlier and alongside Caesar years earlier and alongside Caesar years earlier and forever bore a grudge against his former forever bore a grudge against his former forever bore a grudge against his former colleague for taking credit for things colleague for taking credit for things colleague for taking credit for things Bibilis himself had accomplished while Bibilis himself had accomplished while Bibilis himself had accomplished while in that office. That personal enity, in that office. That personal enity, in that office. That personal enity, coupled with a naturally conservative coupled with a naturally conservative coupled with a naturally conservative worldview, made him the perfect foil for worldview, made him the perfect foil for worldview, made him the perfect foil for Caesar's charismatic populism.

Caesar's charismatic populism. Caesar's charismatic populism. In anticipation of the struggle with the In anticipation of the struggle with the In anticipation of the struggle with the Senate, Caesar had been lining up Senate, Caesar had been lining up Senate, Caesar had been lining up support across the Roman world. Men at support across the Roman world. Men at support across the Roman world. Men at all levels of society who would back him all levels of society who would back him all levels of society who would back him through thick and thin. Some because through thick and thin. Some because through thick and thin. Some because they genuinely believed in Caesar's they genuinely believed in Caesar's they genuinely believed in Caesar's programs, some simply out of crash programs, some simply out of crash programs, some simply out of crash self-interest. Caesar spread bribes self-interest. Caesar spread bribes self-interest. Caesar spread bribes liberally and promises of patronage liberally and promises of patronage liberally and promises of patronage constantly. constantly. constantly. It made no matter to him. A vote was a It made no matter to him. A vote was a It made no matter to him. A vote was a vote was a vote, whether it came vote was a vote, whether it came vote was a vote, whether it came unsolicited or after a massive payoff. unsolicited or after a massive payoff. unsolicited or after a massive payoff. At the top of his pyramid of support, At the top of his pyramid of support, At the top of his pyramid of support, Caesar targeted three powerful men Caesar targeted three powerful men Caesar targeted three powerful men specifically. specifically. specifically. The first of these men was an obvious The first of these men was an obvious The first of these men was an obvious choice. Marcus Craas had been a longtime choice. Marcus Craas had been a longtime choice. Marcus Craas had been a longtime backer of Caesar and their alliance was backer of Caesar and their alliance was backer of Caesar and their alliance was already wellknown. But it bears already wellknown. But it bears already wellknown. But it bears repeating that Craas was exceedingly repeating that Craas was exceedingly repeating that Craas was exceedingly wealthy and still dreamed of becoming a wealthy and still dreamed of becoming a wealthy and still dreamed of becoming a great military commander. great military commander. great military commander. Second, Caesar targeted Pompy the Great, Second, Caesar targeted Pompy the Great, Second, Caesar targeted Pompy the Great, who had struggled upon returning from who had struggled upon returning from who had struggled upon returning from the east to have his conquest ratified the east to have his conquest ratified the east to have his conquest ratified and his veteran settled. It took some and his veteran settled. It took some and his veteran settled. It took some deaf maneuvering on Caesar's part to get deaf maneuvering on Caesar's part to get deaf maneuvering on Caesar's part to get Craas and Pompy in the same room, but Craas and Pompy in the same room, but Craas and Pompy in the same room, but both were well aware that their own both were well aware that their own both were well aware that their own personal projects and aspirations could personal projects and aspirations could personal projects and aspirations could be realized easier with the help of the be realized easier with the help of the be realized easier with the help of the other.

other. other. Last, Caesar made overtures to Rome's Last, Caesar made overtures to Rome's Last, Caesar made overtures to Rome's greatest lawyer and ortor, Cicero. He greatest lawyer and ortor, Cicero. He greatest lawyer and ortor, Cicero. He appealed to Cicero<unk>'s vision, appealed to Cicero<unk>'s vision, appealed to Cicero<unk>'s vision, intelligence, and legal savvy. The intelligence, and legal savvy. The intelligence, and legal savvy. The empire is presently constituted was empire is presently constituted was empire is presently constituted was unsustainable. Cicero could see that as unsustainable. Cicero could see that as unsustainable. Cicero could see that as well as anyone. But the conservative well as anyone. But the conservative well as anyone. But the conservative Senate resisted all attempts at Senate resisted all attempts at Senate resisted all attempts at desperately needed reform. Caesar was desperately needed reform. Caesar was desperately needed reform. Caesar was offering Cicero the chance to have great offering Cicero the chance to have great offering Cicero the chance to have great influence over the course correction he influence over the course correction he influence over the course correction he planned for the empire. But Cicero planned for the empire. But Cicero planned for the empire. But Cicero rejected the mutual support pact, rejected the mutual support pact, rejected the mutual support pact, preferring to remain an independent preferring to remain an independent preferring to remain an independent moderate voice. moderate voice. moderate voice. Thus was born the first triumvirate. not Thus was born the first triumvirate. not Thus was born the first triumvirate. not its name at the time, nor a particularly its name at the time, nor a particularly its name at the time, nor a particularly accurate description of the wide network accurate description of the wide network accurate description of the wide network of supporters Caesar had aligned. But of supporters Caesar had aligned. But of supporters Caesar had aligned. But history gives us our shorthand labels history gives us our shorthand labels history gives us our shorthand labels and is often easier to simply use them and is often easier to simply use them and is often easier to simply use them rather than try to reinvent the wheel. rather than try to reinvent the wheel. rather than try to reinvent the wheel. The agreement between Caesar, Crus, and The agreement between Caesar, Crus, and The agreement between Caesar, Crus, and Pompy was made official when they swore Pompy was made official when they swore Pompy was made official when they swore a solemn oath administered by Caesar in a solemn oath administered by Caesar in a solemn oath administered by Caesar in his role as Pontifffects Maximus to his role as Pontifffects Maximus to his role as Pontifffects Maximus to undertake no action that opposed any of undertake no action that opposed any of undertake no action that opposed any of the others. Pretty simple, right? Well, the others. Pretty simple, right? Well, the others. Pretty simple, right? Well, actually, yeah, it was pretty simple, actually, yeah, it was pretty simple, actually, yeah, it was pretty simple, and it worked, too.

and it worked, too. and it worked, too. With his support lined up, Caesar With his support lined up, Caesar With his support lined up, Caesar wrapped up some unfinished business in wrapped up some unfinished business in wrapped up some unfinished business in his personal life. He needed to find a his personal life. He needed to find a his personal life. He needed to find a new wife. I neglected the scandal that new wife. I neglected the scandal that new wife. I neglected the scandal that led to his divorce from his second wife, led to his divorce from his second wife, led to his divorce from his second wife, Pompeia, last week. So before we delve Pompeia, last week. So before we delve Pompeia, last week. So before we delve into the details of Caesar's eventful into the details of Caesar's eventful into the details of Caesar's eventful consil ship, I want to slide back a few consil ship, I want to slide back a few consil ship, I want to slide back a few years as the man who sparked the scandal years as the man who sparked the scandal years as the man who sparked the scandal will feature prominently in the coming will feature prominently in the coming will feature prominently in the coming breakdown of civility between Caesar and breakdown of civility between Caesar and breakdown of civility between Caesar and Cicero. Cicero. Cicero. Each year the rights of Bonadia, the Each year the rights of Bonadia, the Each year the rights of Bonadia, the Roman goddess of fertility and healing Roman goddess of fertility and healing Roman goddess of fertility and healing were performed in the home of the were performed in the home of the were performed in the home of the ponteffects maximus. Men were excluded ponteffects maximus. Men were excluded ponteffects maximus. Men were excluded from the ceremony, so Caesar was out of from the ceremony, so Caesar was out of from the ceremony, so Caesar was out of the house, leaving his wife and mother the house, leaving his wife and mother the house, leaving his wife and mother in charge of the proceedings. in charge of the proceedings. in charge of the proceedings. Into this segregated affair slipped Into this segregated affair slipped Into this segregated affair slipped Publius Claius Poulture, a Publius Claius Poulture, a Publius Claius Poulture, a free-thinking, flamboyant, loose cannon free-thinking, flamboyant, loose cannon free-thinking, flamboyant, loose cannon who loved thumbming his nose at stodgy who loved thumbming his nose at stodgy who loved thumbming his nose at stodgy Roman tradition. Claius, dressed as a Roman tradition. Claius, dressed as a Roman tradition. Claius, dressed as a woman, lingered on the edges of the woman, lingered on the edges of the woman, lingered on the edges of the party until he was outed by Caesar's party until he was outed by Caesar's party until he was outed by Caesar's mother. It would have been bad enough mother. It would have been bad enough mother. It would have been bad enough for Caesar had the ceremony he sponsored for Caesar had the ceremony he sponsored for Caesar had the ceremony he sponsored simply been desecrated. But to make simply been desecrated. But to make simply been desecrated. But to make matters worse, it was widely rumored matters worse, it was widely rumored matters worse, it was widely rumored that Claius was engaged in an affair that Claius was engaged in an affair that Claius was engaged in an affair with Pompeia and was taking Caesar's with Pompeia and was taking Caesar's with Pompeia and was taking Caesar's absence as an opportunity for a absence as an opportunity for a absence as an opportunity for a rendevous.

rendevous. rendevous. In response to the destructive chatter, In response to the destructive chatter, In response to the destructive chatter, Caesar acted quickly. He divorced Caesar acted quickly. He divorced Caesar acted quickly. He divorced Pompea, for whether she was guilty of Pompea, for whether she was guilty of Pompea, for whether she was guilty of the affair or not, Caesar's wife must be the affair or not, Caesar's wife must be the affair or not, Caesar's wife must be above suspicion. above suspicion. above suspicion. The affair marked the last we will hear The affair marked the last we will hear The affair marked the last we will hear of Pompeia, but not the last we will of Pompeia, but not the last we will of Pompeia, but not the last we will hear of Claius. hear of Claius. hear of Claius. I will also take this opportunity to I will also take this opportunity to I will also take this opportunity to note that while Caesar's wife must be note that while Caesar's wife must be note that while Caesar's wife must be above suspicion, Caesar himself was above suspicion, Caesar himself was above suspicion, Caesar himself was under no such obligation. Caesar cheated under no such obligation. Caesar cheated under no such obligation. Caesar cheated early and often on all of his wives, early and often on all of his wives, early and often on all of his wives, carrying on affairs with some of the carrying on affairs with some of the carrying on affairs with some of the most prominent women in Rome, including most prominent women in Rome, including most prominent women in Rome, including Cvilia Caponus, who was at the same time Cvilia Caponus, who was at the same time Cvilia Caponus, who was at the same time the mother and mother-in-law of Caesar's the mother and mother-in-law of Caesar's the mother and mother-in-law of Caesar's two most famous assassins, Brutus and two most famous assassins, Brutus and two most famous assassins, Brutus and Cases, respectively. While the affair Cases, respectively. While the affair Cases, respectively. While the affair was on though, she was best known as the was on though, she was best known as the was on though, she was best known as the halfsister of Ko the Younger. Caesar halfsister of Ko the Younger. Caesar halfsister of Ko the Younger. Caesar played politics to win and knew he was played politics to win and knew he was played politics to win and knew he was getting Ko's goat, hopefully forcing the getting Ko's goat, hopefully forcing the getting Ko's goat, hopefully forcing the staunch conservative in his personal staunch conservative in his personal staunch conservative in his personal rage and embarrassment to get sloppy. rage and embarrassment to get sloppy. rage and embarrassment to get sloppy. Caesar finally settled on marrying the Caesar finally settled on marrying the Caesar finally settled on marrying the daughter of the statesman Lucius daughter of the statesman Lucius daughter of the statesman Lucius Kalpernius Piso, who would Kalpernius Piso, who would Kalpernius Piso, who would coincidentally follow Caesar in the coincidentally follow Caesar in the coincidentally follow Caesar in the consil ship the next year. And with consil ship the next year. And with consil ship the next year. And with Kalpernia by his side, Caesar took the Kalpernia by his side, Caesar took the Kalpernia by his side, Caesar took the oath of office in 59 BC, immediately oath of office in 59 BC, immediately oath of office in 59 BC, immediately setting to work on his reform program.

setting to work on his reform program. setting to work on his reform program. First up, as agreed to by the three First up, as agreed to by the three First up, as agreed to by the three triumbers, was a land redistribution triumbers, was a land redistribution triumbers, was a land redistribution program aimed primarily at Pompy's program aimed primarily at Pompy's program aimed primarily at Pompy's veterans, but further intended to veterans, but further intended to veterans, but further intended to alleviate the general problem of urban alleviate the general problem of urban alleviate the general problem of urban poverty that had become a chronic poverty that had become a chronic poverty that had become a chronic disease in Rome. Since the closing days disease in Rome. Since the closing days disease in Rome. Since the closing days of the Punic War, land ownership in of the Punic War, land ownership in of the Punic War, land ownership in Italy had become more and more Italy had become more and more Italy had become more and more centralized into fewer and fewer hands. centralized into fewer and fewer hands. centralized into fewer and fewer hands. The large landowning nobles further The large landowning nobles further The large landowning nobles further exacerbated the problem by importing exacerbated the problem by importing exacerbated the problem by importing slaves to work their estates rather than slaves to work their estates rather than slaves to work their estates rather than relying on a sharecropping system that relying on a sharecropping system that relying on a sharecropping system that would have kept locals tied to the land. would have kept locals tied to the land. would have kept locals tied to the land. These displaced ex-farmers flooded into These displaced ex-farmers flooded into These displaced ex-farmers flooded into Rome, putting enormous strain on the Rome, putting enormous strain on the Rome, putting enormous strain on the treasury and contributing to a general treasury and contributing to a general treasury and contributing to a general atmosphere of lawlessness in the growing atmosphere of lawlessness in the growing atmosphere of lawlessness in the growing slums and housing projects. slums and housing projects. slums and housing projects. And with so many of the landless being And with so many of the landless being And with so many of the landless being ex-soldiers, the possibility of violent ex-soldiers, the possibility of violent ex-soldiers, the possibility of violent uprisings was always just a few missed uprisings was always just a few missed uprisings was always just a few missed meals away. meals away. meals away. Caesar entered for the Senate's Caesar entered for the Senate's Caesar entered for the Senate's consideration a carefully written bill consideration a carefully written bill consideration a carefully written bill to address the issue. Stateowned land to address the issue. Stateowned land to address the issue. Stateowned land would be opened up to settlement, and would be opened up to settlement, and would be opened up to settlement, and state funds would be used to purchase state funds would be used to purchase state funds would be used to purchase further tracks from willing sellers at further tracks from willing sellers at further tracks from willing sellers at the land's assessed value. The money to the land's assessed value. The money to the land's assessed value. The money to do this would come from the treasure do this would come from the treasure do this would come from the treasure Pompy had brought back with him from the Pompy had brought back with him from the Pompy had brought back with him from the east, making the project costneutral.

east, making the project costneutral. east, making the project costneutral. In order to mllify the change adverse In order to mllify the change adverse In order to mllify the change adverse Senate, Caesar specifically exempted the Senate, Caesar specifically exempted the Senate, Caesar specifically exempted the rich lands of Compana, which had long rich lands of Compana, which had long rich lands of Compana, which had long been owned and operated by the nobles of been owned and operated by the nobles of been owned and operated by the nobles of Rome for their personal enrichment. Rome for their personal enrichment. Rome for their personal enrichment. But the exemption was not enough, and But the exemption was not enough, and But the exemption was not enough, and the Senate, though unable to voice a the Senate, though unable to voice a the Senate, though unable to voice a single constructive criticism of the single constructive criticism of the single constructive criticism of the bill, nonetheless stalled its passage. bill, nonetheless stalled its passage. bill, nonetheless stalled its passage. If they let Caesar pass such a popular If they let Caesar pass such a popular If they let Caesar pass such a popular bill, his influence would skyrocket off bill, his influence would skyrocket off bill, his influence would skyrocket off the charts, and they simply could not the charts, and they simply could not the charts, and they simply could not allow that to happen. allow that to happen. allow that to happen. Ko rose in opposition and began to talk Ko rose in opposition and began to talk Ko rose in opposition and began to talk and talk and talk and talk. Pretty soon and talk and talk and talk. Pretty soon and talk and talk and talk. Pretty soon it was clear that he intended to talk it was clear that he intended to talk it was clear that he intended to talk until the sun fell out of the sky. The until the sun fell out of the sky. The until the sun fell out of the sky. The merits of the bill were no longer in merits of the bill were no longer in merits of the bill were no longer in question. This was a naked stall tactic, question. This was a naked stall tactic, question. This was a naked stall tactic, pure and simple. Caesar grew impatient pure and simple. Caesar grew impatient pure and simple. Caesar grew impatient and then enraged at Ko and in his fury and then enraged at Ko and in his fury and then enraged at Ko and in his fury made one of his few political made one of his few political made one of his few political miscalculations. miscalculations. miscalculations. He ordered that Ko be seized and hauled He ordered that Ko be seized and hauled He ordered that Ko be seized and hauled off to jail for obstructing senatorial off to jail for obstructing senatorial off to jail for obstructing senatorial business. business. business. The Senate was understandably shocked at The Senate was understandably shocked at The Senate was understandably shocked at one of their most respected members one of their most respected members one of their most respected members being hauled off to jail like a common being hauled off to jail like a common being hauled off to jail like a common criminal and in protest walked out of criminal and in protest walked out of criminal and in protest walked out of the session and mass. Caesar caught a the session and mass. Caesar caught a the session and mass. Caesar caught a member who he knew to be at least member who he knew to be at least member who he knew to be at least sympathetic to his cause and asked why sympathetic to his cause and asked why sympathetic to his cause and asked why he too was leaving. The senator replied, he too was leaving. The senator replied, he too was leaving. The senator replied, "I would rather be in jail with Ko than "I would rather be in jail with Ko than "I would rather be in jail with Ko than here with you."

here with you." here with you." This harsh statement coming from a This harsh statement coming from a This harsh statement coming from a friend no less brought Caesar to his friend no less brought Caesar to his friend no less brought Caesar to his senses and he ordered Ko released. But senses and he ordered Ko released. But senses and he ordered Ko released. But the battle over the bill was just the battle over the bill was just the battle over the bill was just heating up. heating up. heating up. When the Senate reconvened, Caesar When the Senate reconvened, Caesar When the Senate reconvened, Caesar announced that because the Senate was announced that because the Senate was announced that because the Senate was obviously intent on blocking the bill, obviously intent on blocking the bill, obviously intent on blocking the bill, no matter its merits, he would take his no matter its merits, he would take his no matter its merits, he would take his legislation and all future legislation legislation and all future legislation legislation and all future legislation directly to the people's assemblies. directly to the people's assemblies. directly to the people's assemblies. Now, at this point, the Senate simply Now, at this point, the Senate simply Now, at this point, the Senate simply knew that Caesar was a popular and knew that Caesar was a popular and knew that Caesar was a popular and charismatic politician. What they did charismatic politician. What they did charismatic politician. What they did not know about was the triumvirate not know about was the triumvirate not know about was the triumvirate alliance and that he had the power and alliance and that he had the power and alliance and that he had the power and resources to make good on his threat to resources to make good on his threat to resources to make good on his threat to bypass them completely from here on out. bypass them completely from here on out. bypass them completely from here on out. But the next day, as Caesar stood before But the next day, as Caesar stood before But the next day, as Caesar stood before the popular assembly, an assembly packed the popular assembly, an assembly packed the popular assembly, an assembly packed with Pompy's veterans, the Senate was in with Pompy's veterans, the Senate was in with Pompy's veterans, the Senate was in for a rude awakening. Standing beside for a rude awakening. Standing beside for a rude awakening. Standing beside Caesar were Crass and Pompy. And when Caesar were Crass and Pompy. And when Caesar were Crass and Pompy. And when Pompy stroed forward and announced his Pompy stroed forward and announced his Pompy stroed forward and announced his intention to back the legislation with intention to back the legislation with intention to back the legislation with his sword, if necessary, to the roaring his sword, if necessary, to the roaring his sword, if necessary, to the roaring approval of the crowd, the Senate approval of the crowd, the Senate approval of the crowd, the Senate realized the whole ball game had changed realized the whole ball game had changed realized the whole ball game had changed behind their backs. The secret pack was behind their backs. The secret pack was behind their backs. The secret pack was now out in the open. The question was, now out in the open. The question was, now out in the open. The question was, could the Senate do anything about it?

could the Senate do anything about it? could the Senate do anything about it? Bibilis, Caesar's co-consul, swore to do Bibilis, Caesar's co-consul, swore to do Bibilis, Caesar's co-consul, swore to do everything in his power to prevent the everything in his power to prevent the everything in his power to prevent the bill from passing despite the jeers and bill from passing despite the jeers and bill from passing despite the jeers and threats that rain down on his head by threats that rain down on his head by threats that rain down on his head by the increasingly unruly mob. Clearly, the increasingly unruly mob. Clearly, the increasingly unruly mob. Clearly, this was not a time for open this was not a time for open this was not a time for open confrontation. So, Biblis beat a hasty confrontation. So, Biblis beat a hasty confrontation. So, Biblis beat a hasty retreat to plan his next move. What he retreat to plan his next move. What he retreat to plan his next move. What he came up with was sneakily brilliant. came up with was sneakily brilliant. came up with was sneakily brilliant. Obviously, an abuse of power, but Obviously, an abuse of power, but Obviously, an abuse of power, but technically an insurmountable hurdle to technically an insurmountable hurdle to technically an insurmountable hurdle to Caesar's entire program. Caesar's entire program. Caesar's entire program. One of the functions of the console is One of the functions of the console is One of the functions of the console is to decide which days over the course of to decide which days over the course of to decide which days over the course of the year will be considered holy days, the year will be considered holy days, the year will be considered holy days, on which no public business can be on which no public business can be on which no public business can be transacted. transacted. transacted. With the help of some conservative With the help of some conservative With the help of some conservative tribun, Bibis simply declared that every tribun, Bibis simply declared that every tribun, Bibis simply declared that every day left in his and Caesar's consil day left in his and Caesar's consil day left in his and Caesar's consil shship was a holy day. Public business shship was a holy day. Public business shship was a holy day. Public business would be shuttered for the rest of the would be shuttered for the rest of the would be shuttered for the rest of the year. It was ridiculous, of course, and year. It was ridiculous, of course, and year. It was ridiculous, of course, and everyone saw it for what it was, but everyone saw it for what it was, but everyone saw it for what it was, but there was little Caesar could do about there was little Caesar could do about there was little Caesar could do about it. Without a legal leg to stand on, it. Without a legal leg to stand on, it. Without a legal leg to stand on, though, Caesar refused to be deterred. though, Caesar refused to be deterred. though, Caesar refused to be deterred. He pressed on for a vote on the land He pressed on for a vote on the land He pressed on for a vote on the land bill anyway and decided to deal with the bill anyway and decided to deal with the bill anyway and decided to deal with the legal implications later. The people at legal implications later. The people at legal implications later. The people at least were with him.

least were with him. least were with him. On the day of the vote, Caesar packed On the day of the vote, Caesar packed On the day of the vote, Caesar packed the forum with allies, and victory was the forum with allies, and victory was the forum with allies, and victory was never in any doubt. But Bibilis, much to never in any doubt. But Bibilis, much to never in any doubt. But Bibilis, much to the surprise of everyone, stroed right the surprise of everyone, stroed right the surprise of everyone, stroed right into the belly of the beast and began into the belly of the beast and began into the belly of the beast and began denouncing the bill and declaring the denouncing the bill and declaring the denouncing the bill and declaring the proceedings illegal. The mob erupted in proceedings illegal. The mob erupted in proceedings illegal. The mob erupted in anger. Bibilis and his lers were anger. Bibilis and his lers were anger. Bibilis and his lers were assaulted. A bucket of manure was dumped assaulted. A bucket of manure was dumped assaulted. A bucket of manure was dumped on the consil's head, and most on the consil's head, and most on the consil's head, and most importantly, his fascis, the symbol of importantly, his fascis, the symbol of importantly, his fascis, the symbol of consularor authority, were broken. consularor authority, were broken. consularor authority, were broken. Bibles fled from the scene. From that Bibles fled from the scene. From that Bibles fled from the scene. From that point on, he essentially retired from point on, he essentially retired from point on, he essentially retired from public life, spending the remainder of public life, spending the remainder of public life, spending the remainder of his consil ship holed up in his house, his consil ship holed up in his house, his consil ship holed up in his house, refusing to come out. This was the refusing to come out. This was the refusing to come out. This was the origin of the satirical Roman quip that origin of the satirical Roman quip that origin of the satirical Roman quip that events of the year took place in the events of the year took place in the events of the year took place in the consil ship of Julius and Caesar. consil ship of Julius and Caesar. consil ship of Julius and Caesar. With the opposition out of the way, the With the opposition out of the way, the With the opposition out of the way, the bill passed and a land commission was bill passed and a land commission was bill passed and a land commission was created to oversee the redistribution. created to oversee the redistribution. created to oversee the redistribution. To ensure that there would be no To ensure that there would be no To ensure that there would be no conflicts of interest, Caesar declared conflicts of interest, Caesar declared conflicts of interest, Caesar declared that he would not take an active role in that he would not take an active role in that he would not take an active role in the project. Crass and Pompy, however, the project. Crass and Pompy, however, the project. Crass and Pompy, however, both agreed to the honor of serving the both agreed to the honor of serving the both agreed to the honor of serving the people as commissioners. Nope. No people as commissioners. Nope. No people as commissioners. Nope. No conflicts of interest there. After the conflicts of interest there. After the conflicts of interest there. After the law took effect, however, it was clear law took effect, however, it was clear law took effect, however, it was clear that there was not enough land to fill that there was not enough land to fill that there was not enough land to fill all the requests. So, possibly for all the requests. So, possibly for all the requests. So, possibly for practical reasons and almost certainly practical reasons and almost certainly practical reasons and almost certainly for personal ones, Caesar announced that for personal ones, Caesar announced that for personal ones, Caesar announced that he was granting the new land commission he was granting the new land commission he was granting the new land commission purview over Kana, aka the Senate's purview over Kana, aka the Senate's purview over Kana, aka the Senate's backyard, backyard, backyard, just as he had promised not to do.

