Roman History 17 - Hadrian To Antoninus 117-140 AD

[Music] [Music] Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Rome. Episode 81, the Rome. Episode 81, the Rome. Episode 81, the Greekling. The Roman Empire had just Greekling. The Roman Empire had just Greekling. The Roman Empire had just enjoyed 20 years of wise and beneficial enjoyed 20 years of wise and beneficial enjoyed 20 years of wise and beneficial stewardship. When the tragic but stewardship. When the tragic but stewardship. When the tragic but inevitable news arrived that the emperor inevitable news arrived that the emperor inevitable news arrived that the emperor Trajan was dead, even his contemporaries Trajan was dead, even his contemporaries Trajan was dead, even his contemporaries realized that they were living under the realized that they were living under the realized that they were living under the best emperor since Augustus. And fears best emperor since Augustus. And fears best emperor since Augustus. And fears about what came next filtered through about what came next filtered through about what came next filtered through every level of society. With Trajan every level of society. With Trajan every level of society. With Trajan being so great and all, it's pretty being so great and all, it's pretty being so great and all, it's pretty reasonable to assume that whoever reasonable to assume that whoever reasonable to assume that whoever succeeds him is going to be worse. Maybe succeeds him is going to be worse. Maybe succeeds him is going to be worse. Maybe not much worse, but it's going to be a not much worse, but it's going to be a not much worse, but it's going to be a step backwards. You can't get better step backwards. You can't get better step backwards. You can't get better than Optimus. It's a logical than Optimus. It's a logical than Optimus. It's a logical impossibility. impossibility. impossibility. And who knows, maybe his successor will And who knows, maybe his successor will And who knows, maybe his successor will be a lot worse. It's happened be a lot worse. It's happened be a lot worse. It's happened before. Compounding everyone's fears was before. Compounding everyone's fears was before. Compounding everyone's fears was the fact that Trejan had paid almost no the fact that Trejan had paid almost no the fact that Trejan had paid almost no attention to the issue of succession attention to the issue of succession attention to the issue of succession publicly, which also meant that hoay, publicly, which also meant that hoay, publicly, which also meant that hoay, another round of civil wars just might another round of civil wars just might another round of civil wars just might be how we determine who the eventual be how we determine who the eventual be how we determine who the eventual ruler, who will inevitably be worse than ruler, who will inevitably be worse than ruler, who will inevitably be worse than Trejan, will be.

Trejan, will be. Trejan, will be. Sweet. The anxiety that surrounded Sweet. The anxiety that surrounded Sweet. The anxiety that surrounded Trejan's day-to-day health was palpable. Trejan's day-to-day health was palpable. Trejan's day-to-day health was palpable. And when he began to seriously And when he began to seriously And when he began to seriously deteriorate in 117, his closest advisers deteriorate in 117, his closest advisers deteriorate in 117, his closest advisers began to take seriously the consequences began to take seriously the consequences began to take seriously the consequences of his death. Would it be possible to of his death. Would it be possible to of his death. Would it be possible to find a name and heir who would be find a name and heir who would be find a name and heir who would be acceptable to all the various acceptable to all the various acceptable to all the various aristocratic factions and who wouldn't aristocratic factions and who wouldn't aristocratic factions and who wouldn't bollocks up the whole thing once he got bollocks up the whole thing once he got bollocks up the whole thing once he got into power? Obviously, no one we find is into power? Obviously, no one we find is into power? Obviously, no one we find is going to be as good as Trejan. So, who going to be as good as Trejan. So, who going to be as good as Trejan. So, who can we dig up who will be the least bad can we dig up who will be the least bad can we dig up who will be the least bad choice? Names were bandied about, but choice? Names were bandied about, but choice? Names were bandied about, but Trajan's influential wife, Pompia Trajan's influential wife, Pompia Trajan's influential wife, Pompia Plutina, worked behind the scenes to Plutina, worked behind the scenes to Plutina, worked behind the scenes to ensure that everyone understood that the ensure that everyone understood that the ensure that everyone understood that the only man who could reasonably succeed only man who could reasonably succeed only man who could reasonably succeed the dead emperor was her former ward, the dead emperor was her former ward, the dead emperor was her former ward, Publius alias, Publius alias, Publius alias, Hadriianis. Trejan himself seems to have Hadriianis. Trejan himself seems to have Hadriianis. Trejan himself seems to have been wishy-washy about Hrien, and had been wishy-washy about Hrien, and had been wishy-washy about Hrien, and had been unwilling to commit himself to the been unwilling to commit himself to the been unwilling to commit himself to the young man, even though he was Trejan's young man, even though he was Trejan's young man, even though he was Trejan's only living male relative. only living male relative. only living male relative. Hrien had enjoyed a good career and had Hrien had enjoyed a good career and had Hrien had enjoyed a good career and had many doors open for him by virtue of his many doors open for him by virtue of his many doors open for him by virtue of his relation to Trejan, but he had never relation to Trejan, but he had never relation to Trejan, but he had never received the special exceptions that received the special exceptions that received the special exceptions that signaled eventual inheritance. But while signaled eventual inheritance. But while signaled eventual inheritance. But while Trejan may not have been fully sold on Trejan may not have been fully sold on Trejan may not have been fully sold on his cocky, promiscuous Philhelene his cocky, promiscuous Philhelene his cocky, promiscuous Philhelene nephew, his wife certainly was, and when nephew, his wife certainly was, and when nephew, his wife certainly was, and when the emperor died without leaving clear the emperor died without leaving clear the emperor died without leaving clear succession instructions, his opinion, to succession instructions, his opinion, to succession instructions, his opinion, to put it bluntly, no longer mattered.