just as he had promised not to do. just as he had promised not to do. Perhaps if the Senate had joined with me Perhaps if the Senate had joined with me Perhaps if the Senate had joined with me in the initial stages of the legislation in the initial stages of the legislation in the initial stages of the legislation and not ignored the will of the people and not ignored the will of the people and not ignored the will of the people for so long, etc., etc. for so long, etc., etc. for so long, etc., etc. Next up on Caesar's list was the Next up on Caesar's list was the Next up on Caesar's list was the ratification of Pompy's eastern ratification of Pompy's eastern ratification of Pompy's eastern campaign. The incorporation of Syria as campaign. The incorporation of Syria as campaign. The incorporation of Syria as a province and the treaties Pompy signed a province and the treaties Pompy signed a province and the treaties Pompy signed with new client states needed approval with new client states needed approval with new client states needed approval by the Senate to officially go into by the Senate to officially go into by the Senate to officially go into effect. effect. effect. Time had been of the essence for a while Time had been of the essence for a while Time had been of the essence for a while now, as these territories directly now, as these territories directly now, as these territories directly bordered the Parthion Empire. If things bordered the Parthion Empire. If things bordered the Parthion Empire. If things were left in doubt for too long, it was were left in doubt for too long, it was were left in doubt for too long, it was likely the Parththeians would take likely the Parththeians would take likely the Parththeians would take advantage of the uncertainty and reverse advantage of the uncertainty and reverse advantage of the uncertainty and reverse the gains Pompy had made on Rome's the gains Pompy had made on Rome's the gains Pompy had made on Rome's behalf. The Senate, cowed by Caesar, and behalf. The Senate, cowed by Caesar, and behalf. The Senate, cowed by Caesar, and knowing full well they should have taken knowing full well they should have taken knowing full well they should have taken care of this business years ago anyway, care of this business years ago anyway, care of this business years ago anyway, ratified all of Pompy's actions. ratified all of Pompy's actions. ratified all of Pompy's actions. But this victory left Caesar with a But this victory left Caesar with a But this victory left Caesar with a problem. Everything Pompy hoped to gain problem. Everything Pompy hoped to gain problem. Everything Pompy hoped to gain by joining the triumvirate had been by joining the triumvirate had been by joining the triumvirate had been gained. His men had land and his gained. His men had land and his gained. His men had land and his conquests were legal. In anticipation of conquests were legal. In anticipation of conquests were legal. In anticipation of this inevitability, Caesar offered Pompy this inevitability, Caesar offered Pompy this inevitability, Caesar offered Pompy his daughter, Julia, in marriage. Pompy his daughter, Julia, in marriage. Pompy his daughter, Julia, in marriage. Pompy agreed to the arrangement, and just like agreed to the arrangement, and just like agreed to the arrangement, and just like that, Caesar became Pompy's that, Caesar became Pompy's that, Caesar became Pompy's father-in-law.

father-in-law. father-in-law. The man who was to become Julia's The man who was to become Julia's The man who was to become Julia's husband was shocked when his prospective husband was shocked when his prospective husband was shocked when his prospective bride was pulled out from under him. But bride was pulled out from under him. But bride was pulled out from under him. But Pompy offered his daughter to the young Pompy offered his daughter to the young Pompy offered his daughter to the young man in exchange. man in exchange. man in exchange. All of this prompted Ko to spit that it All of this prompted Ko to spit that it All of this prompted Ko to spit that it was disgusting how Roman power was now was disgusting how Roman power was now was disgusting how Roman power was now based on the trading of women. based on the trading of women. based on the trading of women. By all accounts though, the marriage By all accounts though, the marriage By all accounts though, the marriage between Pompy and Julia was a happy between Pompy and Julia was a happy between Pompy and Julia was a happy arrangement full of genuine love. And as arrangement full of genuine love. And as arrangement full of genuine love. And as hard as it is to believe today, this hard as it is to believe today, this hard as it is to believe today, this genuine love actually raised eyebrows in genuine love actually raised eyebrows in genuine love actually raised eyebrows in the aristocracy of Rome. And Pompy was the aristocracy of Rome. And Pompy was the aristocracy of Rome. And Pompy was subjected to endless jokes. Get a load subjected to endless jokes. Get a load subjected to endless jokes. Get a load of Pompy. He actually loves his wife. of Pompy. He actually loves his wife. of Pompy. He actually loves his wife. Caesar's final piece of legislation Caesar's final piece of legislation Caesar's final piece of legislation proved to be perhaps his greatest proved to be perhaps his greatest proved to be perhaps his greatest legacy. The Lex Julia de Repatunisi, the legacy. The Lex Julia de Repatunisi, the legacy. The Lex Julia de Repatunisi, the Julian law of extortion. Julian law of extortion. Julian law of extortion. It was a voluminous and detailed set of It was a voluminous and detailed set of It was a voluminous and detailed set of rules governing the dos and don'ts of rules governing the dos and don'ts of rules governing the dos and don'ts of provincial administration. It set the provincial administration. It set the provincial administration. It set the ground rules and guidelines for the ground rules and guidelines for the ground rules and guidelines for the acceptance of gifts and set limits on acceptance of gifts and set limits on acceptance of gifts and set limits on the amount that a governor could the amount that a governor could the amount that a governor could personally benefit from his term in personally benefit from his term in personally benefit from his term in office. With one sweeping bill, Caesar office. With one sweeping bill, Caesar office. With one sweeping bill, Caesar modernized imperial administration modernized imperial administration modernized imperial administration overnight and brought the rule of law to overnight and brought the rule of law to overnight and brought the rule of law to a corrupt and inefficient system, if it a corrupt and inefficient system, if it a corrupt and inefficient system, if it could even be called a system. The Lex could even be called a system. The Lex could even be called a system. The Lex Julia was a huge success and remained in Julia was a huge success and remained in Julia was a huge success and remained in effect with few additions or effect with few additions or effect with few additions or subtractions long into the Byzantine subtractions long into the Byzantine subtractions long into the Byzantine age.

age. age. Though it was obvious that Caesar was Though it was obvious that Caesar was Though it was obvious that Caesar was undertaking much needed reform, his term undertaking much needed reform, his term undertaking much needed reform, his term in office also showed he was willing to in office also showed he was willing to in office also showed he was willing to ignore laws, tradition, and common ignore laws, tradition, and common ignore laws, tradition, and common decency to get his way. The assault on decency to get his way. The assault on decency to get his way. The assault on Bibilis was particularly troubling to Bibilis was particularly troubling to Bibilis was particularly troubling to Cicero, who began to shift away from Cicero, who began to shift away from Cicero, who began to shift away from moderate accommodation of Caesar to a moderate accommodation of Caesar to a moderate accommodation of Caesar to a more confrontational posture. more confrontational posture. more confrontational posture. While arguing in defense of his While arguing in defense of his While arguing in defense of his ex-coonsel against a corruption charge ex-coonsel against a corruption charge ex-coonsel against a corruption charge backed by Caesar, Cicero took the backed by Caesar, Cicero took the backed by Caesar, Cicero took the opportunity to stray from the facts of opportunity to stray from the facts of opportunity to stray from the facts of the case into a broad indictment of the case into a broad indictment of the case into a broad indictment of Caesar and his tactics. Caesar was Caesar and his tactics. Caesar was Caesar and his tactics. Caesar was furious at what he perceived to be furious at what he perceived to be furious at what he perceived to be Cicero<unk>'s betrayal. He had always Cicero<unk>'s betrayal. He had always Cicero<unk>'s betrayal. He had always done his best to cultivate a cordial done his best to cultivate a cordial done his best to cultivate a cordial relationship with the great lawyer and relationship with the great lawyer and relationship with the great lawyer and seemed to actually respect Cicero. Now seemed to actually respect Cicero. Now seemed to actually respect Cicero. Now the master ortor was suddenly turning the master ortor was suddenly turning the master ortor was suddenly turning his considerable skill against Caesar his considerable skill against Caesar his considerable skill against Caesar and it was too much for him to let go. and it was too much for him to let go. and it was too much for him to let go. In retaliation, Caesar decided to cut In retaliation, Caesar decided to cut In retaliation, Caesar decided to cut loose Claius, he of the Bonadia scandal. loose Claius, he of the Bonadia scandal. loose Claius, he of the Bonadia scandal. Claius was a rabid opponent of all Claius was a rabid opponent of all Claius was a rabid opponent of all things conservative and bore a special things conservative and bore a special things conservative and bore a special hatred for the pompous and vain Cicero.

hatred for the pompous and vain Cicero. hatred for the pompous and vain Cicero. But because of the enemies he had made But because of the enemies he had made But because of the enemies he had made over the years, the patrician Claius over the years, the patrician Claius over the years, the patrician Claius found himself publicly blacklisted from found himself publicly blacklisted from found himself publicly blacklisted from pursuing high office. So he hatched a pursuing high office. So he hatched a pursuing high office. So he hatched a plan to throw away his patrician status, plan to throw away his patrician status, plan to throw away his patrician status, an unthinkable act. So he become tribune an unthinkable act. So he become tribune an unthinkable act. So he become tribune of the plebs. The fix was simple. He of the plebs. The fix was simple. He of the plebs. The fix was simple. He just needed to be formally adopted by a just needed to be formally adopted by a just needed to be formally adopted by a pleb. Thus, as lineage was patriarchal, pleb. Thus, as lineage was patriarchal, pleb. Thus, as lineage was patriarchal, he would immediately cease to be a he would immediately cease to be a he would immediately cease to be a patrician. But he couldn't find anyone patrician. But he couldn't find anyone patrician. But he couldn't find anyone willing to make his proposed adoption willing to make his proposed adoption willing to make his proposed adoption legal. After Cicero's scathing legal. After Cicero's scathing legal. After Cicero's scathing indictment, however, Caesar as Pontifix indictment, however, Caesar as Pontifix indictment, however, Caesar as Pontifix Maximus and consul decided to validate Maximus and consul decided to validate Maximus and consul decided to validate Claius's adoption. Claius's adoption. Claius's adoption. The econostic loose cannon was adopted The econostic loose cannon was adopted The econostic loose cannon was adopted by a pleb half his age and immediately by a pleb half his age and immediately by a pleb half his age and immediately announced his candidacy for the tribun. announced his candidacy for the tribun. announced his candidacy for the tribun. Once he had some power at his disposal, Once he had some power at his disposal, Once he had some power at his disposal, he planned to unleash the full brunt of he planned to unleash the full brunt of he planned to unleash the full brunt of it on Cicero and against anything else it on Cicero and against anything else it on Cicero and against anything else he deemed decadent and worthless. he deemed decadent and worthless. he deemed decadent and worthless. Caesar hoped to maintain some influence Caesar hoped to maintain some influence Caesar hoped to maintain some influence over Claius, but it would soon become over Claius, but it would soon become over Claius, but it would soon become clear that having attained the clear that having attained the clear that having attained the tribunate, Claius considered himself tribunate, Claius considered himself tribunate, Claius considered himself beholden to no one.

beholden to no one. beholden to no one. With his console ship winding down, With his console ship winding down, With his console ship winding down, Caesar had two overarching concerns. Caesar had two overarching concerns. Caesar had two overarching concerns. First, he had to ensure that his First, he had to ensure that his First, he had to ensure that his reforms, now enacted, would not reforms, now enacted, would not reforms, now enacted, would not immediately be repealed. And second, he immediately be repealed. And second, he immediately be repealed. And second, he had to make sure that he was protected had to make sure that he was protected had to make sure that he was protected from personal prosecution. from personal prosecution. from personal prosecution. His enemies in the Senate were compiling His enemies in the Senate were compiling His enemies in the Senate were compiling a long list of charges that they would a long list of charges that they would a long list of charges that they would bring against him the minute he became a bring against him the minute he became a bring against him the minute he became a private citizen. If Caesar did not private citizen. If Caesar did not private citizen. If Caesar did not secure a nice long proconsul ship, he secure a nice long proconsul ship, he secure a nice long proconsul ship, he was liable to be hauled into court and was liable to be hauled into court and was liable to be hauled into court and destroyed. destroyed. destroyed. Now, it would have been unthinkable for Now, it would have been unthinkable for Now, it would have been unthinkable for Caesar to receive no proconsul ship at Caesar to receive no proconsul ship at Caesar to receive no proconsul ship at all. So, the Senate laid the groundwork all. So, the Senate laid the groundwork all. So, the Senate laid the groundwork for his consular imperium to extend to for his consular imperium to extend to for his consular imperium to extend to the fields and pastures of Italy. the fields and pastures of Italy. the fields and pastures of Italy. It would have been an embarrassing It would have been an embarrassing It would have been an embarrassing assignment and would have denied Caesar assignment and would have denied Caesar assignment and would have denied Caesar access to both personal enrichment and access to both personal enrichment and access to both personal enrichment and military command. They intended for military command. They intended for military command. They intended for Caesar to command the streams of Italy Caesar to command the streams of Italy Caesar to command the streams of Italy for a year and then return to Rome a for a year and then return to Rome a for a year and then return to Rome a private citizen, whereupon they would private citizen, whereupon they would private citizen, whereupon they would crucify him, perhaps literally. crucify him, perhaps literally. crucify him, perhaps literally. Toward the first major concern, securing Toward the first major concern, securing Toward the first major concern, securing the continuation of his new laws, Caesar the continuation of his new laws, Caesar the continuation of his new laws, Caesar took two steps. First, he ensured that took two steps. First, he ensured that took two steps. First, he ensured that his new father-in-law would be elected his new father-in-law would be elected his new father-in-law would be elected console the next year. Caesar could then console the next year. Caesar could then console the next year. Caesar could then rest assured knowing he would leave rest assured knowing he would leave rest assured knowing he would leave office with a staunch ally standing office with a staunch ally standing office with a staunch ally standing ready to veto any attempt to alter his ready to veto any attempt to alter his ready to veto any attempt to alter his laws. Second, and I really love this laws. Second, and I really love this laws. Second, and I really love this bit, he introduced a curse clause into bit, he introduced a curse clause into bit, he introduced a curse clause into the oath of the consil ship. Upon taking the oath of the consil ship. Upon taking the oath of the consil ship. Upon taking office, incoming consoles would have to office, incoming consoles would have to office, incoming consoles would have to swear not to undo Caesar's work because swear not to undo Caesar's work because swear not to undo Caesar's work because if they did, they would well be cursed.

if they did, they would well be cursed. if they did, they would well be cursed. This was a very big deal to the This was a very big deal to the This was a very big deal to the superstitious Romans. And though I doubt superstitious Romans. And though I doubt superstitious Romans. And though I doubt it would work today, I would love to see it would work today, I would love to see it would work today, I would love to see stuff like this get written into bills stuff like this get written into bills stuff like this get written into bills and oaths of office today. By the way, and oaths of office today. By the way, and oaths of office today. By the way, you can't mess with my highway works you can't mess with my highway works you can't mess with my highway works project because if you do, the gods will project because if you do, the gods will project because if you do, the gods will flood your district. That kind of thing. flood your district. That kind of thing. flood your district. That kind of thing. It may not work, but it sure would make It may not work, but it sure would make It may not work, but it sure would make the process a whole lot more fun. the process a whole lot more fun. the process a whole lot more fun. Towards the second major concern, Towards the second major concern, Towards the second major concern, protecting himself from prosecution, protecting himself from prosecution, protecting himself from prosecution, Caesar held true to form and simply Caesar held true to form and simply Caesar held true to form and simply ignored the Senate and their plans for ignored the Senate and their plans for ignored the Senate and their plans for him to serve a meaningless proconsul him to serve a meaningless proconsul him to serve a meaningless proconsul ship. With the help of sympathetic reed ship. With the help of sympathetic reed ship. With the help of sympathetic reed bribed tribunes and the tacit support of bribed tribunes and the tacit support of bribed tribunes and the tacit support of his fellow triumvors, Caesar conspired his fellow triumvors, Caesar conspired his fellow triumvors, Caesar conspired to have the people's assembly assign him to have the people's assembly assign him to have the people's assembly assign him a lucrative post that would keep him out a lucrative post that would keep him out a lucrative post that would keep him out of the clutches of his enemies and most of the clutches of his enemies and most of the clutches of his enemies and most importantly for his wider ambitions, importantly for his wider ambitions, importantly for his wider ambitions, offer him the chance at some good offer him the chance at some good offer him the chance at some good old-fashioned military conquest. old-fashioned military conquest. old-fashioned military conquest. Today, everyone knows Caesar primarily Today, everyone knows Caesar primarily Today, everyone knows Caesar primarily as the great general he proved to be. as the great general he proved to be. as the great general he proved to be. But at this point in his career, as you But at this point in his career, as you But at this point in his career, as you may have noticed over the last two may have noticed over the last two may have noticed over the last two episodes, Caesar was known primarily as episodes, Caesar was known primarily as episodes, Caesar was known primarily as a lawyer and politician who had had some a lawyer and politician who had had some a lawyer and politician who had had some military success in Spain and as a military success in Spain and as a military success in Spain and as a soldier had been brave but nothing to soldier had been brave but nothing to soldier had been brave but nothing to write home about. He craved the write home about. He craved the write home about. He craved the opportunity to leave civilian life opportunity to leave civilian life opportunity to leave civilian life behind and throw himself into a great behind and throw himself into a great behind and throw himself into a great campaign on behalf of Rome. The question campaign on behalf of Rome. The question campaign on behalf of Rome. The question then was where best to geographically then was where best to geographically then was where best to geographically position himself in the empire to position himself in the empire to position himself in the empire to maximize the possibility of becoming maximize the possibility of becoming maximize the possibility of becoming engaged in military action.

engaged in military action. engaged in military action. His choices were limited to the east His choices were limited to the east His choices were limited to the east where he could possibly expand on where he could possibly expand on where he could possibly expand on Pompy's acquisitions, North Africa, Pompy's acquisitions, North Africa, Pompy's acquisitions, North Africa, where Egypt still stood ripe for the where Egypt still stood ripe for the where Egypt still stood ripe for the plucking and the GIC provinces in the plucking and the GIC provinces in the plucking and the GIC provinces in the north. north. north. North Africa was out because Egypt North Africa was out because Egypt North Africa was out because Egypt secured its continued independence by secured its continued independence by secured its continued independence by way of massive bribes and they made sure way of massive bribes and they made sure way of massive bribes and they made sure Caesar's pockets were as lined as Caesar's pockets were as lined as Caesar's pockets were as lined as everyone else's. The Far East was out as everyone else's. The Far East was out as everyone else's. The Far East was out as any future expansion would come at the any future expansion would come at the any future expansion would come at the expense of the Parththeians. expense of the Parththeians. expense of the Parththeians. And as great as a commander as Caesar And as great as a commander as Caesar And as great as a commander as Caesar believed himself to be, there was not believed himself to be, there was not believed himself to be, there was not much upside in picking a fight with the much upside in picking a fight with the much upside in picking a fight with the heirs of the Persian Empire in the heirs of the Persian Empire in the heirs of the Persian Empire in the middle of the desert. Just ask Cassus. middle of the desert. Just ask Cassus. middle of the desert. Just ask Cassus. that left the GIC provinces. that left the GIC provinces. that left the GIC provinces. Specifically, Caesar had his eye on Cis Specifically, Caesar had his eye on Cis Specifically, Caesar had his eye on Cis Alpine Gaul, or literally Gaul on this Alpine Gaul, or literally Gaul on this Alpine Gaul, or literally Gaul on this side of the Alps, side of the Alps, side of the Alps, the region north of the Po Valley stood the region north of the Po Valley stood the region north of the Po Valley stood in perfect strategic position. To the in perfect strategic position. To the in perfect strategic position. To the northwest stood European Gaul, or as the northwest stood European Gaul, or as the northwest stood European Gaul, or as the Romans sometimes called it, the land of Romans sometimes called it, the land of Romans sometimes called it, the land of the long-haired Gaul. To the north lay the long-haired Gaul. To the north lay the long-haired Gaul. To the north lay the warlike Germanic tribes, who were the warlike Germanic tribes, who were the warlike Germanic tribes, who were always stirring up trouble. And to the always stirring up trouble. And to the always stirring up trouble. And to the northeast lay the unconquered lands on northeast lay the unconquered lands on northeast lay the unconquered lands on the far side of the Danube River. Plus, the far side of the Danube River. Plus, the far side of the Danube River. Plus, by securing the proconsul ship of Cis by securing the proconsul ship of Cis by securing the proconsul ship of Cis Alpine Gaul, Caesar would control the Alpine Gaul, Caesar would control the Alpine Gaul, Caesar would control the legions closest to Rome itself, allowing legions closest to Rome itself, allowing legions closest to Rome itself, allowing him to keep an eye on his enemies in the him to keep an eye on his enemies in the him to keep an eye on his enemies in the Senate. When everything shook out, the Senate. When everything shook out, the Senate. When everything shook out, the people's assembly granted Caesar the people's assembly granted Caesar the people's assembly granted Caesar the proconsul ship of Sis Alpine Gaul for a proconsul ship of Sis Alpine Gaul for a proconsul ship of Sis Alpine Gaul for a period of 5 years. The Senate was period of 5 years. The Senate was period of 5 years. The Senate was furious, but the assembly's decree went furious, but the assembly's decree went furious, but the assembly's decree went through before they could stop it.

through before they could stop it. through before they could stop it. almost as an afterthought but of almost as an afterthought but of almost as an afterthought but of monumental importance to Roman and world monumental importance to Roman and world monumental importance to Roman and world history. The people's assembly also history. The people's assembly also history. The people's assembly also granted Caesar the province of granted Caesar the province of granted Caesar the province of transalpine Gaul or Gaul on the far side transalpine Gaul or Gaul on the far side transalpine Gaul or Gaul on the far side of the Alps. Thus situated all he needed of the Alps. Thus situated all he needed of the Alps. Thus situated all he needed was an excuse. was an excuse. was an excuse. Almost as if on Q Caesar got his excuse. Almost as if on Q Caesar got his excuse. Almost as if on Q Caesar got his excuse. The delicate balance of power between The delicate balance of power between The delicate balance of power between the GI and Germanic tribes began to the GI and Germanic tribes began to the GI and Germanic tribes began to break down and a tribe of Gauls living break down and a tribe of Gauls living break down and a tribe of Gauls living alongside Lake Geneva decided that they alongside Lake Geneva decided that they alongside Lake Geneva decided that they had had enough of marauding Germans. had had enough of marauding Germans. had had enough of marauding Germans. They would pack up their entire They would pack up their entire They would pack up their entire civilization and move down out of the civilization and move down out of the civilization and move down out of the mountains. They planned on moving into mountains. They planned on moving into mountains. They planned on moving into Roman territory, which may be a problem Roman territory, which may be a problem Roman territory, which may be a problem for them, but surely the Roman governor, for them, but surely the Roman governor, for them, but surely the Roman governor, what's his name? Kaiser, would be a what's his name? Kaiser, would be a what's his name? Kaiser, would be a reasonable man. Surely he won't build a reasonable man. Surely he won't build a reasonable man. Surely he won't build a giant wall blocking our migration. giant wall blocking our migration. giant wall blocking our migration. Next week, Caesar will build a giant Next week, Caesar will build a giant Next week, Caesar will build a giant wall blocking the migration of the wall blocking the migration of the wall blocking the migration of the Helveti, which would prove to be the Helveti, which would prove to be the Helveti, which would prove to be the opening chapter of some of the most opening chapter of some of the most opening chapter of some of the most famous campaigns in history, famous campaigns in history, famous campaigns in history, collectively called the GIC Wars.

collectively called the GIC Wars. collectively called the GIC Wars. [Music] [Music] [Music] Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Rome. Rome. Rome. Episode 41A, the GIC wars. Episode 41A, the GIC wars. Episode 41A, the GIC wars. At the end of last week, Caesar had At the end of last week, Caesar had At the end of last week, Caesar had succeeded in immunizing himself from succeeded in immunizing himself from succeeded in immunizing himself from prosecution by securing a proconul ship prosecution by securing a proconul ship prosecution by securing a proconul ship in Cisal Alpine Gaul for a period of 5 in Cisal Alpine Gaul for a period of 5 in Cisal Alpine Gaul for a period of 5 years. Over the course of his career, he years. Over the course of his career, he years. Over the course of his career, he had ignored tradition, law, morality, had ignored tradition, law, morality, had ignored tradition, law, morality, and good taste, and his enemies in the and good taste, and his enemies in the and good taste, and his enemies in the Senate were salivating at the Senate were salivating at the Senate were salivating at the opportunity to see him in court. Caesar opportunity to see him in court. Caesar opportunity to see him in court. Caesar was guilty as sin of the charges that was guilty as sin of the charges that was guilty as sin of the charges that would be brought against him as soon as would be brought against him as soon as would be brought against him as soon as he left public office. So for the sake he left public office. So for the sake he left public office. So for the sake of his career and possibly his life, it of his career and possibly his life, it of his career and possibly his life, it was imperative that he never returned to was imperative that he never returned to was imperative that he never returned to Rome as a private citizen. As we will Rome as a private citizen. As we will Rome as a private citizen. As we will see, it was this legal ax hanging over see, it was this legal ax hanging over see, it was this legal ax hanging over his head as much as anything else that his head as much as anything else that his head as much as anything else that led him to cross the Rubicon in that led him to cross the Rubicon in that led him to cross the Rubicon in that fateful year of 49 BC.

fateful year of 49 BC. fateful year of 49 BC. But that was still a decade away. Now, But that was still a decade away. Now, But that was still a decade away. Now, in the year 58 BC, Caesar took over the in the year 58 BC, Caesar took over the in the year 58 BC, Caesar took over the governorship of Gaul, setting the stage governorship of Gaul, setting the stage governorship of Gaul, setting the stage for one of the most famous military for one of the most famous military for one of the most famous military campaigns in history. And not to take campaigns in history. And not to take campaigns in history. And not to take anything away from the skill and daring anything away from the skill and daring anything away from the skill and daring Caesar displayed while in Gaul, but the Caesar displayed while in Gaul, but the Caesar displayed while in Gaul, but the real reason the Gacars are so famous is real reason the Gacars are so famous is real reason the Gacars are so famous is because Caesar wanted them to be famous. because Caesar wanted them to be famous. because Caesar wanted them to be famous. The thing that really shines through The thing that really shines through The thing that really shines through more than his tactical ability or more than his tactical ability or more than his tactical ability or engineering accomplishments or strategic engineering accomplishments or strategic engineering accomplishments or strategic vision was his brilliant flare for vision was his brilliant flare for vision was his brilliant flare for propaganda. Caesar was the unparalleled propaganda. Caesar was the unparalleled propaganda. Caesar was the unparalleled master of self-promotion. That his master of self-promotion. That his master of self-promotion. That his commentaries on the war in Gaul is still commentaries on the war in Gaul is still commentaries on the war in Gaul is still required reading for Latin language required reading for Latin language required reading for Latin language courses today speaks for itself. courses today speaks for itself. courses today speaks for itself. At the time Caesar took control of cis At the time Caesar took control of cis At the time Caesar took control of cis and transalpine Gaul, the land north of and transalpine Gaul, the land north of and transalpine Gaul, the land north of the Mediterranean basin was from the the Mediterranean basin was from the the Mediterranean basin was from the Roman perspective an univilized land Roman perspective an univilized land Roman perspective an univilized land populated by barbaric tribes. But populated by barbaric tribes. But populated by barbaric tribes. But civilized is a relative term. And though civilized is a relative term. And though civilized is a relative term. And though to Roman eyes the Gauls were quote to Roman eyes the Gauls were quote to Roman eyes the Gauls were quote univilized, this does not mean that they univilized, this does not mean that they univilized, this does not mean that they were mindless brutes. True, there was no were mindless brutes. True, there was no were mindless brutes. True, there was no centralized government and the basic centralized government and the basic centralized government and the basic political unit was still the tribe, but political unit was still the tribe, but political unit was still the tribe, but there were towns, craftsmen, religion, there were towns, craftsmen, religion, there were towns, craftsmen, religion, money, ornamentation, literacy, and money, ornamentation, literacy, and money, ornamentation, literacy, and political intrigue. I think the proper political intrigue. I think the proper political intrigue. I think the proper analogy here is the European arrival in analogy here is the European arrival in analogy here is the European arrival in the new world. The native Indians were the new world. The native Indians were the new world. The native Indians were dismissed as primitive by the civilized dismissed as primitive by the civilized dismissed as primitive by the civilized Europeans. But I think anyone who takes Europeans. But I think anyone who takes Europeans. But I think anyone who takes even a cursory glance at the workings of even a cursory glance at the workings of even a cursory glance at the workings of say the Irakcoy Confederacy would be say the Irakcoy Confederacy would be say the Irakcoy Confederacy would be hardressed to argue that there was not a

hardressed to argue that there was not a hardressed to argue that there was not a sophisticated civilization at work prior sophisticated civilization at work prior sophisticated civilization at work prior to the arrival of Western settlers. The to the arrival of Western settlers. The to the arrival of Western settlers. The same is true of the Gauls. To the same is true of the Gauls. To the same is true of the Gauls. To the average clean shaven Roman, the average clean shaven Roman, the average clean shaven Roman, the long-haired Gaul must have seemed like long-haired Gaul must have seemed like long-haired Gaul must have seemed like something out of a primordial nightmare. something out of a primordial nightmare. something out of a primordial nightmare. But I think that there was a lot less But I think that there was a lot less But I think that there was a lot less separating them than either side would separating them than either side would separating them than either side would have cared to admit. have cared to admit. have cared to admit. Independent Gaul encompassed what is Independent Gaul encompassed what is Independent Gaul encompassed what is today France, Belgium, the Netherlands, today France, Belgium, the Netherlands, today France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and parts of Switzerland. The Romans and parts of Switzerland. The Romans and parts of Switzerland. The Romans controlled the southernmost territory in controlled the southernmost territory in controlled the southernmost territory in the Mediterranean basin. But since their the Mediterranean basin. But since their the Mediterranean basin. But since their days of initial expansion during the days of initial expansion during the days of initial expansion during the Punic Wars, they had shown little Punic Wars, they had shown little Punic Wars, they had shown little interest in moving north and seemed interest in moving north and seemed interest in moving north and seemed content to simply control the land route content to simply control the land route content to simply control the land route to the rich province of Hispania. to the rich province of Hispania. to the rich province of Hispania. In the east, Gaul was understood to end In the east, Gaul was understood to end In the east, Gaul was understood to end at the Ryan River, across which lay at the Ryan River, across which lay at the Ryan River, across which lay Germania. The relationship between the Germania. The relationship between the Germania. The relationship between the Gauls, the Germans, and who's doing what Gauls, the Germans, and who's doing what Gauls, the Germans, and who's doing what on whose side of the Rine will be of on whose side of the Rine will be of on whose side of the Rine will be of great importance not only to the great importance not only to the great importance not only to the unfolding GIC wars, but for the rest of unfolding GIC wars, but for the rest of unfolding GIC wars, but for the rest of Roman history, as the Ryan River will Roman history, as the Ryan River will Roman history, as the Ryan River will eventually stand as the official border eventually stand as the official border eventually stand as the official border of the Roman Empire.

of the Roman Empire. of the Roman Empire. In 58 BC, the Helveti, a Celtic tribe In 58 BC, the Helveti, a Celtic tribe In 58 BC, the Helveti, a Celtic tribe who lived around Lake Geneva, grew tired who lived around Lake Geneva, grew tired who lived around Lake Geneva, grew tired of dealing with the encroaching German of dealing with the encroaching German of dealing with the encroaching German tribes. They decided to pack up their tribes. They decided to pack up their tribes. They decided to pack up their entire civilization and move out of the entire civilization and move out of the entire civilization and move out of the mountains, intent on resettling in mountains, intent on resettling in mountains, intent on resettling in lowland Gaul. According to master of lowland Gaul. According to master of lowland Gaul. According to master of propaganda Caesar, the Helveti numbered propaganda Caesar, the Helveti numbered propaganda Caesar, the Helveti numbered somewhere north of 350,000, somewhere north of 350,000, somewhere north of 350,000, with roughly 100,000 of those being with roughly 100,000 of those being with roughly 100,000 of those being able-bodied men. Their total number was able-bodied men. Their total number was able-bodied men. Their total number was probably more like 100 to 150,000 with probably more like 100 to 150,000 with probably more like 100 to 150,000 with 30 to 50,000 being able-bodied men. Not 30 to 50,000 being able-bodied men. Not 30 to 50,000 being able-bodied men. Not quite the vast horde Caesar makes them quite the vast horde Caesar makes them quite the vast horde Caesar makes them out to be, but still large enough to be out to be, but still large enough to be out to be, but still large enough to be a terrible menace to the tribes they a terrible menace to the tribes they a terrible menace to the tribes they would transplant when they arrived to would transplant when they arrived to would transplant when they arrived to build their new home. They moved down build their new home. They moved down build their new home. They moved down through a valley until they arrived at through a valley until they arrived at through a valley until they arrived at the border of Transalpine Gaul, which the border of Transalpine Gaul, which the border of Transalpine Gaul, which they hoped to pass through so as to they hoped to pass through so as to they hoped to pass through so as to avoid moving through Free Gaul, which avoid moving through Free Gaul, which avoid moving through Free Gaul, which was full of tribes who had no interest was full of tribes who had no interest was full of tribes who had no interest in the Helveti migrating into their in the Helveti migrating into their in the Helveti migrating into their lands. At this point, they sent envoys lands. At this point, they sent envoys lands. At this point, they sent envoys to meet Caesar and request safe passage to meet Caesar and request safe passage to meet Caesar and request safe passage through Roman territory. Caesar agreed through Roman territory. Caesar agreed through Roman territory. Caesar agreed to consider the request and asked for to consider the request and asked for to consider the request and asked for the envoys to return at a later the envoys to return at a later the envoys to return at a later specified date to receive an answer. But specified date to receive an answer. But specified date to receive an answer. But Caesar had no intention of letting the Caesar had no intention of letting the Caesar had no intention of letting the Helveti passed and was simply stalling Helveti passed and was simply stalling Helveti passed and was simply stalling for time while he gathered his legions for time while he gathered his legions for time while he gathered his legions and built a huge fortified wall from one and built a huge fortified wall from one and built a huge fortified wall from one end of the narrow valley to the other.

end of the narrow valley to the other. end of the narrow valley to the other. When the Helvetan envoys returned, the When the Helvetan envoys returned, the When the Helvetan envoys returned, the giant wall they ran into spoke for giant wall they ran into spoke for giant wall they ran into spoke for itself. Caesar's answer was no. itself. Caesar's answer was no. itself. Caesar's answer was no. There is no doubt that from the very There is no doubt that from the very There is no doubt that from the very beginning of his governorship, Caesar beginning of his governorship, Caesar beginning of his governorship, Caesar was looking for any opportunity to was looking for any opportunity to was looking for any opportunity to exploit perceived belligerance as an exploit perceived belligerance as an exploit perceived belligerance as an excuse to invade greater Gaul. The excuse to invade greater Gaul. The excuse to invade greater Gaul. The Helvetan migration was simply the first Helvetan migration was simply the first Helvetan migration was simply the first opportunity that presented itself, and opportunity that presented itself, and opportunity that presented itself, and Caesar wasn't going to pass up an excuse Caesar wasn't going to pass up an excuse Caesar wasn't going to pass up an excuse to pick a fight. For the record, there to pick a fight. For the record, there to pick a fight. For the record, there was probably a real concern that the was probably a real concern that the was probably a real concern that the Helveti's migration would do serious Helveti's migration would do serious Helveti's migration would do serious damage to the balance of power in the damage to the balance of power in the damage to the balance of power in the region. And as governor of the region. And as governor of the region. And as governor of the neighboring province, Caesar had an neighboring province, Caesar had an neighboring province, Caesar had an interest in keeping the region stable. interest in keeping the region stable. interest in keeping the region stable. But you get the feeling that the Helveti But you get the feeling that the Helveti But you get the feeling that the Helveti could have been looking for a place to could have been looking for a place to could have been looking for a place to plant a nice flower garden to brighten plant a nice flower garden to brighten plant a nice flower garden to brighten everyone's day, and Caesar still would everyone's day, and Caesar still would everyone's day, and Caesar still would have poked them in the eye with a stick. have poked them in the eye with a stick. have poked them in the eye with a stick. The Helveti, though, were not looking The Helveti, though, were not looking The Helveti, though, were not looking for a place to plant a nice flower for a place to plant a nice flower for a place to plant a nice flower garden. They were warriors through and garden. They were warriors through and garden. They were warriors through and through, and reacted the way warriors through, and reacted the way warriors through, and reacted the way warriors react when someone pokes them in the eye react when someone pokes them in the eye react when someone pokes them in the eye with a stick. They attacked. with a stick. They attacked. with a stick. They attacked. But the Roman engineers had done their But the Roman engineers had done their But the Roman engineers had done their job with the fortifications and the job with the fortifications and the job with the fortifications and the legionnaires did their job with the legionnaires did their job with the legionnaires did their job with the fighting and the Helveti were easily fighting and the Helveti were easily fighting and the Helveti were easily repulsed. So the migrating Kelts had no repulsed. So the migrating Kelts had no repulsed. So the migrating Kelts had no choice but to head north and pass choice but to head north and pass choice but to head north and pass through hostile GIC territory.

through hostile GIC territory. through hostile GIC territory. Caesar quickly returned to the Italian Caesar quickly returned to the Italian Caesar quickly returned to the Italian side of the Alps, picked up three side of the Alps, picked up three side of the Alps, picked up three legions he had in reserve, and raised legions he had in reserve, and raised legions he had in reserve, and raised two more from the local population. two more from the local population. two more from the local population. When the Helveti spilled into Gaul, When the Helveti spilled into Gaul, When the Helveti spilled into Gaul, Caesar would be ready in case the call Caesar would be ready in case the call Caesar would be ready in case the call for aid arrived. Right on Q, an allied for aid arrived. Right on Q, an allied for aid arrived. Right on Q, an allied tribe ransacked by the incoming Helveti tribe ransacked by the incoming Helveti tribe ransacked by the incoming Helveti sent a mission to beg the Romans for sent a mission to beg the Romans for sent a mission to beg the Romans for aid. They found Caesar more than willing aid. They found Caesar more than willing aid. They found Caesar more than willing to help his poor belleaguered allies to help his poor belleaguered allies to help his poor belleaguered allies drive off the nasty Helveti. Were the drive off the nasty Helveti. Were the drive off the nasty Helveti. Were the Allied tribes asking for his legions to Allied tribes asking for his legions to Allied tribes asking for his legions to march into their territory? Yes, yes, march into their territory? Yes, yes, march into their territory? Yes, yes, the missions replied. Intervention the missions replied. Intervention the missions replied. Intervention formally requested, Caesar had his legal formally requested, Caesar had his legal formally requested, Caesar had his legal cover. The Roman invasion of Gaul had cover. The Roman invasion of Gaul had cover. The Roman invasion of Gaul had begun. begun. begun. Caesar caught up with the Helveti as Caesar caught up with the Helveti as Caesar caught up with the Helveti as they crossed what is today the Sone they crossed what is today the Sone they crossed what is today the Sone River near the border between River near the border between River near the border between Switzerland and France. He waited while Switzerland and France. He waited while Switzerland and France. He waited while 3/arters of the Kelts were across the 3/arters of the Kelts were across the 3/arters of the Kelts were across the river and then with only 25% left on the river and then with only 25% left on the river and then with only 25% left on the east bank charged in and attacked, east bank charged in and attacked, east bank charged in and attacked, annihilating the far smaller group while annihilating the far smaller group while annihilating the far smaller group while their comrades watched on from the far their comrades watched on from the far their comrades watched on from the far bank. The Helvetans were insensed at bank. The Helvetans were insensed at bank. The Helvetans were insensed at this cowardly move. Their sense of honor this cowardly move. Their sense of honor this cowardly move. Their sense of honor demanded open conflict between two demanded open conflict between two demanded open conflict between two armies with lots of opportunities for armies with lots of opportunities for armies with lots of opportunities for individual bravery. They did not individual bravery. They did not individual bravery. They did not understand an enemy that would understand an enemy that would understand an enemy that would intentionally launch a surprise attack intentionally launch a surprise attack intentionally launch a surprise attack against a much weaker force. They drew against a much weaker force. They drew against a much weaker force. They drew the conclusion that the Romans were the conclusion that the Romans were the conclusion that the Romans were afraid of facing the full Helvetan army.

afraid of facing the full Helvetan army. afraid of facing the full Helvetan army. They should have drawn the conclusion They should have drawn the conclusion They should have drawn the conclusion that Caesar didn't care a wit about that Caesar didn't care a wit about that Caesar didn't care a wit about Celtic honor. He was just going to Celtic honor. He was just going to Celtic honor. He was just going to systematically destroy them. systematically destroy them. systematically destroy them. With the bulk of the Helvetans though With the bulk of the Helvetans though With the bulk of the Helvetans though now loose in greater Gaul, Caesar knew now loose in greater Gaul, Caesar knew now loose in greater Gaul, Caesar knew he would not be able to simply pick he would not be able to simply pick he would not be able to simply pick around the edges for long. He followed around the edges for long. He followed around the edges for long. He followed the Helveti into modern France, but in the Helveti into modern France, but in the Helveti into modern France, but in doing so made a strategic decision that doing so made a strategic decision that doing so made a strategic decision that would come back to haunt him. In order would come back to haunt him. In order would come back to haunt him. In order to stay mobile during the invasion, to stay mobile during the invasion, to stay mobile during the invasion, Caesar decided to forego establishing a Caesar decided to forego establishing a Caesar decided to forego establishing a secure supply line back to Roman secure supply line back to Roman secure supply line back to Roman territory. Instead, he intended to live territory. Instead, he intended to live territory. Instead, he intended to live off the land and off the supplies he off the land and off the supplies he off the land and off the supplies he demanded from his GIC allies. demanded from his GIC allies. demanded from his GIC allies. This was a risky decision that very This was a risky decision that very This was a risky decision that very nearly ended the invasion before it nearly ended the invasion before it nearly ended the invasion before it really began. See, not all the GIC really began. See, not all the GIC really began. See, not all the GIC tribes, not even the tribes technically tribes, not even the tribes technically tribes, not even the tribes technically allied with Rome, were super excited allied with Rome, were super excited allied with Rome, were super excited about a Roman army rampaging around about a Roman army rampaging around about a Roman army rampaging around their territory. their territory. their territory. Not only was it dangerous in the Not only was it dangerous in the Not only was it dangerous in the immediate sense that the legions would immediate sense that the legions would immediate sense that the legions would eat them out of house and home, but it eat them out of house and home, but it eat them out of house and home, but it was dangerous in the longer term sense was dangerous in the longer term sense was dangerous in the longer term sense that Rome might get comfortable with the that Rome might get comfortable with the that Rome might get comfortable with the idea that free Gaul lived to serve them.

idea that free Gaul lived to serve them. idea that free Gaul lived to serve them. So Caesar's request for supplies got So Caesar's request for supplies got So Caesar's request for supplies got lost in the mail or were mistransated or lost in the mail or were mistransated or lost in the mail or were mistransated or couldn't be met because um we've had a couldn't be met because um we've had a couldn't be met because um we've had a bad harvest. We'll get you what we can bad harvest. We'll get you what we can bad harvest. We'll get you what we can on Thursday. Oh, no, no, we mean next on Thursday. Oh, no, no, we mean next on Thursday. Oh, no, no, we mean next Thursday. It didn't take long for Caesar Thursday. It didn't take long for Caesar Thursday. It didn't take long for Caesar to realize he was being jerked around to realize he was being jerked around to realize he was being jerked around and that he was now deep in enemy and that he was now deep in enemy and that he was now deep in enemy territory without anything to eat. territory without anything to eat. territory without anything to eat. So he abandoned his pursuit of the So he abandoned his pursuit of the So he abandoned his pursuit of the Helveti and made for Bibberacti, a Helveti and made for Bibberacti, a Helveti and made for Bibberacti, a fortified allied town in modern fortified allied town in modern fortified allied town in modern Burgundy. The Helveti got wind of the Burgundy. The Helveti got wind of the Burgundy. The Helveti got wind of the Roman plight and turned around, the Roman plight and turned around, the Roman plight and turned around, the hunted now becoming the hunter. The hunted now becoming the hunter. The hunted now becoming the hunter. The Romans barely won the race to the Bracki Romans barely won the race to the Bracki Romans barely won the race to the Bracki with the Helveti cavalry harassing their with the Helveti cavalry harassing their with the Helveti cavalry harassing their rear as they approached the town. There rear as they approached the town. There rear as they approached the town. There turned out to be no time to actually turned out to be no time to actually turned out to be no time to actually even enter the fort as the Helveti even enter the fort as the Helveti even enter the fort as the Helveti smelled blood in the water and pressed smelled blood in the water and pressed smelled blood in the water and pressed an immediate attack. an immediate attack. an immediate attack. Both sides secured their baggage trains Both sides secured their baggage trains Both sides secured their baggage trains and on the 20th of June launched and on the 20th of June launched and on the 20th of June launched themselves at each other. A full day's themselves at each other. A full day's themselves at each other. A full day's fighting with the outcome forever in fighting with the outcome forever in fighting with the outcome forever in doubt finally gave way to night as the doubt finally gave way to night as the doubt finally gave way to night as the Romans slowly, methodically gained the Romans slowly, methodically gained the Romans slowly, methodically gained the upper hand.

upper hand. upper hand. The Helveti and the Gauls, Kelts, and The Helveti and the Gauls, Kelts, and The Helveti and the Gauls, Kelts, and Germans generally knew of no other way Germans generally knew of no other way Germans generally knew of no other way to fight than charge and mass and engage to fight than charge and mass and engage to fight than charge and mass and engage in one-on-one fighting. How else could a in one-on-one fighting. How else could a in one-on-one fighting. How else could a warrior distinguish himself and earn the warrior distinguish himself and earn the warrior distinguish himself and earn the kind of glory so prized by his kind of glory so prized by his kind of glory so prized by his tribesmen? The Romans, on the other tribesmen? The Romans, on the other tribesmen? The Romans, on the other hand, fought in their manipul units, hand, fought in their manipul units, hand, fought in their manipul units, never breaking ranks and working with never breaking ranks and working with never breaking ranks and working with ruthless mechanical efficiency. It was ruthless mechanical efficiency. It was ruthless mechanical efficiency. It was infuriating to the tribes and a major infuriating to the tribes and a major infuriating to the tribes and a major source of their contempt that they felt source of their contempt that they felt source of their contempt that they felt towards the Romans. But at the end of a towards the Romans. But at the end of a towards the Romans. But at the end of a long day, when the Helveti were long day, when the Helveti were long day, when the Helveti were exhausted, the legions kept pressing exhausted, the legions kept pressing exhausted, the legions kept pressing forward. Finally, they broke through and forward. Finally, they broke through and forward. Finally, they broke through and captured the Celtic baggage train. And captured the Celtic baggage train. And captured the Celtic baggage train. And when you have uprooted your entire when you have uprooted your entire when you have uprooted your entire civilization and packed it all into a civilization and packed it all into a civilization and packed it all into a baggage train, the capture of said train baggage train, the capture of said train baggage train, the capture of said train means that you have lost everything. The means that you have lost everything. The means that you have lost everything. The remains of the Helveti, the women and remains of the Helveti, the women and remains of the Helveti, the women and children, the injured fighters fled the children, the injured fighters fled the children, the injured fighters fled the field. Caesar's legions were so field. Caesar's legions were so field. Caesar's legions were so exhausted and had so many dead to bury exhausted and had so many dead to bury exhausted and had so many dead to bury that they were unable to take up pursuit that they were unable to take up pursuit that they were unable to take up pursuit for 3 days. But Caesar sent riders out for 3 days. But Caesar sent riders out for 3 days. But Caesar sent riders out to all the local tribes, threatening to all the local tribes, threatening to all the local tribes, threatening dire consequences for anyone who helped dire consequences for anyone who helped dire consequences for anyone who helped the Helveti fugitives.

the Helveti fugitives. the Helveti fugitives. When they were recovered, the legions When they were recovered, the legions When they were recovered, the legions set off after the survivors, quickly set off after the survivors, quickly set off after the survivors, quickly catching up with what was left of the catching up with what was left of the catching up with what was left of the great Celtic tribe. Those who had great Celtic tribe. Those who had great Celtic tribe. Those who had survived fell on their knees and begged survived fell on their knees and begged survived fell on their knees and begged for clemency. Caesar spared their lives, for clemency. Caesar spared their lives, for clemency. Caesar spared their lives, ordering them to return to Lake Geneva, ordering them to return to Lake Geneva, ordering them to return to Lake Geneva, where they were to remain, serving as a where they were to remain, serving as a where they were to remain, serving as a buffer between Roman territory and the buffer between Roman territory and the buffer between Roman territory and the forever encroaching Germanic tribes. forever encroaching Germanic tribes. forever encroaching Germanic tribes. With no recourse, the Helveti agreed. With no recourse, the Helveti agreed. With no recourse, the Helveti agreed. Caesar's first major test as a general Caesar's first major test as a general Caesar's first major test as a general was a complete success. was a complete success. was a complete success. But he did not have long to bask in the But he did not have long to bask in the But he did not have long to bask in the glow of victory. Because speaking of glow of victory. Because speaking of glow of victory. Because speaking of encroaching German tribes, a German encroaching German tribes, a German encroaching German tribes, a German tribe was pouring across the Rine, tribe was pouring across the Rine, tribe was pouring across the Rine, threatening to overrun the entire threatening to overrun the entire threatening to overrun the entire country. While Caesar was beating back the While Caesar was beating back the Helveti, political struggles between Helveti, political struggles between Helveti, political struggles between native GAC tribes had led one side to native GAC tribes had led one side to native GAC tribes had led one side to call on their cousins across the Rine to call on their cousins across the Rine to call on their cousins across the Rine to help them out. They knocked on the door help them out. They knocked on the door help them out. They knocked on the door of Ario Vistus, a great German leader of Ario Vistus, a great German leader of Ario Vistus, a great German leader who was more than happy to have an who was more than happy to have an who was more than happy to have an excuse to bring his 100,000 odd troops excuse to bring his 100,000 odd troops excuse to bring his 100,000 odd troops into Gaul. The tribe that had called him into Gaul. The tribe that had called him into Gaul. The tribe that had called him assumed Ario Vistus would help them assumed Ario Vistus would help them assumed Ario Vistus would help them defeat their enemies and then leave.