put it bluntly, no longer mattered. put it bluntly, no longer mattered. The official rumor is that when Trejan The official rumor is that when Trejan The official rumor is that when Trejan died, Pompia quickly hushed up the death died, Pompia quickly hushed up the death died, Pompia quickly hushed up the death and may have gone so far as to hire an and may have gone so far as to hire an and may have gone so far as to hire an actor to lay in the vacated deathbed actor to lay in the vacated deathbed actor to lay in the vacated deathbed pretending to be the emperor for the pretending to be the emperor for the pretending to be the emperor for the purposes of issuing the final purposes of issuing the final purposes of issuing the final recommendation that Hadrien ought to recommendation that Hadrien ought to recommendation that Hadrien ought to succeed him. While the veracity of this succeed him. While the veracity of this succeed him. While the veracity of this story is hard to pin down, the letters story is hard to pin down, the letters story is hard to pin down, the letters arriving in the Senate announcing the arriving in the Senate announcing the arriving in the Senate announcing the last wishes of Trejan and the adoption last wishes of Trejan and the adoption last wishes of Trejan and the adoption of Hadrien were all signed by Pompia, a of Hadrien were all signed by Pompia, a of Hadrien were all signed by Pompia, a singular occurrence in the whole of singular occurrence in the whole of singular occurrence in the whole of Trajan's reign, leading most to suspect Trajan's reign, leading most to suspect Trajan's reign, leading most to suspect that the empress authored the orders that the empress authored the orders that the empress authored the orders herself. Pompia though was not acting herself. Pompia though was not acting herself. Pompia though was not acting out of the pure self-interest that had out of the pure self-interest that had out of the pure self-interest that had driven, say, Agraina. Sure, she knew driven, say, Agraina. Sure, she knew driven, say, Agraina. Sure, she knew that her own position would be secure if that her own position would be secure if that her own position would be secure if Hrien became emperor, but more important Hrien became emperor, but more important Hrien became emperor, but more important than that was assuring that the transfer than that was assuring that the transfer than that was assuring that the transfer of power was seamless and left no of power was seamless and left no of power was seamless and left no openings for civil war. Her husband may openings for civil war. Her husband may openings for civil war. Her husband may have been fantasizing about following have been fantasizing about following have been fantasizing about following Alexander the Great one last time and Alexander the Great one last time and Alexander the Great one last time and leaving the empire to the strongest. But leaving the empire to the strongest. But leaving the empire to the strongest. But Pompia was not about to let the Roman Pompia was not about to let the Roman Pompia was not about to let the Roman world be sucked back into the abyss of world be sucked back into the abyss of world be sucked back into the abyss of self-destruction.