defeat their enemies and then leave. defeat their enemies and then leave. Ario Vistus thought Gaul a nice place to Ario Vistus thought Gaul a nice place to Ario Vistus thought Gaul a nice place to rule, and he turned ruthlessly on rule, and he turned ruthlessly on rule, and he turned ruthlessly on nominal GAC ally and nominal GIC foe nominal GAC ally and nominal GIC foe nominal GAC ally and nominal GIC foe alike. This forced both sides of the alike. This forced both sides of the alike. This forced both sides of the internal GAC struggle to turn to the internal GAC struggle to turn to the internal GAC struggle to turn to the Romans for aid. And this was a somewhat Romans for aid. And this was a somewhat Romans for aid. And this was a somewhat tricky situation for Caesar as Ariel tricky situation for Caesar as Ariel tricky situation for Caesar as Ariel Vistus had already made diplomatic Vistus had already made diplomatic Vistus had already made diplomatic contact with Rome and with Caesar's contact with Rome and with Caesar's contact with Rome and with Caesar's support no less been declared a friend support no less been declared a friend support no less been declared a friend of the Romans. But that did not give the of the Romans. But that did not give the of the Romans. But that did not give the German king cart blanch and Caesar was German king cart blanch and Caesar was German king cart blanch and Caesar was already considering Gaul his own already considering Gaul his own already considering Gaul his own personal backyard. personal backyard. personal backyard. He marched northeast towards the Rine He marched northeast towards the Rine He marched northeast towards the Rine where the Germans were camped. where the Germans were camped. where the Germans were camped. At this point, Caesar was just coming At this point, Caesar was just coming At this point, Caesar was just coming off an extremely hard-fought battle with off an extremely hard-fought battle with off an extremely hard-fought battle with the Helveti and was in no mood to take the Helveti and was in no mood to take the Helveti and was in no mood to take on a huge and fresh German army. So, his on a huge and fresh German army. So, his on a huge and fresh German army. So, his intention was to convince Ariois to intention was to convince Ariois to intention was to convince Ariois to withdraw back across the Rine or at the withdraw back across the Rine or at the withdraw back across the Rine or at the very least prevent any more Germans from very least prevent any more Germans from very least prevent any more Germans from coming into Gaul. coming into Gaul. coming into Gaul. Caesar sent envoys ahead asking for a Caesar sent envoys ahead asking for a Caesar sent envoys ahead asking for a meeting, but the German king would have meeting, but the German king would have meeting, but the German king would have none of it. So Caesar sent a note none of it. So Caesar sent a note none of it. So Caesar sent a note containing the provisions by which the containing the provisions by which the containing the provisions by which the Germans would be allowed to stay in Germans would be allowed to stay in Germans would be allowed to stay in Gaul. No more Germans could cross the Gaul. No more Germans could cross the Gaul. No more Germans could cross the river. Any GIC hostages the Germans held river. Any GIC hostages the Germans held river. Any GIC hostages the Germans held must be returned, and they must agree to must be returned, and they must agree to must be returned, and they must agree to not make war on any native GA tribe.

not make war on any native GA tribe. not make war on any native GA tribe. Ario Vistus scoffed at these terms and Ario Vistus scoffed at these terms and Ario Vistus scoffed at these terms and replied incredulously that it was rich replied incredulously that it was rich replied incredulously that it was rich for a Roman general to be making demands for a Roman general to be making demands for a Roman general to be making demands so far from his home. If Caesar wanted so far from his home. If Caesar wanted so far from his home. If Caesar wanted to force the issue, he was more than to force the issue, he was more than to force the issue, he was more than welcome to try. welcome to try. welcome to try. While this back and forth was taking While this back and forth was taking While this back and forth was taking place, ever more Germans were invading place, ever more Germans were invading place, ever more Germans were invading across the Rine, and calls for help were across the Rine, and calls for help were across the Rine, and calls for help were coming down from the local Gauls. Caesar coming down from the local Gauls. Caesar coming down from the local Gauls. Caesar knew he had to put a stop to the knew he had to put a stop to the knew he had to put a stop to the invasion. His legions could certainly invasion. His legions could certainly invasion. His legions could certainly stand to be outnumbered in battle, but stand to be outnumbered in battle, but stand to be outnumbered in battle, but there was a practical limit to what they there was a practical limit to what they there was a practical limit to what they could match. So Caesar moved north could match. So Caesar moved north could match. So Caesar moved north through the dense forest west of the through the dense forest west of the through the dense forest west of the Rine to close the spigot. Rine to close the spigot. Rine to close the spigot. Marching for days through trees so Marching for days through trees so Marching for days through trees so tightly packed the sun disappeared tightly packed the sun disappeared tightly packed the sun disappeared toward an enemy that was amongst the toward an enemy that was amongst the toward an enemy that was amongst the most feared in the ancient world, the most feared in the ancient world, the most feared in the ancient world, the legionnaire's nerves began to waver. legionnaire's nerves began to waver. legionnaire's nerves began to waver. With each passing day, stories passed With each passing day, stories passed With each passing day, stories passed through the ranks about the Germans took through the ranks about the Germans took through the ranks about the Germans took on a life of their own until the average on a life of their own until the average on a life of their own until the average foot soldier was convinced that Caesar foot soldier was convinced that Caesar foot soldier was convinced that Caesar was marching them to face 15t tall was marching them to face 15t tall was marching them to face 15t tall cannibals who breathe fire and use black cannibals who breathe fire and use black cannibals who breathe fire and use black magic to curse their enemies. Caesar magic to curse their enemies. Caesar magic to curse their enemies. Caesar nipped this brewing mutiny in the bud by nipped this brewing mutiny in the bud by nipped this brewing mutiny in the bud by convening a meeting of his centurions, convening a meeting of his centurions, convening a meeting of his centurions, the veteran soldiers who led the men the veteran soldiers who led the men the veteran soldiers who led the men daytoday in camp and in bowel. He shamed daytoday in camp and in bowel. He shamed daytoday in camp and in bowel. He shamed them all publicly for doing nothing to them all publicly for doing nothing to them all publicly for doing nothing to stop the growing discord and all but stop the growing discord and all but stop the growing discord and all but called them cowards for being frightened called them cowards for being frightened called them cowards for being frightened of a dark forest and some no account of a dark forest and some no account of a dark forest and some no account brutes from across the river. The brutes from across the river. The brutes from across the river. The shaming worked and the dissension in the shaming worked and the dissension in the shaming worked and the dissension in the ranks was quickly silenced. His army ranks was quickly silenced. His army ranks was quickly silenced. His army fully committed. Caesar closed the final fully committed. Caesar closed the final fully committed. Caesar closed the final miles between his legions and Ario

miles between his legions and Ario miles between his legions and Ario Vistus' massive German army. Vistus' massive German army. Vistus' massive German army. Upon arrival, Caesar built a fortified Upon arrival, Caesar built a fortified Upon arrival, Caesar built a fortified camp and was surprised to discover that camp and was surprised to discover that camp and was surprised to discover that suddenly the Germans were ready to talk. suddenly the Germans were ready to talk. suddenly the Germans were ready to talk. Ariel Vistus called for a meeting at a Ariel Vistus called for a meeting at a Ariel Vistus called for a meeting at a neutral site with numerous neutral site with numerous neutral site with numerous preconditions, not the least of which preconditions, not the least of which preconditions, not the least of which being that the two leaders could only be being that the two leaders could only be being that the two leaders could only be accompanied by cavalry, absolutely no accompanied by cavalry, absolutely no accompanied by cavalry, absolutely no infantry guards. In practice, this meant infantry guards. In practice, this meant infantry guards. In practice, this meant that Caesar would have with him none of that Caesar would have with him none of that Caesar would have with him none of his fellow countrymen, as his cavalry his fellow countrymen, as his cavalry his fellow countrymen, as his cavalry was exclusively made up of GIC was exclusively made up of GIC was exclusively made up of GIC auxiliaries. auxiliaries. auxiliaries. But Caesar sidestepped this ploy by But Caesar sidestepped this ploy by But Caesar sidestepped this ploy by ordering members of his favorite legion, ordering members of his favorite legion, ordering members of his favorite legion, the 10th, to mount horses and accompany the 10th, to mount horses and accompany the 10th, to mount horses and accompany him. It was from this episode that the him. It was from this episode that the him. It was from this episode that the 10th, one of the most famous legions in 10th, one of the most famous legions in 10th, one of the most famous legions in Roman military history, earned the Roman military history, earned the Roman military history, earned the nickname that they would carry with them nickname that they would carry with them nickname that they would carry with them for the rest of their existence, the for the rest of their existence, the for the rest of their existence, the 10th Mounted Legion. 10th Mounted Legion. 10th Mounted Legion. The meeting with Ario Vistus was as The meeting with Ario Vistus was as The meeting with Ario Vistus was as strange as it was unproductive. The strange as it was unproductive. The strange as it was unproductive. The German leader was agitated and German leader was agitated and German leader was agitated and belligerent, but refused to commit belligerent, but refused to commit belligerent, but refused to commit himself to battle, though he implied himself to battle, though he implied himself to battle, though he implied that if it did come to battle, that word that if it did come to battle, that word that if it did come to battle, that word had come from the Roman Senate that the had come from the Roman Senate that the had come from the Roman Senate that the German had their blessing to wipe Caesar German had their blessing to wipe Caesar German had their blessing to wipe Caesar and his legions off the face of the and his legions off the face of the and his legions off the face of the earth.

earth. earth. Meanwhile, while the two leaders talked, Meanwhile, while the two leaders talked, Meanwhile, while the two leaders talked, the German cavalry hurled javelins and the German cavalry hurled javelins and the German cavalry hurled javelins and stones at the Roman guard. It was stones at the Roman guard. It was stones at the Roman guard. It was obvious that the Romans were being obvious that the Romans were being obvious that the Romans were being baited, but Caesar refused to bite. As baited, but Caesar refused to bite. As baited, but Caesar refused to bite. As he returned to camp, the one thing he he returned to camp, the one thing he he returned to camp, the one thing he could not figure out was why the Germans could not figure out was why the Germans could not figure out was why the Germans did not just attack. They outnumbered did not just attack. They outnumbered did not just attack. They outnumbered the Romans, were in better fighting the Romans, were in better fighting the Romans, were in better fighting shape, had better access to supplies, shape, had better access to supplies, shape, had better access to supplies, and a superior tactical position. It and a superior tactical position. It and a superior tactical position. It didn't make a lick of sense. didn't make a lick of sense. didn't make a lick of sense. Soon though, spies in the German camp Soon though, spies in the German camp Soon though, spies in the German camp brought an explanation. brought an explanation. brought an explanation. The tribal priestesses who determined The tribal priestesses who determined The tribal priestesses who determined through divination whether the gods through divination whether the gods through divination whether the gods favored Bowel or not had been performing favored Bowel or not had been performing favored Bowel or not had been performing their rights day after day but kept their rights day after day but kept their rights day after day but kept coming back with a negative answer. Ario coming back with a negative answer. Ario coming back with a negative answer. Ario Vistus himself wanted nothing more than Vistus himself wanted nothing more than Vistus himself wanted nothing more than to attack but he risked the wrath of his to attack but he risked the wrath of his to attack but he risked the wrath of his gods if he did. Caesar immediately acted gods if he did. Caesar immediately acted gods if he did. Caesar immediately acted on this crucial piece of intelligence on this crucial piece of intelligence on this crucial piece of intelligence and made ready for an immediate assault and made ready for an immediate assault and made ready for an immediate assault on the German camp. Once their blood was on the German camp. Once their blood was on the German camp. Once their blood was up, the Germans were sure to fight hard. up, the Germans were sure to fight hard. up, the Germans were sure to fight hard. But maybe their religious hesitation But maybe their religious hesitation But maybe their religious hesitation would cause them to flinch or withdraw would cause them to flinch or withdraw would cause them to flinch or withdraw at the outset.

at the outset. at the outset. For the outnumbered legions, it was For the outnumbered legions, it was For the outnumbered legions, it was their best hope for total victory. their best hope for total victory. their best hope for total victory. The next day, Caesar launched his The next day, Caesar launched his The next day, Caesar launched his full-scale attack. Whether religious full-scale attack. Whether religious full-scale attack. Whether religious concerns played a role in the fighting concerns played a role in the fighting concerns played a role in the fighting is unknown, but the Germans certainly is unknown, but the Germans certainly is unknown, but the Germans certainly didn't act as if their gods didn't want didn't act as if their gods didn't want didn't act as if their gods didn't want them fighting. However, as with the them fighting. However, as with the them fighting. However, as with the Helveti, a full day's hard battle, Helveti, a full day's hard battle, Helveti, a full day's hard battle, taking place first on open ground and taking place first on open ground and taking place first on open ground and then on the trampled bodies of the dead, then on the trampled bodies of the dead, then on the trampled bodies of the dead, finally began to break the Romans way. finally began to break the Romans way. finally began to break the Romans way. One of the wings, led by Marcus Craas's One of the wings, led by Marcus Craas's One of the wings, led by Marcus Craas's son, Publius, began to drive the Romans son, Publius, began to drive the Romans son, Publius, began to drive the Romans back, finally snapping the enemy line. back, finally snapping the enemy line. back, finally snapping the enemy line. The Germans broke headline for the Rine, The Germans broke headline for the Rine, The Germans broke headline for the Rine, abandoning Imperial dreams and Gaul and abandoning Imperial dreams and Gaul and abandoning Imperial dreams and Gaul and now hoping to simply make it home alive. now hoping to simply make it home alive. now hoping to simply make it home alive. The 15 mi back to the river was a The 15 mi back to the river was a The 15 mi back to the river was a running slaughter with Caesar ordering running slaughter with Caesar ordering running slaughter with Caesar ordering that no prisoners be taken. Ario Vistus that no prisoners be taken. Ario Vistus that no prisoners be taken. Ario Vistus displaying great courage and honor displaying great courage and honor displaying great courage and honor abandoned his wife and daughter to the abandoned his wife and daughter to the abandoned his wife and daughter to the Romans and escape a small raft back to Romans and escape a small raft back to Romans and escape a small raft back to Germania. He never crossed the Rine Germania. He never crossed the Rine Germania. He never crossed the Rine again.

In one summer, Caesar had destroyed two In one summer, Caesar had destroyed two massive invading forces and was fast massive invading forces and was fast massive invading forces and was fast making a name for himself as one of the making a name for himself as one of the making a name for himself as one of the greatest generals in Roman history. Here greatest generals in Roman history. Here greatest generals in Roman history. Here he was campaigning where no Roman legion he was campaigning where no Roman legion he was campaigning where no Roman legion had gone before, defeating the very had gone before, defeating the very had gone before, defeating the very barbarians who had haunted Roman barbarians who had haunted Roman barbarians who had haunted Roman nightmares from the days of the great nightmares from the days of the great nightmares from the days of the great sack of Rome 350 years earlier. sack of Rome 350 years earlier. sack of Rome 350 years earlier. Caesar, of course, took every Caesar, of course, took every Caesar, of course, took every opportunity to send home breathless opportunity to send home breathless opportunity to send home breathless reports from the front line about his reports from the front line about his reports from the front line about his extraordinary campaign, his own genius, extraordinary campaign, his own genius, extraordinary campaign, his own genius, and the courage of his men. And in the and the courage of his men. And in the and the courage of his men. And in the public imagination, Julius Caesar was public imagination, Julius Caesar was public imagination, Julius Caesar was fast growing into a larger than-l life fast growing into a larger than-l life fast growing into a larger than-l life figure who would soon eclipse his figure who would soon eclipse his figure who would soon eclipse his jealous triumphant colleagues Pompy and jealous triumphant colleagues Pompy and jealous triumphant colleagues Pompy and Crass. Crass. Crass. For about a nancond, native Gauls held For about a nancond, native Gauls held For about a nancond, native Gauls held Caesar in the same esteem his fellow Caesar in the same esteem his fellow Caesar in the same esteem his fellow Romans did. He had prevented first the Romans did. He had prevented first the Romans did. He had prevented first the marauding Helveti and then the fearsome marauding Helveti and then the fearsome marauding Helveti and then the fearsome Germans from ransacking their homeland. Germans from ransacking their homeland. Germans from ransacking their homeland. Think if Caesar had failed, why, they Think if Caesar had failed, why, they Think if Caesar had failed, why, they could have been made mere vassels of could have been made mere vassels of could have been made mere vassels of some invading foreign power. They some invading foreign power. They some invading foreign power. They celebrated Caesar and then wished him a celebrated Caesar and then wished him a celebrated Caesar and then wished him a safe trip back to Roman territory.

safe trip back to Roman territory. safe trip back to Roman territory. Thanks for all your help. Maybe we'll Thanks for all your help. Maybe we'll Thanks for all your help. Maybe we'll call you sometime. But Caesar wasn't call you sometime. But Caesar wasn't call you sometime. But Caesar wasn't going back to Rome and his army wasn't going back to Rome and his army wasn't going back to Rome and his army wasn't going anywhere. He ordered the legions going anywhere. He ordered the legions going anywhere. He ordered the legions to build winter quarters and then to build winter quarters and then to build winter quarters and then settled in to await the spring. The settled in to await the spring. The settled in to await the spring. The Gauls quickly realized that Caesar and Gauls quickly realized that Caesar and Gauls quickly realized that Caesar and the Romans were here to stay. the Romans were here to stay. the Romans were here to stay. Next week, Caesar will use a savvy Next week, Caesar will use a savvy Next week, Caesar will use a savvy strategy of divide and conquer to slowly strategy of divide and conquer to slowly strategy of divide and conquer to slowly assert Roman dominance over all of Gaul. assert Roman dominance over all of Gaul. assert Roman dominance over all of Gaul. Along the way, he would become the first Along the way, he would become the first Along the way, he would become the first Roman general to cross the Ryan River Roman general to cross the Ryan River Roman general to cross the Ryan River and campaign in Germania, as well as the and campaign in Germania, as well as the and campaign in Germania, as well as the first Roman to lead an expedition to the first Roman to lead an expedition to the first Roman to lead an expedition to the mythical island of Britannia. mythical island of Britannia. mythical island of Britannia. Though the Gauls would eventually Though the Gauls would eventually Though the Gauls would eventually organize a resistance and very nearly organize a resistance and very nearly organize a resistance and very nearly expel the Romans from their country, expel the Romans from their country, expel the Romans from their country, Caesar would not be denied his prize. Caesar would not be denied his prize. Caesar would not be denied his prize. And in a few short years, what had And in a few short years, what had And in a few short years, what had forever been a wild land of fearsome forever been a wild land of fearsome forever been a wild land of fearsome barbarians would become just another barbarians would become just another barbarians would become just another province in the mighty Roman Empire. province in the mighty Roman Empire. province in the mighty Roman Empire. [Music] Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Realm. Episode 41B, the GA Wars.

Realm. Episode 41B, the GA Wars. Realm. Episode 41B, the GA Wars. Caesar's first year in Gaul had been a Caesar's first year in Gaul had been a Caesar's first year in Gaul had been a great success for both the Romans and great success for both the Romans and great success for both the Romans and the local tribes. Two invading hordes, the local tribes. Two invading hordes, the local tribes. Two invading hordes, first the Helveti and then the Germans first the Helveti and then the Germans first the Helveti and then the Germans had been repulsed by the legions. Caesar had been repulsed by the legions. Caesar had been repulsed by the legions. Caesar was making a name for himself as a was making a name for himself as a was making a name for himself as a superb commander and the balance of superb commander and the balance of superb commander and the balance of power among the GIC tribes had not been power among the GIC tribes had not been power among the GIC tribes had not been upset. So as the winner of 58 BC neared, upset. So as the winner of 58 BC neared, upset. So as the winner of 58 BC neared, everyone was happy. But Caesar was not everyone was happy. But Caesar was not everyone was happy. But Caesar was not in Gaul simply to act as a bodyguard for in Gaul simply to act as a bodyguard for in Gaul simply to act as a bodyguard for independent tribes. He was in Gaul to independent tribes. He was in Gaul to independent tribes. He was in Gaul to conquer Gaul. To this end, he did not conquer Gaul. To this end, he did not conquer Gaul. To this end, he did not withdraw back to his provinces on the withdraw back to his provinces on the withdraw back to his provinces on the Italian side of the Alps as the Gauls Italian side of the Alps as the Gauls Italian side of the Alps as the Gauls assumed he would. Instead, he ordered assumed he would. Instead, he ordered assumed he would. Instead, he ordered his troops to build winter camps and dig his troops to build winter camps and dig his troops to build winter camps and dig in. These wooden forts dotting the in. These wooden forts dotting the in. These wooden forts dotting the countryside were a visible symbol of countryside were a visible symbol of countryside were a visible symbol of Caesar's true intentions. Suddenly, not Caesar's true intentions. Suddenly, not Caesar's true intentions. Suddenly, not everyone was so happy. everyone was so happy. everyone was so happy. But Caesar was a savvy general and But Caesar was a savvy general and But Caesar was a savvy general and nothing if not a master politician. He nothing if not a master politician. He nothing if not a master politician. He knew that the jig was up, that there was knew that the jig was up, that there was knew that the jig was up, that there was no use pretending Rome was not in Gaul no use pretending Rome was not in Gaul no use pretending Rome was not in Gaul to stay, at least not when he met with to stay, at least not when he met with to stay, at least not when he met with the leaders of the Ga tribes in private.

the leaders of the Ga tribes in private. the leaders of the Ga tribes in private. Some tribes swore instantly to resist Some tribes swore instantly to resist Some tribes swore instantly to resist Roman domination, but others were Roman domination, but others were Roman domination, but others were persuaded that conquest was inevitable, persuaded that conquest was inevitable, persuaded that conquest was inevitable, and the only question was who would and the only question was who would and the only question was who would enjoy what privileges in the new Roman enjoy what privileges in the new Roman enjoy what privileges in the new Roman order. Caesar played rivals against each order. Caesar played rivals against each order. Caesar played rivals against each other, promising to settle ancient other, promising to settle ancient other, promising to settle ancient scores for one side or the other in scores for one side or the other in scores for one side or the other in exchange for support, intelligence, or exchange for support, intelligence, or exchange for support, intelligence, or troops. What Caesar managed to achieve troops. What Caesar managed to achieve troops. What Caesar managed to achieve in the tent prevented the Gauls from in the tent prevented the Gauls from in the tent prevented the Gauls from ever truly uniting in the field. ever truly uniting in the field. ever truly uniting in the field. When the spring of 57 BC came around, When the spring of 57 BC came around, When the spring of 57 BC came around, the Roman occupation was immediately the Roman occupation was immediately the Roman occupation was immediately challenged in the north by a challenged in the north by a challenged in the north by a confederation of Belgic tribes. The confederation of Belgic tribes. The confederation of Belgic tribes. The territory of Belgi, as you could territory of Belgi, as you could territory of Belgi, as you could probably guess, covers roughly modern probably guess, covers roughly modern probably guess, covers roughly modern Belgium and was then about as far as you Belgium and was then about as far as you Belgium and was then about as far as you could get from Roman civilization. could get from Roman civilization. could get from Roman civilization. The tribes in southern Gaul were long The tribes in southern Gaul were long The tribes in southern Gaul were long accustomed to dealing with the Romans, accustomed to dealing with the Romans, accustomed to dealing with the Romans, but Italian traders rarely made their but Italian traders rarely made their but Italian traders rarely made their way this far north. So, it is no great way this far north. So, it is no great way this far north. So, it is no great surprise that this would become the surprise that this would become the surprise that this would become the epicenter of initial resistance. But epicenter of initial resistance. But epicenter of initial resistance. But Caesar had been able to convince at Caesar had been able to convince at Caesar had been able to convince at least one of the Belgic tribes that least one of the Belgic tribes that least one of the Belgic tribes that support for Rome was in their best support for Rome was in their best support for Rome was in their best interest. When this tribe came under interest. When this tribe came under interest. When this tribe came under attack for their foreign allegiance, attack for their foreign allegiance, attack for their foreign allegiance, Caesar was quick to intervene, hoping to Caesar was quick to intervene, hoping to Caesar was quick to intervene, hoping to prove that friendship with Rome was not prove that friendship with Rome was not prove that friendship with Rome was not just a one-way street. Those who helped just a one-way street. Those who helped just a one-way street. Those who helped Rome would in turn be helped by Rome.

Rome would in turn be helped by Rome. Rome would in turn be helped by Rome. Also, it was a lovely excuse to conquer Also, it was a lovely excuse to conquer Also, it was a lovely excuse to conquer Belgium. Belgium. Belgium. That Caesar had a Belgic ally was the That Caesar had a Belgic ally was the That Caesar had a Belgic ally was the good news. That he only had one Belgic good news. That he only had one Belgic good news. That he only had one Belgic ally was the bad news. He marched the ally was the bad news. He marched the ally was the bad news. He marched the legions north to support his new ally legions north to support his new ally legions north to support his new ally and prevent the Belgi from coalesing and prevent the Belgi from coalesing and prevent the Belgi from coalesing into a single force. But he arrived too into a single force. But he arrived too into a single force. But he arrived too late and saw to his dismay that a huge late and saw to his dismay that a huge late and saw to his dismay that a huge army was gathered. Skirmishes broke out army was gathered. Skirmishes broke out army was gathered. Skirmishes broke out and a brief bloody battle was fought to and a brief bloody battle was fought to and a brief bloody battle was fought to prevent a portion of the Belgi from prevent a portion of the Belgi from prevent a portion of the Belgi from circling around behind the Romans. circling around behind the Romans. circling around behind the Romans. Caesar, outnumbered and deep in enemy Caesar, outnumbered and deep in enemy Caesar, outnumbered and deep in enemy territory, had to think fast. Doubtful territory, had to think fast. Doubtful territory, had to think fast. Doubtful that he would be able to win a fight in that he would be able to win a fight in that he would be able to win a fight in the open, Caesar called for a play that the open, Caesar called for a play that the open, Caesar called for a play that had proved so effective at the end of had proved so effective at the end of had proved so effective at the end of the Third Samite War. He ordered squads the Third Samite War. He ordered squads the Third Samite War. He ordered squads to fan out across the countryside and to fan out across the countryside and to fan out across the countryside and sack every settlement they came across. sack every settlement they came across. sack every settlement they came across. With all their warriors masked in one With all their warriors masked in one With all their warriors masked in one place, the civilian Belgi were helpless place, the civilian Belgi were helpless place, the civilian Belgi were helpless and soon the whole territory was in and soon the whole territory was in and soon the whole territory was in flames. With little internal cohesion flames. With little internal cohesion flames. With little internal cohesion except a hatred of the Romans to bind except a hatred of the Romans to bind except a hatred of the Romans to bind them, the Belgic army quickly evaporated them, the Belgic army quickly evaporated them, the Belgic army quickly evaporated as tribes returned home to protect their as tribes returned home to protect their as tribes returned home to protect their property.

property. property. Caesar was now free to march from tribe Caesar was now free to march from tribe Caesar was now free to march from tribe to tribe and picked them off one by one. to tribe and picked them off one by one. to tribe and picked them off one by one. Sometimes the locals resisted and were Sometimes the locals resisted and were Sometimes the locals resisted and were destroyed, but more often than not, they destroyed, but more often than not, they destroyed, but more often than not, they saw the handwriting on the wall and saw the handwriting on the wall and saw the handwriting on the wall and surrendered. One tribe in particular surrendered. One tribe in particular surrendered. One tribe in particular though, the Nurvi, neither surrendered though, the Nurvi, neither surrendered though, the Nurvi, neither surrendered nor were pushovers in the field. At one nor were pushovers in the field. At one nor were pushovers in the field. At one point, they managed to catch the Romans point, they managed to catch the Romans point, they managed to catch the Romans by surprise as they built a camp and in by surprise as they built a camp and in by surprise as they built a camp and in the confusion nearly shattered the the confusion nearly shattered the the confusion nearly shattered the legions before Caesar could rally his legions before Caesar could rally his legions before Caesar could rally his troops in counterattack. But aside from troops in counterattack. But aside from troops in counterattack. But aside from this one near disaster, the conquest of this one near disaster, the conquest of this one near disaster, the conquest of the Belgi went off without a hitch. And the Belgi went off without a hitch. And the Belgi went off without a hitch. And Caesar entered the winter of 57 BC with Caesar entered the winter of 57 BC with Caesar entered the winter of 57 BC with nearly the whole of Gaul already under nearly the whole of Gaul already under nearly the whole of Gaul already under his thumb. his thumb. his thumb. Over that winter with the Romans again Over that winter with the Romans again Over that winter with the Romans again building camps across the country, building camps across the country, building camps across the country, Caesar returned to Cis Alpine Gaul to Caesar returned to Cis Alpine Gaul to Caesar returned to Cis Alpine Gaul to attend to his duties there. He was after attend to his duties there. He was after attend to his duties there. He was after all still the governor and there was a all still the governor and there was a all still the governor and there was a backlog of high importance action items backlog of high importance action items backlog of high importance action items that he had been neglecting. While on that he had been neglecting. While on that he had been neglecting. While on the Italian side of the Alps, Pomp and the Italian side of the Alps, Pomp and the Italian side of the Alps, Pomp and Craas left Rome to join Caesar for a Craas left Rome to join Caesar for a Craas left Rome to join Caesar for a conference. The triumph was renewed and conference. The triumph was renewed and conference. The triumph was renewed and it was agreed that Pomp and Cassus would it was agreed that Pomp and Cassus would it was agreed that Pomp and Cassus would again serve together as co-conuls for again serve together as co-conuls for again serve together as co-conuls for the year 55 BC. The three men also took the year 55 BC. The three men also took the year 55 BC. The three men also took the time to divvy up the Roman world the time to divvy up the Roman world the time to divvy up the Roman world between them. Caesar would have his between them. Caesar would have his between them. Caesar would have his proconsul ship of Gaul extended for proconsul ship of Gaul extended for proconsul ship of Gaul extended for another 5 years and upon completing another 5 years and upon completing another 5 years and upon completing their term in office, Pompy would be their term in office, Pompy would be their term in office, Pompy would be appointed proconsul of Hispania and appointed proconsul of Hispania and appointed proconsul of Hispania and allowed to govern at Absentia while allowed to govern at Absentia while allowed to govern at Absentia while Craas would receive the governorship of Craas would receive the governorship of Craas would receive the governorship of Syria. This would be the last Syria. This would be the last Syria. This would be the last cooperative venture between the three

cooperative venture between the three cooperative venture between the three triumvors. Crasses would soon lay dead triumvors. Crasses would soon lay dead triumvors. Crasses would soon lay dead in Syria after a humiliating defeat at in Syria after a humiliating defeat at in Syria after a humiliating defeat at the hands of the Parththeians. And the the hands of the Parththeians. And the the hands of the Parththeians. And the familial bond between Caesar and Pompy familial bond between Caesar and Pompy familial bond between Caesar and Pompy would soon be shattered by the death of would soon be shattered by the death of would soon be shattered by the death of Julia, Caesar's beloved daughter and Julia, Caesar's beloved daughter and Julia, Caesar's beloved daughter and Pompy's beloved wife. Pompy's beloved wife. Pompy's beloved wife. With their agreement in hand, each of With their agreement in hand, each of With their agreement in hand, each of the triumphers went about their the triumphers went about their the triumphers went about their business. For Craus and Pompy, this business. For Craus and Pompy, this business. For Craus and Pompy, this meant laying the groundwork for their meant laying the groundwork for their meant laying the groundwork for their consular campaign. And for Caesar, this consular campaign. And for Caesar, this consular campaign. And for Caesar, this meant consolidating his hold over Gaul. meant consolidating his hold over Gaul. meant consolidating his hold over Gaul. But despite his glowing reports to the But despite his glowing reports to the But despite his glowing reports to the Senate that Gaul was completely Senate that Gaul was completely Senate that Gaul was completely pacified, the reality was not so neat pacified, the reality was not so neat pacified, the reality was not so neat and tidy. This time trouble came from and tidy. This time trouble came from and tidy. This time trouble came from the Venetti, a maritime tribe from the Venetti, a maritime tribe from the Venetti, a maritime tribe from Britany who decided to take their shot Britany who decided to take their shot Britany who decided to take their shot at avoiding Roman domination. at avoiding Roman domination. at avoiding Roman domination. Admittedly, they were in a unique Admittedly, they were in a unique Admittedly, they were in a unique position and had good reason to believe position and had good reason to believe position and had good reason to believe they could resist the Romans. But in the they could resist the Romans. But in the they could resist the Romans. But in the end, it was not enough and they too fell end, it was not enough and they too fell end, it was not enough and they too fell under Caesar's sword. under Caesar's sword. under Caesar's sword. The Veneti's unique position was a The Veneti's unique position was a The Veneti's unique position was a mastery of the sea that the Romans could mastery of the sea that the Romans could mastery of the sea that the Romans could not match. Their forts were all built on not match. Their forts were all built on not match. Their forts were all built on narrow spits jutting out into the narrow spits jutting out into the narrow spits jutting out into the English Channel, nearly impossible to English Channel, nearly impossible to English Channel, nearly impossible to attack by land and connected to endless attack by land and connected to endless attack by land and connected to endless supplies by sea. If Caesar hoped to put supplies by sea. If Caesar hoped to put supplies by sea. If Caesar hoped to put down this rebellion, he would have to down this rebellion, he would have to down this rebellion, he would have to build a navy. But as we've noted before, build a navy. But as we've noted before, build a navy. But as we've noted before, the Romans were never great sailors to the Romans were never great sailors to the Romans were never great sailors to begin with, even on the relatively calm begin with, even on the relatively calm begin with, even on the relatively calm waters of the Mediterranean. The choppy waters of the Mediterranean. The choppy waters of the Mediterranean. The choppy chaos of the English Channel would prove chaos of the English Channel would prove chaos of the English Channel would prove to be one of the most implacable foes to be one of the most implacable foes to be one of the most implacable foes Caesar would ever face. And on more than Caesar would ever face. And on more than Caesar would ever face. And on more than one occasion, it threatened to end not one occasion, it threatened to end not one occasion, it threatened to end not just his campaign, but his life.

just his campaign, but his life. just his campaign, but his life. After an entire summer of being given After an entire summer of being given After an entire summer of being given the runaround and losing ships that were the runaround and losing ships that were the runaround and losing ships that were no match for the sturdy oak no match for the sturdy oak no match for the sturdy oak constructions of the Veneti, Caesar constructions of the Veneti, Caesar constructions of the Veneti, Caesar finally hit upon the weakness of his finally hit upon the weakness of his finally hit upon the weakness of his enemies. The Veneti ships lacked orars, enemies. The Veneti ships lacked orars, enemies. The Veneti ships lacked orars, relying exclusively on sails for relying exclusively on sails for relying exclusively on sails for maneuverability. maneuverability. maneuverability. Near the end of the year, Caesar sent Near the end of the year, Caesar sent Near the end of the year, Caesar sent the whole of his navy, some 200 ships, the whole of his navy, some 200 ships, the whole of his navy, some 200 ships, to attack the main Veneti stronghold. to attack the main Veneti stronghold. to attack the main Veneti stronghold. The Veneti were unable to resist the The Veneti were unable to resist the The Veneti were unable to resist the opportunity to crush the Romans once and opportunity to crush the Romans once and opportunity to crush the Romans once and for all and sailed out end mass to greet for all and sailed out end mass to greet for all and sailed out end mass to greet them. But the Romans were prepared, and them. But the Romans were prepared, and them. But the Romans were prepared, and assuing their failed tactics of ramming assuing their failed tactics of ramming assuing their failed tactics of ramming and boarding, they instead used hooks to and boarding, they instead used hooks to and boarding, they instead used hooks to tear down the sails of the Veneti ships. tear down the sails of the Veneti ships. tear down the sails of the Veneti ships. This, coupled with a fortuitous absence This, coupled with a fortuitous absence This, coupled with a fortuitous absence of a strong wind, made the Veneti of a strong wind, made the Veneti of a strong wind, made the Veneti sitting ducks. The Romans went from ship sitting ducks. The Romans went from ship sitting ducks. The Romans went from ship to ship, and though the fighting was to ship, and though the fighting was to ship, and though the fighting was long and hard, the outcome was no longer long and hard, the outcome was no longer long and hard, the outcome was no longer in doubt. The whole of the Veneti Navy in doubt. The whole of the Veneti Navy in doubt. The whole of the Veneti Navy was destroyed, and the tribal leaders on was destroyed, and the tribal leaders on was destroyed, and the tribal leaders on land, deprived of their supply line, land, deprived of their supply line, land, deprived of their supply line, were forced to surrender to Rome.

were forced to surrender to Rome. were forced to surrender to Rome. Caesar now controlled almost the entire Caesar now controlled almost the entire Caesar now controlled almost the entire north coast of Gaul, but he was not north coast of Gaul, but he was not north coast of Gaul, but he was not content with stopping at the water's content with stopping at the water's content with stopping at the water's edge. Across the channel lay the edge. Across the channel lay the edge. Across the channel lay the mythical island of Bratannia, which mythical island of Bratannia, which mythical island of Bratannia, which Caesar resolved to invade the following Caesar resolved to invade the following Caesar resolved to invade the following year. Both to cut off the aid that had year. Both to cut off the aid that had year. Both to cut off the aid that had flowed from the island to the rebellious flowed from the island to the rebellious flowed from the island to the rebellious Belgi and the Veneti, but also to score Belgi and the Veneti, but also to score Belgi and the Veneti, but also to score a massive domestic political coup. Think a massive domestic political coup. Think a massive domestic political coup. Think of the headlines, Caesar conquers the of the headlines, Caesar conquers the of the headlines, Caesar conquers the ends of the earth. It has a nice ring to ends of the earth. It has a nice ring to ends of the earth. It has a nice ring to it. it. it. But before he could invade the ends of But before he could invade the ends of But before he could invade the ends of the earth, Caesar would be forced to the earth, Caesar would be forced to the earth, Caesar would be forced to engage in a less romantic, though engage in a less romantic, though engage in a less romantic, though arguably more important venture. And as arguably more important venture. And as arguably more important venture. And as it would turn out, the Roman public was it would turn out, the Roman public was it would turn out, the Roman public was at least as impressed with Caesar for at least as impressed with Caesar for at least as impressed with Caesar for leading a Roman army into Germania as leading a Roman army into Germania as leading a Roman army into Germania as they were for his later invasion of they were for his later invasion of they were for his later invasion of Britain. Britain. Britain. In 55 BC, German tribes began crossing In 55 BC, German tribes began crossing In 55 BC, German tribes began crossing the Ryan River and running a muk. Often the Ryan River and running a muk. Often the Ryan River and running a muk. Often encouraged by the local Gauls, who hoped encouraged by the local Gauls, who hoped encouraged by the local Gauls, who hoped to stir up as much trouble for Rome as to stir up as much trouble for Rome as to stir up as much trouble for Rome as they could, Caesar was forced to put his they could, Caesar was forced to put his they could, Caesar was forced to put his British invasion on hold while he headed British invasion on hold while he headed British invasion on hold while he headed east to secure the border. What he east to secure the border. What he east to secure the border. What he immediately intuited was that the immediately intuited was that the immediately intuited was that the Germans would have no fear as long as Germans would have no fear as long as Germans would have no fear as long as they believed the rine was a magical they believed the rine was a magical they believed the rine was a magical barrier to Roman advancement. So Caesar barrier to Roman advancement. So Caesar barrier to Roman advancement. So Caesar decided to put lie to that particular decided to put lie to that particular decided to put lie to that particular myth. But understanding that the optics myth. But understanding that the optics myth. But understanding that the optics demanded something altogether more demanded something altogether more demanded something altogether more spectacular than crossing his spectacular than crossing his spectacular than crossing his legionaires on rickety boats, Caesar legionaires on rickety boats, Caesar legionaires on rickety boats, Caesar ordered a bridge be built across the ordered a bridge be built across the ordered a bridge be built across the great river. In what is widely great river. In what is widely great river. In what is widely acknowledged as one of the great feats

acknowledged as one of the great feats acknowledged as one of the great feats in the history of military engineering, in the history of military engineering, in the history of military engineering, Caesar's army designed and built his Caesar's army designed and built his Caesar's army designed and built his bridge in just 10 days. bridge in just 10 days. bridge in just 10 days. Stable in the rushing water and strong Stable in the rushing water and strong Stable in the rushing water and strong enough to sustain the 40,000 troops enough to sustain the 40,000 troops enough to sustain the 40,000 troops Caesar intended to march into Germania, Caesar intended to march into Germania, Caesar intended to march into Germania, the bridge was an architectural the bridge was an architectural the bridge was an architectural masterpiece. But more importantly for masterpiece. But more importantly for masterpiece. But more importantly for Caesar's immediate concerns, it scared Caesar's immediate concerns, it scared Caesar's immediate concerns, it scared the be Jesus out of the Germans. They the be Jesus out of the Germans. They the be Jesus out of the Germans. They had felt themselves completely safe on had felt themselves completely safe on had felt themselves completely safe on their side of the river, secure in the their side of the river, secure in the their side of the river, secure in the knowledge that the Romans A were afraid knowledge that the Romans A were afraid knowledge that the Romans A were afraid of invading Germania, B would be easy of invading Germania, B would be easy of invading Germania, B would be easy targets if they tried to cross the river targets if they tried to cross the river targets if they tried to cross the river in boats, and C couldn't build a bridge in boats, and C couldn't build a bridge in boats, and C couldn't build a bridge so fast that the Germans wouldn't be so fast that the Germans wouldn't be so fast that the Germans wouldn't be able to simply mass an army to meet the able to simply mass an army to meet the able to simply mass an army to meet the invaders. But in the time it took German invaders. But in the time it took German invaders. But in the time it took German scouts to notice the bridge and report scouts to notice the bridge and report scouts to notice the bridge and report it to their chiefs, the Romans were it to their chiefs, the Romans were it to their chiefs, the Romans were already hammering in the final nails. already hammering in the final nails. already hammering in the final nails. When the next round of scouts arrived to When the next round of scouts arrived to When the next round of scouts arrived to check the progress of the construction, check the progress of the construction, check the progress of the construction, they were forced to immediately turn they were forced to immediately turn they were forced to immediately turn around and report the unbelievable news around and report the unbelievable news around and report the unbelievable news that the Romans were already across the that the Romans were already across the that the Romans were already across the Rine. The Germans panicked and retreated Rine. The Germans panicked and retreated Rine. The Germans panicked and retreated into the dense forest.

into the dense forest. into the dense forest. Caesar spent 3 weeks marching around Caesar spent 3 weeks marching around Caesar spent 3 weeks marching around Western Germany without encountering any Western Germany without encountering any Western Germany without encountering any resistance. Believing he had made his resistance. Believing he had made his resistance. Believing he had made his point, he ordered his troops back across point, he ordered his troops back across point, he ordered his troops back across the Rine and the bridge burned. The the Rine and the bridge burned. The the Rine and the bridge burned. The Germans did not miss the point. Rome Germans did not miss the point. Rome Germans did not miss the point. Rome could go where it wanted when it wanted, could go where it wanted when it wanted, could go where it wanted when it wanted, and it was best not to forget that fact. Despite the time he had spent on his Despite the time he had spent on his detour into Germania, Caesar was detour into Germania, Caesar was detour into Germania, Caesar was determined to launch at least a determined to launch at least a determined to launch at least a preliminary expedition to Britain by the preliminary expedition to Britain by the preliminary expedition to Britain by the end of the year. end of the year. end of the year. So with the autumn winds howling and So with the autumn winds howling and So with the autumn winds howling and winter fast approaching, Caesar set out winter fast approaching, Caesar set out winter fast approaching, Caesar set out with 80 ships to find out how much with 80 ships to find out how much with 80 ships to find out how much resistance he could expect if he decided resistance he could expect if he decided resistance he could expect if he decided to launch a full invasion or if a full to launch a full invasion or if a full to launch a full invasion or if a full invasion would even be necessary. invasion would even be necessary. invasion would even be necessary. This first crossing can't really be This first crossing can't really be This first crossing can't really be described as anything but a debacle. described as anything but a debacle. described as anything but a debacle. Caesar had been unable to squeeze any Caesar had been unable to squeeze any Caesar had been unable to squeeze any decent information out of the local decent information out of the local decent information out of the local traders about where and when to land on traders about where and when to land on traders about where and when to land on the island, but what minimal scout work the island, but what minimal scout work the island, but what minimal scout work his own officers had done was totally his own officers had done was totally his own officers had done was totally inadequate.

inadequate. inadequate. Not only did the Romans have no clue how Not only did the Romans have no clue how Not only did the Romans have no clue how to handle things like tides, but at to handle things like tides, but at to handle things like tides, but at every possible landing site, they found every possible landing site, they found every possible landing site, they found themselves met by thousands of British themselves met by thousands of British themselves met by thousands of British warriors lining the cliffs. warriors lining the cliffs. warriors lining the cliffs. Finally, with great difficulty, Caesar Finally, with great difficulty, Caesar Finally, with great difficulty, Caesar was able to land his fleet and establish was able to land his fleet and establish was able to land his fleet and establish a small beach head. a small beach head. a small beach head. But as soon as his ships were anchored, But as soon as his ships were anchored, But as soon as his ships were anchored, a storm swept in, smashing his fleet a storm swept in, smashing his fleet a storm swept in, smashing his fleet against the rocks, the belleaguered against the rocks, the belleaguered against the rocks, the belleaguered Caesar made contact with the local Caesar made contact with the local Caesar made contact with the local tribes and tried to put on a brave face. tribes and tried to put on a brave face. tribes and tried to put on a brave face. But it was obvious to anyone with eyes But it was obvious to anyone with eyes But it was obvious to anyone with eyes that the Romans posed no threat that the Romans posed no threat that the Romans posed no threat whatsoever. The local Britons indulged whatsoever. The local Britons indulged whatsoever. The local Britons indulged Caesar's pompous demands that they send Caesar's pompous demands that they send Caesar's pompous demands that they send hostages to secure the goodwill of Rome hostages to secure the goodwill of Rome hostages to secure the goodwill of Rome and return to their tribes, promising and return to their tribes, promising and return to their tribes, promising that, yeah, they'd get right on that. that, yeah, they'd get right on that. that, yeah, they'd get right on that. Caesar didn't even wait for them not to Caesar didn't even wait for them not to Caesar didn't even wait for them not to comply. Generously agreeing to accept comply. Generously agreeing to accept comply. Generously agreeing to accept the hostages in Gaul rather than forcing the hostages in Gaul rather than forcing the hostages in Gaul rather than forcing the Britain to respond right this very the Britain to respond right this very the Britain to respond right this very second. He patched up his fleet as fast second. He patched up his fleet as fast second. He patched up his fleet as fast as he could and sailed back to Gaul. as he could and sailed back to Gaul. as he could and sailed back to Gaul. Only two British tribes actually sent Only two British tribes actually sent Only two British tribes actually sent their promised hostages.

their promised hostages. their promised hostages. The next spring though, Caesar launched The next spring though, Caesar launched The next spring though, Caesar launched a far better planned invasion. a far better planned invasion. a far better planned invasion. The Romans never did get a handle on the The Romans never did get a handle on the The Romans never did get a handle on the tricky tides of the North Atlantic, but tricky tides of the North Atlantic, but tricky tides of the North Atlantic, but they were able to land without as much they were able to land without as much they were able to land without as much difficulty and establish a proper base. difficulty and establish a proper base. difficulty and establish a proper base. This time, Caesar arrived not with 80 This time, Caesar arrived not with 80 This time, Caesar arrived not with 80 ships, but 800 ships. ships, but 800 ships. ships, but 800 ships. The southern Britain were forced to take The southern Britain were forced to take The southern Britain were forced to take this threat a little more seriously, but this threat a little more seriously, but this threat a little more seriously, but they still proved to be a hard bunch to they still proved to be a hard bunch to they still proved to be a hard bunch to get a handle on. They all willingly get a handle on. They all willingly get a handle on. They all willingly agreed to submit to Rome, but took every agreed to submit to Rome, but took every agreed to submit to Rome, but took every opportunity to undermine the Roman opportunity to undermine the Roman opportunity to undermine the Roman presence and showed little stomach for presence and showed little stomach for presence and showed little stomach for the kind of real actual submission the the kind of real actual submission the the kind of real actual submission the Romans were used to. The Britain seemed Romans were used to. The Britain seemed Romans were used to. The Britain seemed to be treating the Romans as little more to be treating the Romans as little more to be treating the Romans as little more than a temporary nuisance, shining on than a temporary nuisance, shining on than a temporary nuisance, shining on the invaders until they lost interest the invaders until they lost interest the invaders until they lost interest and went home. and went home. and went home. Caesar pressed inland and met with Caesar pressed inland and met with Caesar pressed inland and met with fiercer resistance, but primarily in the fiercer resistance, but primarily in the fiercer resistance, but primarily in the form of guerilla attacks rather than form of guerilla attacks rather than form of guerilla attacks rather than open battle. open battle. open battle. Eventually, as Caesar learned who was Eventually, as Caesar learned who was Eventually, as Caesar learned who was directing the resistance and put their directing the resistance and put their directing the resistance and put their stronghold the siege, failing to land a stronghold the siege, failing to land a stronghold the siege, failing to land a counter punch on the Roman camp and draw counter punch on the Roman camp and draw counter punch on the Roman camp and draw Caesar away, the resistance ended and Caesar away, the resistance ended and Caesar away, the resistance ended and the besieged tribe agreed to recognize a the besieged tribe agreed to recognize a the besieged tribe agreed to recognize a king of Caesar's choosing.

king of Caesar's choosing. king of Caesar's choosing. Anxious to get back to Gaul, Caesar left Anxious to get back to Gaul, Caesar left Anxious to get back to Gaul, Caesar left the islands in the hands of local the islands in the hands of local the islands in the hands of local allies. It would be another hundred allies. It would be another hundred allies. It would be another hundred years before Rome returned to fully years before Rome returned to fully years before Rome returned to fully incorporate Britannia as a province. The incorporate Britannia as a province. The incorporate Britannia as a province. The expedition had resulted in little expedition had resulted in little expedition had resulted in little material gain, but in terms of material gain, but in terms of material gain, but in terms of publicity, the invasion was a huge publicity, the invasion was a huge publicity, the invasion was a huge success for Caesar personally. There was success for Caesar personally. There was success for Caesar personally. There was nothing, it seemed, that the charismatic nothing, it seemed, that the charismatic nothing, it seemed, that the charismatic general could not do. general could not do. general could not do. Caesar returned to Gaul and settled in Caesar returned to Gaul and settled in Caesar returned to Gaul and settled in for a long winter. His heart was heavy for a long winter. His heart was heavy for a long winter. His heart was heavy with grief and his mind was racked by with grief and his mind was racked by with grief and his mind was racked by dread at news he had received while he dread at news he had received while he dread at news he had received while he was in Britain. His daughter Julia had was in Britain. His daughter Julia had was in Britain. His daughter Julia had died in childbirth. The death of his died in childbirth. The death of his died in childbirth. The death of his only child affected the passionate only child affected the passionate only child affected the passionate Caesar mightily, but he further Caesar mightily, but he further Caesar mightily, but he further struggled with the implications this had struggled with the implications this had struggled with the implications this had on his alliance with Pompy. With Cassus on his alliance with Pompy. With Cassus on his alliance with Pompy. With Cassus in Syria, Pompy stood alone as the in Syria, Pompy stood alone as the in Syria, Pompy stood alone as the dominant triumver in Rome and now had dominant triumver in Rome and now had dominant triumver in Rome and now had nothing to bind his interest to Caesars. nothing to bind his interest to Caesars. nothing to bind his interest to Caesars. But the Sullen general did not have long But the Sullen general did not have long But the Sullen general did not have long to dwell on his grief or his political to dwell on his grief or his political to dwell on his grief or his political future.

future. future. In northeast Gaul, a full legion was In northeast Gaul, a full legion was In northeast Gaul, a full legion was tricked out of their winter quarters by tricked out of their winter quarters by tricked out of their winter quarters by supposedly friendly locals, lured into a supposedly friendly locals, lured into a supposedly friendly locals, lured into a trap, and slaughtered to a man. But this trap, and slaughtered to a man. But this trap, and slaughtered to a man. But this was not news that Caesar would learn was not news that Caesar would learn was not news that Caesar would learn until after he got word that another until after he got word that another until after he got word that another camp was under siege by the same group, camp was under siege by the same group, camp was under siege by the same group, whose ranks now swelled with warriors whose ranks now swelled with warriors whose ranks now swelled with warriors from all over the country who wanted from all over the country who wanted from all over the country who wanted nothing more than to kill Romans. nothing more than to kill Romans. nothing more than to kill Romans. The besieged camp was led by one of The besieged camp was led by one of The besieged camp was led by one of Caesar's abbleist commanders, Quintis Caesar's abbleist commanders, Quintis Caesar's abbleist commanders, Quintis Cicero, brother of the great orator. Cicero, brother of the great orator. Cicero, brother of the great orator. Quintis had not fallen for the ruse that Quintis had not fallen for the ruse that Quintis had not fallen for the ruse that had lured out the slaughtered legion had lured out the slaughtered legion had lured out the slaughtered legion from their camp. And despite the from their camp. And despite the from their camp. And despite the satisfaction of seeing through the satisfaction of seeing through the satisfaction of seeing through the trick, he was now surrounded by a rebel trick, he was now surrounded by a rebel trick, he was now surrounded by a rebel GIC army and unable to get word through GIC army and unable to get word through GIC army and unable to get word through the line that he was under attack. the line that he was under attack. the line that he was under attack. Finally, a slave agreed to slip through Finally, a slave agreed to slip through Finally, a slave agreed to slip through and make contact with Caesar in exchange and make contact with Caesar in exchange and make contact with Caesar in exchange for his freedom. for his freedom. for his freedom. Once alerted, Caesar immediately charged Once alerted, Caesar immediately charged Once alerted, Caesar immediately charged out into the winter snows to relieve the out into the winter snows to relieve the out into the winter snows to relieve the besieged legion and arrive just in time. besieged legion and arrive just in time. besieged legion and arrive just in time. The sight of Caesar's army scattered the The sight of Caesar's army scattered the The sight of Caesar's army scattered the rebels and Cicero<unk>'s legion was rebels and Cicero<unk>'s legion was rebels and Cicero<unk>'s legion was saved.

saved. saved. Nearly every soldier trapped inside the Nearly every soldier trapped inside the Nearly every soldier trapped inside the liberated camp had been wounded in some liberated camp had been wounded in some liberated camp had been wounded in some fashion or another. And Caesar praised fashion or another. And Caesar praised fashion or another. And Caesar praised them all to the hilt, handing out awards them all to the hilt, handing out awards them all to the hilt, handing out awards and honors left and right. It was not and honors left and right. It was not and honors left and right. It was not lost on these men, nor on the men who lost on these men, nor on the men who lost on these men, nor on the men who had done the liberating, that Caesar had done the liberating, that Caesar had done the liberating, that Caesar seemed to genuinely care about the seemed to genuinely care about the seemed to genuinely care about the average soldiers under his command. average soldiers under his command. average soldiers under his command. Throughout the campaign, Caesar famously Throughout the campaign, Caesar famously Throughout the campaign, Caesar famously referred to his men not as soldier, but referred to his men not as soldier, but referred to his men not as soldier, but as comrade. as comrade. as comrade. These simple acts of familiarity and These simple acts of familiarity and These simple acts of familiarity and compassion helped breed in his troops compassion helped breed in his troops compassion helped breed in his troops the fanatical loyalty that would prove the fanatical loyalty that would prove the fanatical loyalty that would prove decisive in the coming civil war. These decisive in the coming civil war. These decisive in the coming civil war. These men were never Roman legionaries. They men were never Roman legionaries. They men were never Roman legionaries. They were Caesar's legionaries. were Caesar's legionaries. were Caesar's legionaries. When the spring of 53 BC came, Caesar When the spring of 53 BC came, Caesar When the spring of 53 BC came, Caesar had one thing on his mind, revenge. had one thing on his mind, revenge. had one thing on his mind, revenge. He brought the full weight of his army He brought the full weight of his army He brought the full weight of his army down on northeast Gaul and engaged in a down on northeast Gaul and engaged in a down on northeast Gaul and engaged in a genocidal campaign against the tribes genocidal campaign against the tribes genocidal campaign against the tribes that were behind the assault on that were behind the assault on that were behind the assault on Cicero<unk>'s men. And the Romans had Cicero<unk>'s men. And the Romans had Cicero<unk>'s men. And the Romans had later learned with horror the murder of later learned with horror the murder of later learned with horror the murder of the tricked legion.

the tricked legion. the tricked legion. Without remorse, Caesar slaughtered the Without remorse, Caesar slaughtered the Without remorse, Caesar slaughtered the men and sold the women and children into men and sold the women and children into men and sold the women and children into slavery. slavery. slavery. During this year in the field, Caesar During this year in the field, Caesar During this year in the field, Caesar also built a second bridge across the also built a second bridge across the also built a second bridge across the Rine to halt aid and comfort that was Rine to halt aid and comfort that was Rine to halt aid and comfort that was coming in from Germania. coming in from Germania. coming in from Germania. He hoped to achieve not only a measure He hoped to achieve not only a measure He hoped to achieve not only a measure of revenge but also signal that Gaul was of revenge but also signal that Gaul was of revenge but also signal that Gaul was no longer a free country and that any no longer a free country and that any no longer a free country and that any attack on Rome would be met with the attack on Rome would be met with the attack on Rome would be met with the swiftest and most brutal repercussions. swiftest and most brutal repercussions. swiftest and most brutal repercussions. In this he was not entirely successful In this he was not entirely successful In this he was not entirely successful as the brutality of 53 BC proved to as the brutality of 53 BC proved to as the brutality of 53 BC proved to those Gauls who still had fight in them those Gauls who still had fight in them those Gauls who still had fight in them that they had better do something now or that they had better do something now or that they had better do something now or they would all wind up like their they would all wind up like their they would all wind up like their annihilated cousins in the north. annihilated cousins in the north. annihilated cousins in the north. But in a larger sense, the campaign was But in a larger sense, the campaign was But in a larger sense, the campaign was effective. It galvanized the last of the effective. It galvanized the last of the effective. It galvanized the last of the independent-minded Gauls. And when independent-minded Gauls. And when independent-minded Gauls. And when Caesar defeated them the following Caesar defeated them the following Caesar defeated them the following summer, all formal resistance was wiped summer, all formal resistance was wiped summer, all formal resistance was wiped out with them. out with them. out with them. But on the cusp of this great victory, But on the cusp of this great victory, But on the cusp of this great victory, Caesar's political fortunes in Rome were Caesar's political fortunes in Rome were Caesar's political fortunes in Rome were quickly spinning out of control.

quickly spinning out of control. quickly spinning out of control. He had offered his grand niece Octavia, He had offered his grand niece Octavia, He had offered his grand niece Octavia, the sister of the future Caesar the sister of the future Caesar the sister of the future Caesar Augustus, to Pompian marriage in an Augustus, to Pompian marriage in an Augustus, to Pompian marriage in an attempt to resecure their alliance. But attempt to resecure their alliance. But attempt to resecure their alliance. But Pompy spurned the offer and instead Pompy spurned the offer and instead Pompy spurned the offer and instead agreed to wed the daughter of one of agreed to wed the daughter of one of agreed to wed the daughter of one of Caesar's most hated enemies, a man named Caesar's most hated enemies, a man named Caesar's most hated enemies, a man named Quintis Matelis Scipio. This was not a Quintis Matelis Scipio. This was not a Quintis Matelis Scipio. This was not a good sign. On top of that, Marcus good sign. On top of that, Marcus good sign. On top of that, Marcus Cassus, long Caesar's benefactor, died Cassus, long Caesar's benefactor, died Cassus, long Caesar's benefactor, died fighting in a disastrous campaign in the fighting in a disastrous campaign in the fighting in a disastrous campaign in the east. The triumvirate was literally and east. The triumvirate was literally and east. The triumvirate was literally and figuratively dead. figuratively dead. figuratively dead. But there was no time to worry about But there was no time to worry about But there was no time to worry about domestic political concerns. In 52 BC, domestic political concerns. In 52 BC, domestic political concerns. In 52 BC, the last great battle of the GIC wars the last great battle of the GIC wars the last great battle of the GIC wars was set to be fought. was set to be fought. was set to be fought. Since he had arrived in Gaul 5 years Since he had arrived in Gaul 5 years Since he had arrived in Gaul 5 years earlier, Caesar had effectively used earlier, Caesar had effectively used earlier, Caesar had effectively used GAIC tribal rivalries to his advantage GAIC tribal rivalries to his advantage GAIC tribal rivalries to his advantage and avoided ever facing a united front. and avoided ever facing a united front. and avoided ever facing a united front. Now though, with the news finally Now though, with the news finally Now though, with the news finally closing around their necks, the Gauls closing around their necks, the Gauls closing around their necks, the Gauls joined forces under the banner of joined forces under the banner of joined forces under the banner of Versened, a ga king who would lead the Versened, a ga king who would lead the Versened, a ga king who would lead the last stand for his country's last stand for his country's last stand for his country's independence. I hope I'm not giving away independence. I hope I'm not giving away independence. I hope I'm not giving away the ending when I say that vers Jedi the ending when I say that vers Jedi the ending when I say that vers Jedi would meet his end after being paraded would meet his end after being paraded would meet his end after being paraded through Rome and chains during Caesar's through Rome and chains during Caesar's through Rome and chains during Caesar's triumph. Cause of death: unceremonious triumph. Cause of death: unceremonious triumph. Cause of death: unceremonious strangulation in a Roman jail cell.

strangulation in a Roman jail cell. strangulation in a Roman jail cell. Prior to this ignoble end, however, he Prior to this ignoble end, however, he Prior to this ignoble end, however, he was the last best hope of the Gauls and was the last best hope of the Gauls and was the last best hope of the Gauls and would cause as much grief to Caesar in would cause as much grief to Caesar in would cause as much grief to Caesar in one summer as the Roman general had one summer as the Roman general had one summer as the Roman general had experienced during his entire occupation experienced during his entire occupation experienced during his entire occupation of the country. of the country. of the country. In the dead of winter, the GIC king In the dead of winter, the GIC king In the dead of winter, the GIC king launched his rebellion by embarking on a launched his rebellion by embarking on a launched his rebellion by embarking on a scorched earth campaign. The Romans had scorched earth campaign. The Romans had scorched earth campaign. The Romans had been living off the land since their been living off the land since their been living off the land since their arrival, allowing them greater mobility arrival, allowing them greater mobility arrival, allowing them greater mobility and freedom from worries about and freedom from worries about and freedom from worries about protecting a supply line. Now Bruce and protecting a supply line. Now Bruce and protecting a supply line. Now Bruce and Jeder put as many towns and graineries Jeder put as many towns and graineries Jeder put as many towns and graineries as possible to the torch. It was cruel as possible to the torch. It was cruel as possible to the torch. It was cruel and punished his own people as much as and punished his own people as much as and punished his own people as much as it punished the Romans, but this was a it punished the Romans, but this was a it punished the Romans, but this was a time for desperate measures. time for desperate measures. time for desperate measures. He was persuaded, however, to spare of He was persuaded, however, to spare of He was persuaded, however, to spare of Arkham, the greatest city in southern Arkham, the greatest city in southern Arkham, the greatest city in southern Gaul, a decision he was uncomfortable Gaul, a decision he was uncomfortable Gaul, a decision he was uncomfortable with and would soon regret. with and would soon regret. with and would soon regret. Caesar gathered his scattered legions Caesar gathered his scattered legions Caesar gathered his scattered legions and headed straight for the great city. and headed straight for the great city. and headed straight for the great city. Despite asurances from the gic nobility Despite asurances from the gic nobility Despite asurances from the gic nobility that Avarakum was impregnable, versed that Avarakum was impregnable, versed that Avarakum was impregnable, versed was forced to watch helplessly as the was forced to watch helplessly as the was forced to watch helplessly as the city fell after a brutal 30-day siege.

city fell after a brutal 30-day siege. city fell after a brutal 30-day siege. Caesar's starving soldiers killed Caesar's starving soldiers killed Caesar's starving soldiers killed everyone in the city. Most importantly, everyone in the city. Most importantly, everyone in the city. Most importantly, they had secured enough food to see them they had secured enough food to see them they had secured enough food to see them through the next few weeks. through the next few weeks. through the next few weeks. The Gauls retreated, and as soon as he The Gauls retreated, and as soon as he The Gauls retreated, and as soon as he resupplied his army, Caesar followed. A resupplied his army, Caesar followed. A resupplied his army, Caesar followed. A series of faints and counter faints series of faints and counter faints series of faints and counter faints finally saw the Romans chase the Gauls finally saw the Romans chase the Gauls finally saw the Romans chase the Gauls behind the walls of Jacovia. behind the walls of Jacovia. behind the walls of Jacovia. This time, however, overzealous Roman This time, however, overzealous Roman This time, however, overzealous Roman soldiers attacked too early despite soldiers attacked too early despite soldiers attacked too early despite Caesar's order to restrain themselves Caesar's order to restrain themselves Caesar's order to restrain themselves and blew the one chance they had to take and blew the one chance they had to take and blew the one chance they had to take the city. the city. the city. Forced to retreat after sustaining Forced to retreat after sustaining Forced to retreat after sustaining serious casualties, the Romans had more serious casualties, the Romans had more serious casualties, the Romans had more to worry about than simply licking their to worry about than simply licking their to worry about than simply licking their wounds. The defeat at Dragovia had wounds. The defeat at Dragovia had wounds. The defeat at Dragovia had broken the aura of invincibility broken the aura of invincibility broken the aura of invincibility surrounding Caesar, and the tribes surrounding Caesar, and the tribes surrounding Caesar, and the tribes across the country, including some of across the country, including some of across the country, including some of the most steadfast Roman supporters, the most steadfast Roman supporters, the most steadfast Roman supporters, flocked to Versen Jeder's banner. Caesar flocked to Versen Jeder's banner. Caesar flocked to Versen Jeder's banner. Caesar was facing the fight of his life. The was facing the fight of his life. The was facing the fight of his life. The whole country was now in revolt and if whole country was now in revolt and if whole country was now in revolt and if he was forced to retreat to Roman he was forced to retreat to Roman he was forced to retreat to Roman territory, he was sure to be stripped of territory, he was sure to be stripped of territory, he was sure to be stripped of his command by enemies in the Senate. So his command by enemies in the Senate. So his command by enemies in the Senate. So rather than fall back to the south, rather than fall back to the south, rather than fall back to the south, Caesar ordered his shock troops to move Caesar ordered his shock troops to move Caesar ordered his shock troops to move north.

north. north. At this desperate hour, Caesar caught At this desperate hour, Caesar caught At this desperate hour, Caesar caught one of his many lucky breaks. Engaging one of his many lucky breaks. Engaging one of his many lucky breaks. Engaging in a brief battle, little more than a in a brief battle, little more than a in a brief battle, little more than a skirmish, the Romans got the better of skirmish, the Romans got the better of skirmish, the Romans got the better of an attacking GIC force. The defeat an attacking GIC force. The defeat an attacking GIC force. The defeat spooked Versened and rather than staying spooked Versened and rather than staying spooked Versened and rather than staying on the offensive, he ordered his army of on the offensive, he ordered his army of on the offensive, he ordered his army of 80,000 to retreat to the walled city of 80,000 to retreat to the walled city of 80,000 to retreat to the walled city of Alisia. Alisia. Alisia. Caesar saw his fortune change at once. Caesar saw his fortune change at once. Caesar saw his fortune change at once. Alicia was a hill fort located between Alicia was a hill fort located between Alicia was a hill fort located between two rivers, and though it would be two rivers, and though it would be two rivers, and though it would be nearly impossible to storm, it was also nearly impossible to storm, it was also nearly impossible to storm, it was also nearly impossible to keep it resupplied. nearly impossible to keep it resupplied. nearly impossible to keep it resupplied. All he had to do was ring the city and All he had to do was ring the city and All he had to do was ring the city and prevent any relief from getting through. prevent any relief from getting through. prevent any relief from getting through. After that, it was just a matter of After that, it was just a matter of After that, it was just a matter of waiting for those trapped inside to waiting for those trapped inside to waiting for those trapped inside to surrender. surrender. surrender. So Caesar ordered a wall built around So Caesar ordered a wall built around So Caesar ordered a wall built around the entire city. The Gauls inside the entire city. The Gauls inside the entire city. The Gauls inside launched attacks to try and halt the launched attacks to try and halt the launched attacks to try and halt the construction, but the Romans fought them construction, but the Romans fought them construction, but the Romans fought them off and kept building. off and kept building. off and kept building. Soon the city was encircled, and the Soon the city was encircled, and the Soon the city was encircled, and the waiting game began. waiting game began. waiting game began. But then word came of a new wrinkle. A But then word came of a new wrinkle. A But then word came of a new wrinkle. A relief army, estimated at some 60,000, relief army, estimated at some 60,000, relief army, estimated at some 60,000, was on its way. Caesar thinking fast and was on its way. Caesar thinking fast and was on its way. Caesar thinking fast and unwilling to lose his opportunity to unwilling to lose his opportunity to unwilling to lose his opportunity to force first in Jeder's surrender ordered force first in Jeder's surrender ordered force first in Jeder's surrender ordered a second wall be built. This one facing a second wall be built. This one facing a second wall be built. This one facing out towards the oncoming army. Once this out towards the oncoming army. Once this out towards the oncoming army. Once this wall was completed, the Roman army's wall was completed, the Roman army's wall was completed, the Roman army's whole world collapsed to the few hundred whole world collapsed to the few hundred whole world collapsed to the few hundred yards between the two walls. The game yards between the two walls. The game yards between the two walls. The game now boiled down to who would relent now boiled down to who would relent now boiled down to who would relent first. The Romans were not well stocked, first. The Romans were not well stocked, first. The Romans were not well stocked, but those trapped in Alisia were already

but those trapped in Alisia were already but those trapped in Alisia were already starving to death. starving to death. starving to death. The commander of the newly arrived GAIC The commander of the newly arrived GAIC The commander of the newly arrived GAIC army knew Versen Jederics would not be army knew Versen Jederics would not be army knew Versen Jederics would not be able to hold out much longer. So he able to hold out much longer. So he able to hold out much longer. So he launched a full-scale attack at a weak launched a full-scale attack at a weak launched a full-scale attack at a weak point in the outer wall. The legion's point in the outer wall. The legion's point in the outer wall. The legion's mass to repel the assault, but slowly mass to repel the assault, but slowly mass to repel the assault, but slowly began to lose ground. Fearing that the began to lose ground. Fearing that the began to lose ground. Fearing that the day and the whole campaign might be day and the whole campaign might be day and the whole campaign might be slipping away, Caesar personally led his slipping away, Caesar personally led his slipping away, Caesar personally led his cavalry out from behind the walls and cavalry out from behind the walls and cavalry out from behind the walls and circled around behind the Gauls. circled around behind the Gauls. circled around behind the Gauls. Suddenly surrounded the Gauls panic and Suddenly surrounded the Gauls panic and Suddenly surrounded the Gauls panic and broke apart in disarray. Inside Alisia, broke apart in disarray. Inside Alisia, broke apart in disarray. Inside Alisia, Versen Jeder watched with resignation as Versen Jeder watched with resignation as Versen Jeder watched with resignation as his rebellion came to an end. There was his rebellion came to an end. There was his rebellion came to an end. There was no hope of lifting the siege now. The no hope of lifting the siege now. The no hope of lifting the siege now. The next day, the GI king rode out of the next day, the GI king rode out of the next day, the GI king rode out of the city on his horse and surrendered to city on his horse and surrendered to city on his horse and surrendered to Caesar, hoping to spare as many of his Caesar, hoping to spare as many of his Caesar, hoping to spare as many of his people as possible from future people as possible from future people as possible from future reprisals. reprisals. reprisals. The siege of Alicia, which ended in The siege of Alicia, which ended in The siege of Alicia, which ended in October of 52 BC, marked the end of October of 52 BC, marked the end of October of 52 BC, marked the end of organized resistance to Roman rule in organized resistance to Roman rule in organized resistance to Roman rule in Gaul. Caesar had achieved everything he Gaul. Caesar had achieved everything he Gaul. Caesar had achieved everything he had set out to do, conquering vast new had set out to do, conquering vast new had set out to do, conquering vast new territories for Rome, exploring lands territories for Rome, exploring lands territories for Rome, exploring lands here to far unknown, and making himself here to far unknown, and making himself here to far unknown, and making himself an incredibly wealthy and famous man. He an incredibly wealthy and famous man. He an incredibly wealthy and famous man. He hoped that his victories would earn him hoped that his victories would earn him hoped that his victories would earn him safe passage back to Rome and freedom safe passage back to Rome and freedom safe passage back to Rome and freedom from prosecution once he arrived there.

from prosecution once he arrived there. from prosecution once he arrived there. But I think we all know that this was But I think we all know that this was But I think we all know that this was never meant to be. Next week we will bring the rest of the Next week we will bring the rest of the players in this greatest of Roman dramas players in this greatest of Roman dramas players in this greatest of Roman dramas up to that fateful year of 49 BC. While up to that fateful year of 49 BC. While up to that fateful year of 49 BC. While Caesar was in Gaul, Crass had started a Caesar was in Gaul, Crass had started a Caesar was in Gaul, Crass had started a war with and then been destroyed by the war with and then been destroyed by the war with and then been destroyed by the Parththeians. Pompy had slowly moved Parththeians. Pompy had slowly moved Parththeians. Pompy had slowly moved into the senatorial camp after his into the senatorial camp after his into the senatorial camp after his consil ship ended. Cicero had been consil ship ended. Cicero had been consil ship ended. Cicero had been banished and then unbanished from the banished and then unbanished from the banished and then unbanished from the city while Ko had been forced to take an city while Ko had been forced to take an city while Ko had been forced to take an unwanted command in Cyprus by Claius unwanted command in Cyprus by Claius unwanted command in Cyprus by Claius whose free grain program excited the whose free grain program excited the whose free grain program excited the masses, distress the Senate, and masses, distress the Senate, and masses, distress the Senate, and eventually led to the populist eventually led to the populist eventually led to the populist Hellraisers murder. A murder that would Hellraisers murder. A murder that would Hellraisers murder. A murder that would spark riots as rival gangs took to the spark riots as rival gangs took to the spark riots as rival gangs took to the streets to battle one another for streets to battle one another for streets to battle one another for control of the city. Rome was quickly control of the city. Rome was quickly control of the city. Rome was quickly descending into violent anarchy. And descending into violent anarchy. And descending into violent anarchy. And when the great general Caesar finally when the great general Caesar finally when the great general Caesar finally arrived and put the city under his arrived and put the city under his arrived and put the city under his thumb, many welcomed him, not with fear, thumb, many welcomed him, not with fear, thumb, many welcomed him, not with fear, but with relief, never realizing that but with relief, never realizing that but with relief, never realizing that the stability Caesar promised came at the stability Caesar promised came at the stability Caesar promised came at the price of their freedom.

the price of their freedom. the price of their freedom. [Music] [Music] [Music] Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Rome. Episode 42. Meanwhile, back in Rome. Episode 42. Meanwhile, back in Rome. Episode 42. Meanwhile, back in Rome. Rome. Rome. After completing his conquest of Gaul, After completing his conquest of Gaul, After completing his conquest of Gaul, Julius Caesar entered into a sort of Julius Caesar entered into a sort of Julius Caesar entered into a sort of holding pattern. The Senate refused to holding pattern. The Senate refused to holding pattern. The Senate refused to let him return to Rome until he let him return to Rome until he let him return to Rome until he disbanded his army. But Caesar refused disbanded his army. But Caesar refused disbanded his army. But Caesar refused to return unless he was allowed to keep to return unless he was allowed to keep to return unless he was allowed to keep his army. It was a critical moment not his army. It was a critical moment not his army. It was a critical moment not just for Caesar but for the fate of the just for Caesar but for the fate of the just for Caesar but for the fate of the whole Roman world. We all know what whole Roman world. We all know what whole Roman world. We all know what happened or we will shortly. But before happened or we will shortly. But before happened or we will shortly. But before we get into that tense showdown, I want we get into that tense showdown, I want we get into that tense showdown, I want to wind the clock back a few years. to wind the clock back a few years. to wind the clock back a few years. Though the war in Gaul is unquestionably Though the war in Gaul is unquestionably Though the war in Gaul is unquestionably the most famous thing to have occurred the most famous thing to have occurred the most famous thing to have occurred in the decade, the rest of Rome did not in the decade, the rest of Rome did not in the decade, the rest of Rome did not simply stop what they were doing and simply stop what they were doing and simply stop what they were doing and wait for another dispatch from mighty wait for another dispatch from mighty wait for another dispatch from mighty Caesar. Indeed, it would be difficult to Caesar. Indeed, it would be difficult to Caesar. Indeed, it would be difficult to understand why Caesar felt he was forced understand why Caesar felt he was forced understand why Caesar felt he was forced to cross the Rubicon without to cross the Rubicon without to cross the Rubicon without understanding what had happened in his understanding what had happened in his understanding what had happened in his absence. It was a decade that saw the absence. It was a decade that saw the absence. It was a decade that saw the death of Cassus after one of Rome's death of Cassus after one of Rome's death of Cassus after one of Rome's greatest military defeats, the breaking greatest military defeats, the breaking greatest military defeats, the breaking of the triumvirate and increasing civil of the triumvirate and increasing civil of the triumvirate and increasing civil unrest in the city. As both the populist unrest in the city. As both the populist unrest in the city. As both the populist tribunes and the conservative Senate tribunes and the conservative Senate tribunes and the conservative Senate grew more inflexible and radicalized, grew more inflexible and radicalized, grew more inflexible and radicalized, Rome and Caesar were on a collision Rome and Caesar were on a collision Rome and Caesar were on a collision course that would destroy the course that would destroy the course that would destroy the 500-year-old republic.

500-year-old republic. 500-year-old republic. You may recall that near the end of his You may recall that near the end of his You may recall that near the end of his consil ship in 59 BC, Caesar sponsored consil ship in 59 BC, Caesar sponsored consil ship in 59 BC, Caesar sponsored the adoption of a one Mr. Claius pulture the adoption of a one Mr. Claius pulture the adoption of a one Mr. Claius pulture by a plebeian, allowing the flamboyant by a plebeian, allowing the flamboyant by a plebeian, allowing the flamboyant demagogue to abandon his patrician demagogue to abandon his patrician demagogue to abandon his patrician status and run for tribune. status and run for tribune. status and run for tribune. This was in retaliation for the sharp This was in retaliation for the sharp This was in retaliation for the sharp attack Cicero had publicly leveled attack Cicero had publicly leveled attack Cicero had publicly leveled against Caesar as Claius was one of the against Caesar as Claius was one of the against Caesar as Claius was one of the great orators most bitter enemies. great orators most bitter enemies. great orators most bitter enemies. The whole adoption was completely The whole adoption was completely The whole adoption was completely illegal for a laundry list of reasons. illegal for a laundry list of reasons. illegal for a laundry list of reasons. But you may have noticed that the rule But you may have noticed that the rule But you may have noticed that the rule of law did not count for much in Rome of law did not count for much in Rome of law did not count for much in Rome these days. Once Claius was in a these days. Once Claius was in a these days. Once Claius was in a position of authority, the deal was that position of authority, the deal was that position of authority, the deal was that he would go after Cicero Fulbore and he would go after Cicero Fulbore and he would go after Cicero Fulbore and make him realize that messing with make him realize that messing with make him realize that messing with Caesar was very bad for his health. But Caesar was very bad for his health. But Caesar was very bad for his health. But of course, once he was off his leash, of course, once he was off his leash, of course, once he was off his leash, there was little stopping Claius from there was little stopping Claius from there was little stopping Claius from making everyone realize that messing making everyone realize that messing making everyone realize that messing with Claius was bad for everyone's with Claius was bad for everyone's with Claius was bad for everyone's health. health. health. Immediately upon attaining the Immediately upon attaining the Immediately upon attaining the tribunate, Claius passed a law making tribunate, Claius passed a law making tribunate, Claius passed a law making exile the punishment for killing a Roman exile the punishment for killing a Roman exile the punishment for killing a Roman citizen without trial. There was citizen without trial. There was citizen without trial. There was absolutely no doubt who the intended absolutely no doubt who the intended absolutely no doubt who the intended target of the law was, as this was target of the law was, as this was target of the law was, as this was exactly what Cicero had done when exactly what Cicero had done when exactly what Cicero had done when putting down the Cataline conspiracy.

putting down the Cataline conspiracy. putting down the Cataline conspiracy. Once the law was passed, Claius and the Once the law was passed, Claius and the Once the law was passed, Claius and the growing gang of thugs whom he surrounded growing gang of thugs whom he surrounded growing gang of thugs whom he surrounded himself with drumed up popular support himself with drumed up popular support himself with drumed up popular support for the banishment of Cicero from Rome. for the banishment of Cicero from Rome. for the banishment of Cicero from Rome. At first, Cicero could scarcely believe At first, Cicero could scarcely believe At first, Cicero could scarcely believe that the gambit would work and turn to that the gambit would work and turn to that the gambit would work and turn to his friends in the Senate for support his friends in the Senate for support his friends in the Senate for support and specifically to Pompy to put a stop and specifically to Pompy to put a stop and specifically to Pompy to put a stop to the craziness. to the craziness. to the craziness. But the word had gone out that the But the word had gone out that the But the word had gone out that the triumvirant supported Claius's vendetta triumvirant supported Claius's vendetta triumvirant supported Claius's vendetta against Cicero. Though neither Caesar against Cicero. Though neither Caesar against Cicero. Though neither Caesar nor Pompy necessarily supported nor Pompy necessarily supported nor Pompy necessarily supported banishing Cicero, they felt compelled to banishing Cicero, they felt compelled to banishing Cicero, they felt compelled to follow through on what they had set in follow through on what they had set in follow through on what they had set in motion. motion. motion. When Pompy refused to speak on Cicero's When Pompy refused to speak on Cicero's When Pompy refused to speak on Cicero's behalf, the craziness became reality. behalf, the craziness became reality. behalf, the craziness became reality. In 58 BC, no doubt still reeling in In 58 BC, no doubt still reeling in In 58 BC, no doubt still reeling in disbelief, Cicero packed up and sailed disbelief, Cicero packed up and sailed disbelief, Cicero packed up and sailed for Macedonia, unsure if he would ever for Macedonia, unsure if he would ever for Macedonia, unsure if he would ever see Rome again. It was, by his own see Rome again. It was, by his own see Rome again. It was, by his own admission, the lowest moment of his admission, the lowest moment of his admission, the lowest moment of his life, and he confessed that during his life, and he confessed that during his life, and he confessed that during his exile, suicide crossed his mind on more exile, suicide crossed his mind on more exile, suicide crossed his mind on more than one occasion.

than one occasion. than one occasion. With Cicero out of the way, Claius next With Cicero out of the way, Claius next With Cicero out of the way, Claius next set his sights on Ko. The triumphvirant set his sights on Ko. The triumphvirant set his sights on Ko. The triumphvirant had far fewer misgivings about getting had far fewer misgivings about getting had far fewer misgivings about getting rid of the moralizing tea totler and rid of the moralizing tea totler and rid of the moralizing tea totler and embraced Claius's scheme to remove the embraced Claius's scheme to remove the embraced Claius's scheme to remove the powerful senator from Rome. powerful senator from Rome. powerful senator from Rome. Claius, who obviously saw politics Claius, who obviously saw politics Claius, who obviously saw politics through a highly personal lens, hatched through a highly personal lens, hatched through a highly personal lens, hatched a plot to take care of two enemies at a plot to take care of two enemies at a plot to take care of two enemies at once. once. once. When he was a young man, Claius, like When he was a young man, Claius, like When he was a young man, Claius, like Caesar, had been taken hostage by Caesar, had been taken hostage by Caesar, had been taken hostage by Seissian pirates. The young patrician Seissian pirates. The young patrician Seissian pirates. The young patrician had demanded that the king of nearby had demanded that the king of nearby had demanded that the king of nearby Cyprus pay the ransom. But the king had Cyprus pay the ransom. But the king had Cyprus pay the ransom. But the king had refused to come to the aid of this refused to come to the aid of this refused to come to the aid of this demanding young nobody, earning the demanding young nobody, earning the demanding young nobody, earning the lifelong enmity of Claius, who now lifelong enmity of Claius, who now lifelong enmity of Claius, who now suddenly was somebody. suddenly was somebody. suddenly was somebody. So now, after years of nursing a grudge, So now, after years of nursing a grudge, So now, after years of nursing a grudge, Claius had his revenge. Claius had his revenge. Claius had his revenge. He passed a law stripping Cyprus of its He passed a law stripping Cyprus of its He passed a law stripping Cyprus of its client kingdom status and annexing it client kingdom status and annexing it client kingdom status and annexing it officially into the empire. He then officially into the empire. He then officially into the empire. He then nominated Kato as the perfect candidate nominated Kato as the perfect candidate nominated Kato as the perfect candidate to govern the new territory, what with to govern the new territory, what with to govern the new territory, what with his well-known administrative skills and his well-known administrative skills and his well-known administrative skills and reputation for honesty, etc., etc. Ko reputation for honesty, etc., etc. Ko reputation for honesty, etc., etc. Ko was flumxed. He couldn't say no to the was flumxed. He couldn't say no to the was flumxed. He couldn't say no to the appointment, but did not want to leave appointment, but did not want to leave appointment, but did not want to leave the city at this critical hour. It was the city at this critical hour. It was the city at this critical hour. It was clear that Rome was being taken over by clear that Rome was being taken over by clear that Rome was being taken over by lawless thugs who would destroy all that lawless thugs who would destroy all that lawless thugs who would destroy all that was good and pure about Rome if they was good and pure about Rome if they was good and pure about Rome if they were not checked. But like Cicero before were not checked. But like Cicero before were not checked. But like Cicero before him, he could find no one who would help him, he could find no one who would help him, he could find no one who would help him avoid this deacto banishment. So Ko him avoid this deacto banishment. So Ko him avoid this deacto banishment. So Ko left Rome. The king of Cyprus was left Rome. The king of Cyprus was left Rome. The king of Cyprus was deposed, and Claius patted himself on deposed, and Claius patted himself on deposed, and Claius patted himself on the back. This was almost too easy.

the back. This was almost too easy. the back. This was almost too easy. For his next trick, Claius introduced For his next trick, Claius introduced For his next trick, Claius introduced Rome to something that at the time was Rome to something that at the time was Rome to something that at the time was highly controversial, hence the need to highly controversial, hence the need to highly controversial, hence the need to get rid of Ko and Cicero, but would soon get rid of Ko and Cicero, but would soon get rid of Ko and Cicero, but would soon become an undislogical cornerstone of become an undislogical cornerstone of become an undislogical cornerstone of public policy, the free grain doll. public policy, the free grain doll. public policy, the free grain doll. The overpopulation and underemployment The overpopulation and underemployment The overpopulation and underemployment in the city was a source of constant in the city was a source of constant in the city was a source of constant worry and tension for middle and upper worry and tension for middle and upper worry and tension for middle and upper class Romans. class Romans. class Romans. With more than a million people now With more than a million people now With more than a million people now crammed on top of one another, everyone crammed on top of one another, everyone crammed on top of one another, everyone was aware that if these people were not was aware that if these people were not was aware that if these people were not fed, the richest, most powerful city of fed, the richest, most powerful city of fed, the richest, most powerful city of the ancient world would likely be the ancient world would likely be the ancient world would likely be consumed by its own hungry citizens. consumed by its own hungry citizens. consumed by its own hungry citizens. To this end, it had been policy since To this end, it had been policy since To this end, it had been policy since the days of the Graei to sell grain at a the days of the Graei to sell grain at a the days of the Graei to sell grain at a heavily subsidized price. But Claius heavily subsidized price. But Claius heavily subsidized price. But Claius decided to take it one step further. decided to take it one step further. decided to take it one step further. He pointed out to the teeming masses He pointed out to the teeming masses He pointed out to the teeming masses that they all lived in well the richest that they all lived in well the richest that they all lived in well the richest most powerful city in the world. And it most powerful city in the world. And it most powerful city in the world. And it was a gross injustice that the nobles was a gross injustice that the nobles was a gross injustice that the nobles lived such splendid lives, enjoying all lived such splendid lives, enjoying all lived such splendid lives, enjoying all the luxuries that empire afforded while the luxuries that empire afforded while the luxuries that empire afforded while they lived in such squalor, barely able they lived in such squalor, barely able they lived in such squalor, barely able to feed themselves. Veterans who had to feed themselves. Veterans who had to feed themselves. Veterans who had fought to win the empire that now fought to win the empire that now fought to win the empire that now sustained the rich deserved better.

sustained the rich deserved better. sustained the rich deserved better. Farmers who had been displaced by slaves Farmers who had been displaced by slaves Farmers who had been displaced by slaves so the rich could make more money so the rich could make more money so the rich could make more money deserved better. Urban citizens who had deserved better. Urban citizens who had deserved better. Urban citizens who had seen their standard of living seen their standard of living seen their standard of living deteriorate because of the influx into deteriorate because of the influx into deteriorate because of the influx into the city of the former two groups the city of the former two groups the city of the former two groups deserved better. They all deserved deserved better. They all deserved deserved better. They all deserved better. better. better. The mobs were eager to buy what Claius The mobs were eager to buy what Claius The mobs were eager to buy what Claius was selling because Claius wasn't was selling because Claius wasn't was selling because Claius wasn't planning to sell them anything. He was planning to sell them anything. He was planning to sell them anything. He was planning to give them stuff for free. planning to give them stuff for free. planning to give them stuff for free. And nothing says popular like free And nothing says popular like free And nothing says popular like free stuff. So Claius was able to push stuff. So Claius was able to push stuff. So Claius was able to push through his free grain aotments which through his free grain aotments which through his free grain aotments which ultimately served some 200,000 poor ultimately served some 200,000 poor ultimately served some 200,000 poor citizens of Rome. citizens of Rome. citizens of Rome. Augustus would consider repealing the Augustus would consider repealing the Augustus would consider repealing the gradle during his reign, but ultimately gradle during his reign, but ultimately gradle during his reign, but ultimately decided against it. Once given, it is decided against it. Once given, it is decided against it. Once given, it is hard to take away, and it simply wasn't hard to take away, and it simply wasn't hard to take away, and it simply wasn't worth the price of feeding the masses to worth the price of feeding the masses to worth the price of feeding the masses to risk revolution. Free grain was here to risk revolution. Free grain was here to risk revolution. Free grain was here to stay. stay. stay. But despite his efforts to neutralize But despite his efforts to neutralize But despite his efforts to neutralize his enemies, Claius was not operating in his enemies, Claius was not operating in his enemies, Claius was not operating in a political vacuum. In 57 BC, after just a political vacuum. In 57 BC, after just a political vacuum. In 57 BC, after just a single year in exile, good thing he a single year in exile, good thing he a single year in exile, good thing he didn't kill himself, a movement began to didn't kill himself, a movement began to didn't kill himself, a movement began to have Cicero recall to Rome. The faction have Cicero recall to Rome. The faction have Cicero recall to Rome. The faction was led by Titus Anas Milo, a Pablan was led by Titus Anas Milo, a Pablan was led by Titus Anas Milo, a Pablan agitator who had previously worked in agitator who had previously worked in agitator who had previously worked in support of Pompy, but who now aligned support of Pompy, but who now aligned support of Pompy, but who now aligned himself with the conservative Senate himself with the conservative Senate himself with the conservative Senate against the triumvirate.

against the triumvirate. against the triumvirate. Milo was further personal friends with Milo was further personal friends with Milo was further personal friends with Cicero. Cicero. Cicero. He was elected tribune alongside Claius He was elected tribune alongside Claius He was elected tribune alongside Claius in 57 BC and made it a priority to bring in 57 BC and made it a priority to bring in 57 BC and made it a priority to bring his friend home. his friend home. his friend home. The rivalry between Claius and Milo The rivalry between Claius and Milo The rivalry between Claius and Milo would define Roman street politics for would define Roman street politics for would define Roman street politics for the next few years. Both controlled the next few years. Both controlled the next few years. Both controlled gangs of former soldiers and gladiators gangs of former soldiers and gladiators gangs of former soldiers and gladiators who could be mobilized at a moment's who could be mobilized at a moment's who could be mobilized at a moment's notice to support this or that proposal. notice to support this or that proposal. notice to support this or that proposal. Violent clashes and small-cale riots Violent clashes and small-cale riots Violent clashes and small-cale riots became a frequent feature of Roman life. became a frequent feature of Roman life. became a frequent feature of Roman life. As the heads of these rival gangs fought As the heads of these rival gangs fought As the heads of these rival gangs fought physically, or once words had been the physically, or once words had been the physically, or once words had been the weapon of choice, weapon of choice, weapon of choice, the degeneration of discourse from the degeneration of discourse from the degeneration of discourse from verbal sparring to literal sparring, verbal sparring to literal sparring, verbal sparring to literal sparring, would be the catalyst for Pompy's would be the catalyst for Pompy's would be the catalyst for Pompy's elevation to a near dictatorship, which elevation to a near dictatorship, which elevation to a near dictatorship, which we will get to in a moment. we will get to in a moment. we will get to in a moment. Milo, despite Claius's attempts to Milo, despite Claius's attempts to Milo, despite Claius's attempts to physically halt the proceedings, managed physically halt the proceedings, managed physically halt the proceedings, managed to lift the judgment on Cicero. And in to lift the judgment on Cicero. And in to lift the judgment on Cicero. And in the summer of 57 BC, the senator was the summer of 57 BC, the senator was the summer of 57 BC, the senator was welcomed back to Italy by an adoring welcomed back to Italy by an adoring welcomed back to Italy by an adoring crowd, much to his happy surprise.

crowd, much to his happy surprise. crowd, much to his happy surprise. But his return to Rome was bittersweet. But his return to Rome was bittersweet. But his return to Rome was bittersweet. In his absence, Claius had confiscated In his absence, Claius had confiscated In his absence, Claius had confiscated Cicero<unk>'s estates both in the Cicero<unk>'s estates both in the Cicero<unk>'s estates both in the country and on the Palatine Hill, and country and on the Palatine Hill, and country and on the Palatine Hill, and had them demolished. While Cicero had them demolished. While Cicero had them demolished. While Cicero returned from Greece, Milo had directed returned from Greece, Milo had directed returned from Greece, Milo had directed workers to begin rebuilding his friend's workers to begin rebuilding his friend's workers to begin rebuilding his friend's home. and the construction site became home. and the construction site became home. and the construction site became the scene of multiple violent clashes as the scene of multiple violent clashes as the scene of multiple violent clashes as Claius sent in his thugs to disrupt the Claius sent in his thugs to disrupt the Claius sent in his thugs to disrupt the effort. effort. effort. Eventually, the running battles between Eventually, the running battles between Eventually, the running battles between Claius and Milo would turn deadly and Claius and Milo would turn deadly and Claius and Milo would turn deadly and one would wind up dead and the other one would wind up dead and the other one would wind up dead and the other exiled. But before we get to that, we exiled. But before we get to that, we exiled. But before we get to that, we need to turn to Caesar's triumpvirant need to turn to Caesar's triumpvirant need to turn to Caesar's triumpvirant colleagues who, as you'll recall, were colleagues who, as you'll recall, were colleagues who, as you'll recall, were preparing themselves to be co-consul in preparing themselves to be co-consul in preparing themselves to be co-consul in 55 BC. The consular elections of 56 BC which The consular elections of 56 BC which saw Cassus and Pompy victorious would saw Cassus and Pompy victorious would saw Cassus and Pompy victorious would take records amount of bribery to pull take records amount of bribery to pull take records amount of bribery to pull off. off. off. Opposition to the triumate it seemed was Opposition to the triumate it seemed was Opposition to the triumate it seemed was unifying and solidifying and it was unifying and solidifying and it was unifying and solidifying and it was getting more and more difficult for the getting more and more difficult for the getting more and more difficult for the three men to simply assert their will.

three men to simply assert their will. three men to simply assert their will. Thus the consil ship of Pompy and Craas Thus the consil ship of Pompy and Craas Thus the consil ship of Pompy and Craas was centered on the question of each was centered on the question of each was centered on the question of each man's future. man's future. man's future. As agreed, they extended Caesar's As agreed, they extended Caesar's As agreed, they extended Caesar's proconsul ship in Gaul for another 5 proconsul ship in Gaul for another 5 proconsul ship in Gaul for another 5 years, which would leave him immune to years, which would leave him immune to years, which would leave him immune to prosecution through 49 BC. prosecution through 49 BC. prosecution through 49 BC. This was of the utmost importance as it This was of the utmost importance as it This was of the utmost importance as it would get Caesar through the mandated would get Caesar through the mandated would get Caesar through the mandated 10-year waiting period between consil 10-year waiting period between consil 10-year waiting period between consil ships. Caesar believed that if he could ships. Caesar believed that if he could ships. Caesar believed that if he could survive until the second console ship, survive until the second console ship, survive until the second console ship, he could do enough in that term to he could do enough in that term to he could do enough in that term to insulate himself from prosecution for insulate himself from prosecution for insulate himself from prosecution for the rest of his life. the rest of his life. the rest of his life. After easing Caesar's troubled mind, After easing Caesar's troubled mind, After easing Caesar's troubled mind, they looked out for themselves. Craas they looked out for themselves. Craas they looked out for themselves. Craas would be assigned to the governorship of would be assigned to the governorship of would be assigned to the governorship of Syria for a period of 5 years, and Pompy Syria for a period of 5 years, and Pompy Syria for a period of 5 years, and Pompy would be given Spain for the same length would be given Spain for the same length would be given Spain for the same length of time. of time. of time. The two men saw their eventual proconsul The two men saw their eventual proconsul The two men saw their eventual proconsul ships from entirely different ships from entirely different ships from entirely different perspectives. perspectives. perspectives. Pompy, for his part, made sure that he Pompy, for his part, made sure that he Pompy, for his part, made sure that he would be allowed to rule his province would be allowed to rule his province would be allowed to rule his province without actually having to go there. without actually having to go there. without actually having to go there. He was getting up there in years and had He was getting up there in years and had He was getting up there in years and had already fought his way to the ends of already fought his way to the ends of already fought his way to the ends of the known world and come home the known world and come home the known world and come home triumphant. He was fast losing interest triumphant. He was fast losing interest triumphant. He was fast losing interest in the world of war and politics. All he in the world of war and politics. All he in the world of war and politics. All he wanted to do now was retire in Rome with wanted to do now was retire in Rome with wanted to do now was retire in Rome with his young bride Julia. The governorship his young bride Julia. The governorship his young bride Julia. The governorship of Spain was meant to leave him with a of Spain was meant to leave him with a of Spain was meant to leave him with a steady income, not to afford any steady income, not to afford any steady income, not to afford any opportunities for further glory. He was, opportunities for further glory. He was, opportunities for further glory. He was, after all, Pompy's great. What more did after all, Pompy's great. What more did after all, Pompy's great. What more did he have left to prove?

he have left to prove? he have left to prove? Craas, on the other hand, though he was Craas, on the other hand, though he was Craas, on the other hand, though he was even older than Pompy, still dreamed of even older than Pompy, still dreamed of even older than Pompy, still dreamed of a triumph, something that would fill the a triumph, something that would fill the a triumph, something that would fill the gaping hole in his record. His youthful gaping hole in his record. His youthful gaping hole in his record. His youthful exploit at the battle of the Coline Gate exploit at the battle of the Coline Gate exploit at the battle of the Coline Gate had long been forgotten, and his victory had long been forgotten, and his victory had long been forgotten, and his victory over Spartacus had come almost 20 years over Spartacus had come almost 20 years over Spartacus had come almost 20 years before. When people thought of Pompy, before. When people thought of Pompy, before. When people thought of Pompy, they thought of his great military they thought of his great military they thought of his great military victories. When they thought of Crasses, victories. When they thought of Crasses, victories. When they thought of Crasses, they thought of the fact that they had they thought of the fact that they had they thought of the fact that they had to pay him rent every month. Great to pay him rent every month. Great to pay him rent every month. Great monuments are built for the former, not monuments are built for the former, not monuments are built for the former, not so much the latter. So in late 55 BC, so much the latter. So in late 55 BC, so much the latter. So in late 55 BC, Crraus set out for Syria to build Crraus set out for Syria to build Crraus set out for Syria to build himself a great army so he could invade himself a great army so he could invade himself a great army so he could invade Partha, while Pompy set out for the Partha, while Pompy set out for the Partha, while Pompy set out for the kitchen to make himself a nice snack and kitchen to make himself a nice snack and kitchen to make himself a nice snack and take a nap. Throughout 54 BC, Craus used his Throughout 54 BC, Craus used his personal wealth to raise seven legions personal wealth to raise seven legions personal wealth to raise seven legions in Syria, some 35,000 to 40,000 troops. in Syria, some 35,000 to 40,000 troops. in Syria, some 35,000 to 40,000 troops. At his request and with Caesar's At his request and with Caesar's At his request and with Caesar's approval, Crus's son, Publius, was approval, Crus's son, Publius, was approval, Crus's son, Publius, was released from service in Gaul and rode released from service in Gaul and rode released from service in Gaul and rode to meet his father at the head of a to meet his father at the head of a to meet his father at the head of a thousand Celtic cavalry men. Craas thousand Celtic cavalry men. Craas thousand Celtic cavalry men. Craas trained his army, drilled his army, and trained his army, drilled his army, and trained his army, drilled his army, and redrilled his army until they were in redrilled his army until they were in redrilled his army until they were in fighting shape. He couldn't wait to get fighting shape. He couldn't wait to get fighting shape. He couldn't wait to get his expedition started, identifying the his expedition started, identifying the his expedition started, identifying the next spring as the latest he wanted to next spring as the latest he wanted to next spring as the latest he wanted to get going. But Craas' impatience would get going. But Craas' impatience would get going. But Craas' impatience would prove to be his undoing and lead him to prove to be his undoing and lead him to prove to be his undoing and lead him to make a disastrous strategic decision make a disastrous strategic decision make a disastrous strategic decision right at the outset.

right at the outset. right at the outset. The buffer state Armenia, which Pompy The buffer state Armenia, which Pompy The buffer state Armenia, which Pompy had secured peaceful relationships with had secured peaceful relationships with had secured peaceful relationships with the decade before, agreed to help Craas the decade before, agreed to help Craas the decade before, agreed to help Craas in his quest to peel off territory from in his quest to peel off territory from in his quest to peel off territory from the Parththeians. The Armenian king the Parththeians. The Armenian king the Parththeians. The Armenian king pledged 50,000 troops. The only pledged 50,000 troops. The only pledged 50,000 troops. The only stipulation was that Craus had to come stipulation was that Craus had to come stipulation was that Craus had to come north and invade Partha via Armenia. north and invade Partha via Armenia. north and invade Partha via Armenia. Basically, the king wanted Craas to Basically, the king wanted Craas to Basically, the king wanted Craas to swing through and pick up the Armenian swing through and pick up the Armenian swing through and pick up the Armenian army on his way to the front. But Craas army on his way to the front. But Craas army on his way to the front. But Craas refused to delay and after crossing the refused to delay and after crossing the refused to delay and after crossing the Euphrates River and finding himself Euphrates River and finding himself Euphrates River and finding himself welcomed by the Hellanized natives welcomed by the Hellanized natives welcomed by the Hellanized natives decided he was better off making decided he was better off making decided he was better off making immediately for bigger fish rather than immediately for bigger fish rather than immediately for bigger fish rather than going back to get the Armenians. going back to get the Armenians. going back to get the Armenians. But the natives Craas initially But the natives Craas initially But the natives Craas initially encountered were not so much friendly as encountered were not so much friendly as encountered were not so much friendly as they were treacherous. they were treacherous. they were treacherous. A local chieftain told Craas the A local chieftain told Craas the A local chieftain told Craas the Parththeians were scattered and afraid Parththeians were scattered and afraid Parththeians were scattered and afraid of the invading Romans. But the of the invading Romans. But the of the invading Romans. But the chieftain was a Parthion plant. And when chieftain was a Parthion plant. And when chieftain was a Parthion plant. And when he agreed to show Crass the best route he agreed to show Crass the best route he agreed to show Crass the best route to the great Parththeian cities, it was to the great Parththeian cities, it was to the great Parththeian cities, it was not hard to imagine what happened next.

not hard to imagine what happened next. not hard to imagine what happened next. In actuality, the Parththeians were not In actuality, the Parththeians were not In actuality, the Parththeians were not scattered and afraid. They were scattered and afraid. They were scattered and afraid. They were concentrated and confident. concentrated and confident. concentrated and confident. The Parthion army headed for Armenia to The Parthion army headed for Armenia to The Parthion army headed for Armenia to punish the conspiring Armenian king. punish the conspiring Armenian king. punish the conspiring Armenian king. while their plant in the Roman army was while their plant in the Roman army was while their plant in the Roman army was ordered to lead Crasus around the desert ordered to lead Crasus around the desert ordered to lead Crasus around the desert aimlessly. aimlessly. aimlessly. Just to make sure that the Romans did Just to make sure that the Romans did Just to make sure that the Romans did not link up with the Armenians, 10,000 not link up with the Armenians, 10,000 not link up with the Armenians, 10,000 Parththeian cavalry were sent south to Parththeian cavalry were sent south to Parththeian cavalry were sent south to further harass the legions. But it would further harass the legions. But it would further harass the legions. But it would turn out that the attempt to delay Crass turn out that the attempt to delay Crass turn out that the attempt to delay Crass would prove to be far more successful would prove to be far more successful would prove to be far more successful than anyone could have dreamed. The than anyone could have dreamed. The than anyone could have dreamed. The 10,000 cavalry was about to crush Cras's 10,000 cavalry was about to crush Cras's 10,000 cavalry was about to crush Cras's army of some 40,000. After being led away from the Euphrates, After being led away from the Euphrates, the Roman army marched day after day the Roman army marched day after day the Roman army marched day after day through the sweltering desert heat. through the sweltering desert heat. through the sweltering desert heat. Morale was low and the troops grumbled Morale was low and the troops grumbled Morale was low and the troops grumbled that Cras had no idea what he was doing, that Cras had no idea what he was doing, that Cras had no idea what he was doing, no idea where he was going, and that he no idea where he was going, and that he no idea where he was going, and that he was going to get them all killed. On all was going to get them all killed. On all was going to get them all killed. On all three fronts, they were exactly correct. three fronts, they were exactly correct. three fronts, they were exactly correct. At Kerry, near the modern border of At Kerry, near the modern border of At Kerry, near the modern border of Syria and Turkey, the Parthion cavalry Syria and Turkey, the Parthion cavalry Syria and Turkey, the Parthion cavalry appeared on the horizon. Ignoring advice appeared on the horizon. Ignoring advice appeared on the horizon. Ignoring advice from his officers about where to fight, from his officers about where to fight, from his officers about where to fight, when to fight, and how to fight, Craas when to fight, and how to fight, Craas when to fight, and how to fight, Craas ordered his exhausted troops to form ordered his exhausted troops to form ordered his exhausted troops to form into a giant square with cavalry into a giant square with cavalry into a giant square with cavalry protecting each wing.

protecting each wing. protecting each wing. At first, the Romans, despite their At first, the Romans, despite their At first, the Romans, despite their misgivings about Cras, were fairly misgivings about Cras, were fairly misgivings about Cras, were fairly confident. It was, after all, only confident. It was, after all, only confident. It was, after all, only 10,000 Parththeians. But of those 9,000 10,000 Parththeians. But of those 9,000 10,000 Parththeians. But of those 9,000 were highly mobile and highly accurate were highly mobile and highly accurate were highly mobile and highly accurate archers while the other thousand were archers while the other thousand were archers while the other thousand were heavily armored troops called catifacts. heavily armored troops called catifacts. heavily armored troops called catifacts. The Parthion light cavalry opened up the The Parthion light cavalry opened up the The Parthion light cavalry opened up the attack. They would charge the Romans at attack. They would charge the Romans at attack. They would charge the Romans at full speed, firing arrows the whole full speed, firing arrows the whole full speed, firing arrows the whole time. Then as soon as they got near the time. Then as soon as they got near the time. Then as soon as they got near the line, they would wheel around and speed line, they would wheel around and speed line, they would wheel around and speed off, continuing to fire arrows over off, continuing to fire arrows over off, continuing to fire arrows over their shoulder as they went. And this their shoulder as they went. And this their shoulder as they went. And this last maneuver was called a parthean shot last maneuver was called a parthean shot last maneuver was called a parthean shot or as we know it today a parting shot. or as we know it today a parting shot. or as we know it today a parting shot. It had the effect of never letting up on It had the effect of never letting up on It had the effect of never letting up on the constant barrage of arrows. Crass the constant barrage of arrows. Crass the constant barrage of arrows. Crass kept his men in formation, shields kept his men in formation, shields kept his men in formation, shields facing all directions, and the arrows facing all directions, and the arrows facing all directions, and the arrows mostly bounced off harmlessly. But as mostly bounced off harmlessly. But as mostly bounced off harmlessly. But as I'm sure you can imagine, the constant I'm sure you can imagine, the constant I'm sure you can imagine, the constant attack took its toll mentally. Craas' attack took its toll mentally. Craas' attack took its toll mentally. Craas' brilliant strategy was to simply outlast brilliant strategy was to simply outlast brilliant strategy was to simply outlast the aerosupply of the Parththeians and the aerosupply of the Parththeians and the aerosupply of the Parththeians and hope they would leave the Romans alone hope they would leave the Romans alone hope they would leave the Romans alone after that.

after that. after that. At one point, however, afraid that he At one point, however, afraid that he At one point, however, afraid that he would be surrounded, Crasses ordered his would be surrounded, Crasses ordered his would be surrounded, Crasses ordered his son to lead out the Celtic cavalry to son to lead out the Celtic cavalry to son to lead out the Celtic cavalry to drive off an encircling force. The drive off an encircling force. The drive off an encircling force. The superior Parthion cavalry, however, led superior Parthion cavalry, however, led superior Parthion cavalry, however, led Publius and his men far away from the Publius and his men far away from the Publius and his men far away from the main Roman force. Then suddenly wheeled main Roman force. Then suddenly wheeled main Roman force. Then suddenly wheeled around and attacked. Helpless, Craas around and attacked. Helpless, Craas around and attacked. Helpless, Craas watched as his cavalry and his son were watched as his cavalry and his son were watched as his cavalry and his son were slaughtered. slaughtered. slaughtered. Despondent, he fumbled around trying to Despondent, he fumbled around trying to Despondent, he fumbled around trying to decide what to do next. Eventually decide what to do next. Eventually decide what to do next. Eventually coming to the conclusion that he needed coming to the conclusion that he needed coming to the conclusion that he needed to march forward and attack. But before to march forward and attack. But before to march forward and attack. But before he could make any positive move, the he could make any positive move, the he could make any positive move, the armored catifacts attacked. The armored catifacts attacked. The armored catifacts attacked. The exhausted and heatstroked Roman front exhausted and heatstroked Roman front exhausted and heatstroked Roman front line was smashed and the whole army was line was smashed and the whole army was line was smashed and the whole army was split in two. Craas was forced to order split in two. Craas was forced to order split in two. Craas was forced to order a retreat. 10,000 of his men were cut a retreat. 10,000 of his men were cut a retreat. 10,000 of his men were cut off from the rest of the army and cut off from the rest of the army and cut off from the rest of the army and cut down. down. down. The Romans withdrew, but were led astray The Romans withdrew, but were led astray The Romans withdrew, but were led astray again and again by supposedly friendly again and again by supposedly friendly again and again by supposedly friendly locals. Finally, the Parthion commander locals. Finally, the Parthion commander locals. Finally, the Parthion commander sent word that he would talk terms with sent word that he would talk terms with sent word that he would talk terms with Craas. The Roman soldiers basically told Craas. The Roman soldiers basically told Craas. The Roman soldiers basically told their general to go talk or they would their general to go talk or they would their general to go talk or they would kill him where he stood. Craas, kill him where he stood. Craas, kill him where he stood. Craas, completely deflated, agreed.

completely deflated, agreed. completely deflated, agreed. He entered the Parthion camp to discuss He entered the Parthion camp to discuss He entered the Parthion camp to discuss peace. But whether by design or peace. But whether by design or peace. But whether by design or accident, a fight broke out and in the accident, a fight broke out and in the accident, a fight broke out and in the melee, Craas was killed. Legend has it melee, Craas was killed. Legend has it melee, Craas was killed. Legend has it that the Parththeians, well aware that that the Parththeians, well aware that that the Parththeians, well aware that they were dealing with Rome's richest they were dealing with Rome's richest they were dealing with Rome's richest and greediest leader, poured molten gold and greediest leader, poured molten gold and greediest leader, poured molten gold down his throat and kept the skull as a down his throat and kept the skull as a down his throat and kept the skull as a trophy. trophy. trophy. The legions, meanwhile, discovered that The legions, meanwhile, discovered that The legions, meanwhile, discovered that they had been led into a swamp and they had been led into a swamp and they had been led into a swamp and getting word that their leader had been getting word that their leader had been getting word that their leader had been murdered, tried to escape, but the murdered, tried to escape, but the murdered, tried to escape, but the flight was a disaster. flight was a disaster. flight was a disaster. Between the battle at Kerry and the Between the battle at Kerry and the Between the battle at Kerry and the retreats, Rome lost some 20,000 troops retreats, Rome lost some 20,000 troops retreats, Rome lost some 20,000 troops with another 10,000 taken prisoner. Of with another 10,000 taken prisoner. Of with another 10,000 taken prisoner. Of the 40,000 who had marched out just the 40,000 who had marched out just the 40,000 who had marched out just weeks before, only 10,000 limp back to weeks before, only 10,000 limp back to weeks before, only 10,000 limp back to Syria under the command of gas cases. Syria under the command of gas cases. Syria under the command of gas cases. Yeah, that cases. Yeah, that cases. Yeah, that cases. It was the worst Roman defeat since the It was the worst Roman defeat since the It was the worst Roman defeat since the disaster at Cany during the second Punic disaster at Cany during the second Punic disaster at Cany during the second Punic War. And more embarrassing than the loss War. And more embarrassing than the loss War. And more embarrassing than the loss itself was the capture of numerous itself was the capture of numerous itself was the capture of numerous legionary eagle standards. legionary eagle standards. legionary eagle standards. It was a source of almost immeasurable It was a source of almost immeasurable It was a source of almost immeasurable shame for the legionary symbols to fall shame for the legionary symbols to fall shame for the legionary symbols to fall into the hands of the enemy.

into the hands of the enemy. into the hands of the enemy. Caesar Augustus spent a great deal of Caesar Augustus spent a great deal of Caesar Augustus spent a great deal of diplomatic time and energy trying to diplomatic time and energy trying to diplomatic time and energy trying to recover the captured eagles from the recover the captured eagles from the recover the captured eagles from the Parththeians. And when he finally got Parththeians. And when he finally got Parththeians. And when he finally got them back, the reaction in Rome was the them back, the reaction in Rome was the them back, the reaction in Rome was the same as if he had actually won a great same as if he had actually won a great same as if he had actually won a great battle. battle. battle. The defeat at Kerry also firmly The defeat at Kerry also firmly The defeat at Kerry also firmly solidified in the minds of most Romans solidified in the minds of most Romans solidified in the minds of most Romans that it was a folly to try and expand that it was a folly to try and expand that it was a folly to try and expand further east. further east. further east. Many had opposed Crusas' mission to Many had opposed Crusas' mission to Many had opposed Crusas' mission to begin with and took the loss as proof begin with and took the loss as proof begin with and took the loss as proof that Rome ought to a stick near the that Rome ought to a stick near the that Rome ought to a stick near the Mediterranean. Mark Antony's later Mediterranean. Mark Antony's later Mediterranean. Mark Antony's later disastrous misadventures in the region disastrous misadventures in the region disastrous misadventures in the region would further drive home the point that would further drive home the point that would further drive home the point that sound policy was living in peaceful sound policy was living in peaceful sound policy was living in peaceful coexistence with whatever empire coexistence with whatever empire coexistence with whatever empire controlled the mountains and deserts of controlled the mountains and deserts of controlled the mountains and deserts of the east. It was not until the emperor the east. It was not until the emperor the east. It was not until the emperor Trajan some 150 years later that Rome Trajan some 150 years later that Rome Trajan some 150 years later that Rome would again risk war in the east. And would again risk war in the east. And would again risk war in the east. And even then, Trajan's successor, Hadrien, even then, Trajan's successor, Hadrien, even then, Trajan's successor, Hadrien, basically abandoned all the territory basically abandoned all the territory basically abandoned all the territory Trejan had won, deeming it far too Trejan had won, deeming it far too Trejan had won, deeming it far too expensive to try and hold. Rome was and expensive to try and hold. Rome was and expensive to try and hold. Rome was and would remain a Mediterranean empire.

would remain a Mediterranean empire. would remain a Mediterranean empire. I will also mention in passing that to I will also mention in passing that to I will also mention in passing that to the Romans at the time, the doomed the Romans at the time, the doomed the Romans at the time, the doomed campaign in the east was defined not by campaign in the east was defined not by campaign in the east was defined not by the death of Marcus Cassus, but by the the death of Marcus Cassus, but by the the death of Marcus Cassus, but by the death of his son, Publius. death of his son, Publius. death of his son, Publius. The young man too young to even begin The young man too young to even begin The young man too young to even begin his path on the curses honorum had his path on the curses honorum had his path on the curses honorum had already proved himself to be a great already proved himself to be a great already proved himself to be a great leader while serving in the gic wars and leader while serving in the gic wars and leader while serving in the gic wars and many Romans felt that the early death of many Romans felt that the early death of many Romans felt that the early death of this popular and charismatic leader was this popular and charismatic leader was this popular and charismatic leader was one of the great tragedies of the day. one of the great tragedies of the day. one of the great tragedies of the day. It is intriguing to wonder what role a It is intriguing to wonder what role a It is intriguing to wonder what role a formidable Publius Cassus would have formidable Publius Cassus would have formidable Publius Cassus would have played in the coming civil wars. played in the coming civil wars. played in the coming civil wars. But for Caesar the death of Marcus was But for Caesar the death of Marcus was But for Caesar the death of Marcus was still by far the greater tragedy. It had still by far the greater tragedy. It had still by far the greater tragedy. It had the effect of officially ending the the effect of officially ending the the effect of officially ending the first triumvirate. With Julia's death in first triumvirate. With Julia's death in first triumvirate. With Julia's death in 54 BC, the ties that bound Caesar and 54 BC, the ties that bound Caesar and 54 BC, the ties that bound Caesar and Pompy were already strained. Cras's Pompy were already strained. Cras's Pompy were already strained. Cras's death officially ended the partnership. death officially ended the partnership. death officially ended the partnership. Caesar, as I mentioned before, attempted Caesar, as I mentioned before, attempted Caesar, as I mentioned before, attempted to salvage the relationship by offering to salvage the relationship by offering to salvage the relationship by offering Pompy his niece Octavia. But Pompy Pompy his niece Octavia. But Pompy Pompy his niece Octavia. But Pompy decided to marry Publius Crass's young decided to marry Publius Crass's young decided to marry Publius Crass's young widow who just so happened to be the widow who just so happened to be the widow who just so happened to be the daughter of one of Caesar's greatest daughter of one of Caesar's greatest daughter of one of Caesar's greatest enemies, Quintis Matelis Scipio.

enemies, Quintis Matelis Scipio. enemies, Quintis Matelis Scipio. Yes, the triumvirant was broken. Yes, the triumvirant was broken. Yes, the triumvirant was broken. Beyond this breach, Roman general began Beyond this breach, Roman general began Beyond this breach, Roman general began to turn on Caesar. In December of 53 BC, to turn on Caesar. In December of 53 BC, to turn on Caesar. In December of 53 BC, a chance passing in the streets of a chance passing in the streets of a chance passing in the streets of Claius and Milo led to a fight breaking Claius and Milo led to a fight breaking Claius and Milo led to a fight breaking out among their entouragees. out among their entouragees. out among their entouragees. In the scuffle, Claius was killed. In the scuffle, Claius was killed. In the scuffle, Claius was killed. This not only deprived Caesar of a key This not only deprived Caesar of a key This not only deprived Caesar of a key ally in the city, but it also sparked a ally in the city, but it also sparked a ally in the city, but it also sparked a wave of riots. In a display of shocking wave of riots. In a display of shocking wave of riots. In a display of shocking lawlessness, the supporters of Claius lawlessness, the supporters of Claius lawlessness, the supporters of Claius actually seized control of the Senate actually seized control of the Senate actually seized control of the Senate House and used it as a funeral p for House and used it as a funeral p for House and used it as a funeral p for their dead leader, burning the entire their dead leader, burning the entire their dead leader, burning the entire structure to the ground. structure to the ground. structure to the ground. So when you go to Rome and visit the So when you go to Rome and visit the So when you go to Rome and visit the forum and discover to your forum and discover to your forum and discover to your disappointment that you can't actually disappointment that you can't actually disappointment that you can't actually see the spot where Julius Caesar was see the spot where Julius Caesar was see the spot where Julius Caesar was assassinated because the Senate was assassinated because the Senate was assassinated because the Senate was meeting somewhere else for a few years, meeting somewhere else for a few years, meeting somewhere else for a few years, blame Claius. Well, at least his blame Claius. Well, at least his blame Claius. Well, at least his supporters. Boo. Claius's supporters. supporters. Boo. Claius's supporters. supporters. Boo. Claius's supporters. Boo. Boo. Boo. The riots led the Senate to reach out to The riots led the Senate to reach out to The riots led the Senate to reach out to Pompy. A strong hand was needed before Pompy. A strong hand was needed before Pompy. A strong hand was needed before things spun out of control. But wary of things spun out of control. But wary of things spun out of control. But wary of giving Pompy full dictatorial powers, giving Pompy full dictatorial powers, giving Pompy full dictatorial powers, they instead split the difference and they instead split the difference and they instead split the difference and appointed him emergency council without appointed him emergency council without appointed him emergency council without a colleague. Pompy managed to restore a colleague. Pompy managed to restore a colleague. Pompy managed to restore order, but moving beyond the immediate order, but moving beyond the immediate order, but moving beyond the immediate crisis, the Senate pushed him to deal crisis, the Senate pushed him to deal crisis, the Senate pushed him to deal with the next crisis, which they all saw with the next crisis, which they all saw with the next crisis, which they all saw looming.

looming. looming. Caesar had just emerged completely Caesar had just emerged completely Caesar had just emerged completely victorious in the GIC wars and was victorious in the GIC wars and was victorious in the GIC wars and was sitting in Gaul with 50,000 battleh sitting in Gaul with 50,000 battleh sitting in Gaul with 50,000 battleh hardened veterans. hardened veterans. hardened veterans. The Senate was itching to strip Caesar The Senate was itching to strip Caesar The Senate was itching to strip Caesar of his command and punish him for all of his command and punish him for all of his command and punish him for all the terrible things he had done, real or the terrible things he had done, real or the terrible things he had done, real or imagined. But obviously, Caesar wasn't imagined. But obviously, Caesar wasn't imagined. But obviously, Caesar wasn't just going to roll over. So, a tense just going to roll over. So, a tense just going to roll over. So, a tense showdown began with both sides refusing showdown began with both sides refusing showdown began with both sides refusing to blink. to blink. to blink. Pompy pushed the envelope first by Pompy pushed the envelope first by Pompy pushed the envelope first by passing a law allowing for retroactive passing a law allowing for retroactive passing a law allowing for retroactive prosecution for bribery, putting the prosecution for bribery, putting the prosecution for bribery, putting the Senate on firm legal footing to go after Senate on firm legal footing to go after Senate on firm legal footing to go after Caesar when he returned to Rome. Caesar when he returned to Rome. Caesar when he returned to Rome. Next, the Senate demanded that Caesar Next, the Senate demanded that Caesar Next, the Senate demanded that Caesar stand down his legions now that by his stand down his legions now that by his stand down his legions now that by his own admission the war in Gaul was won. own admission the war in Gaul was won. own admission the war in Gaul was won. Caesar countered this by saying that Caesar countered this by saying that Caesar countered this by saying that that was fine as long as he was allowed that was fine as long as he was allowed that was fine as long as he was allowed to stand for consular election in to stand for consular election in to stand for consular election in absentia. absentia. absentia. Pompy responded by answering that no, he Pompy responded by answering that no, he Pompy responded by answering that no, he would not be granted any such concession would not be granted any such concession would not be granted any such concession and further he would not be allowed to and further he would not be allowed to and further he would not be allowed to stand for election at all unless his stand for election at all unless his stand for election at all unless his army was disbanded.

army was disbanded. army was disbanded. Caesar said that that was fine. he would Caesar said that that was fine. he would Caesar said that that was fine. he would give up his army as soon as Pompy gave give up his army as soon as Pompy gave give up his army as soon as Pompy gave up his. But as Pompy's army was slowly up his. But as Pompy's army was slowly up his. But as Pompy's army was slowly but surely transforming into the army of but surely transforming into the army of but surely transforming into the army of the republic, the Senate refused to let the republic, the Senate refused to let the republic, the Senate refused to let Pompy agree to these terms. They Pompy agree to these terms. They Pompy agree to these terms. They demanded Caesar disband his army or he demanded Caesar disband his army or he demanded Caesar disband his army or he would be declared an enemy of the state. would be declared an enemy of the state. would be declared an enemy of the state. Here then was the final break. Despite Here then was the final break. Despite Here then was the final break. Despite the best efforts of Cicero and the other the best efforts of Cicero and the other the best efforts of Cicero and the other moderates, the two sides had dug moderates, the two sides had dug moderates, the two sides had dug themselves in too deep. There was no way themselves in too deep. There was no way themselves in too deep. There was no way Caesar was coming back to Rome without Caesar was coming back to Rome without Caesar was coming back to Rome without the protection of either his army or the the protection of either his army or the the protection of either his army or the imperium that came with the consil ship imperium that came with the consil ship imperium that came with the consil ship and the Senate was not going to let him and the Senate was not going to let him and the Senate was not going to let him have either of those things. have either of those things. have either of those things. Over the winter of 50 BC, Caesar Over the winter of 50 BC, Caesar Over the winter of 50 BC, Caesar considered his options. The personal considered his options. The personal considered his options. The personal feud between himself and the Senate had feud between himself and the Senate had feud between himself and the Senate had now grown into a full-blown now grown into a full-blown now grown into a full-blown constitutional crisis, and there was no constitutional crisis, and there was no constitutional crisis, and there was no way of knowing what the outcome of any way of knowing what the outcome of any way of knowing what the outcome of any given decision he made would be. Should given decision he made would be. Should given decision he made would be. Should he try to broker a deal through Cicero, he try to broker a deal through Cicero, he try to broker a deal through Cicero, recognize that he was outnumbered in recognize that he was outnumbered in recognize that he was outnumbered in capitulate? Or should he just go allin capitulate? Or should he just go allin capitulate? Or should he just go allin and march back to Rome with his army?

and march back to Rome with his army? and march back to Rome with his army? Next week, I think we all know what Next week, I think we all know what Next week, I think we all know what Caesar decides to do. Caesar decides to do. Caesar decides to do. [Music]