self-destruction. self-destruction. News of the emperor's death was kept News of the emperor's death was kept News of the emperor's death was kept tightly under wraps until Hadrienne's tightly under wraps until Hadrienne's tightly under wraps until Hadrienne's position was secured. And when word position was secured. And when word position was secured. And when word finally did make it back to the capital, finally did make it back to the capital, finally did make it back to the capital, it arrived at the same time as news that it arrived at the same time as news that it arrived at the same time as news that the legions in the east had gone ahead the legions in the east had gone ahead the legions in the east had gone ahead and declared Hrien and declared Hrien and declared Hrien Emperator. The Senate and any possible Emperator. The Senate and any possible Emperator. The Senate and any possible pretenders to the throne were thus pretenders to the throne were thus pretenders to the throne were thus forced to deal not with a power vacuum, forced to deal not with a power vacuum, forced to deal not with a power vacuum, but a fate of Comply. Hadrien is already but a fate of Comply. Hadrien is already but a fate of Comply. Hadrien is already the new emperor. Deal with the new emperor. Deal with the new emperor. Deal with it. Even without his future success it. Even without his future success it. Even without his future success coloring our view of his being named coloring our view of his being named coloring our view of his being named heir, Hadrien was as good a candidate heir, Hadrien was as good a candidate heir, Hadrien was as good a candidate for power as anyone else out there. He for power as anyone else out there. He for power as anyone else out there. He was 41 years old, well beyond the reach was 41 years old, well beyond the reach was 41 years old, well beyond the reach of the youthful excesses that had ruined of the youthful excesses that had ruined of the youthful excesses that had ruined Caligula and Nero, had ample military Caligula and Nero, had ample military Caligula and Nero, had ample military experience at the highest level, had experience at the highest level, had experience at the highest level, had governed provinces, and was, of course, governed provinces, and was, of course, governed provinces, and was, of course, the sole living male relative of the the sole living male relative of the the sole living male relative of the deceased emperor. He was not by any deceased emperor. He was not by any deceased emperor. He was not by any means the only man who eyed the death of means the only man who eyed the death of means the only man who eyed the death of Trejan with ambition, but there was Trejan with ambition, but there was Trejan with ambition, but there was never any doubt after Trejan's initial never any doubt after Trejan's initial never any doubt after Trejan's initial ascension that his younger cousin and ascension that his younger cousin and ascension that his younger cousin and former ward would be on the short list former ward would be on the short list former ward would be on the short list of candidates to succeed him. In other of candidates to succeed him. In other of candidates to succeed him. In other words, when the Roman world found out words, when the Roman world found out words, when the Roman world found out that Trejan was dead and Hadrien had that Trejan was dead and Hadrien had that Trejan was dead and Hadrien had succeeded him, there was a feeling that succeeded him, there was a feeling that succeeded him, there was a feeling that well, yeah, that makes sense.

Publius Alias Hadrianis was born on Publius Alias Hadrianis was born on January the 24th, 76 AD into a Spanish January the 24th, 76 AD into a Spanish January the 24th, 76 AD into a Spanish Italian family of senatorial rank. There Italian family of senatorial rank. There Italian family of senatorial rank. There is some disagreement about whether he is some disagreement about whether he is some disagreement about whether he was born in his hometown of Italica near was born in his hometown of Italica near was born in his hometown of Italica near modern-day Sevil or whether he was modern-day Sevil or whether he was modern-day Sevil or whether he was actually born in Rome while his parents actually born in Rome while his parents actually born in Rome while his parents were in the capital on business, but the were in the capital on business, but the were in the capital on business, but the latter smells a lot like postimperial latter smells a lot like postimperial latter smells a lot like postimperial revisionism. So, I tend to go with the revisionism. So, I tend to go with the revisionism. So, I tend to go with the former, even if there's no real proof of former, even if there's no real proof of former, even if there's no real proof of it one way or the other. it one way or the other. it one way or the other. Italica was a Roman city in Spain that Italica was a Roman city in Spain that Italica was a Roman city in Spain that had been founded by Scipio Aricconis to had been founded by Scipio Aricconis to had been founded by Scipio Aricconis to house his injured veterans after he'd house his injured veterans after he'd house his injured veterans after he'd completed his clean sweep of the Iberian completed his clean sweep of the Iberian completed his clean sweep of the Iberian Peninsula and needed to get going on his Peninsula and needed to get going on his Peninsula and needed to get going on his invasion of North Africa. Hadrien's invasion of North Africa. Hadrien's invasion of North Africa. Hadrien's family like Trajans had migrated from family like Trajans had migrated from family like Trajans had migrated from Italy not long after the colony's Italy not long after the colony's Italy not long after the colony's foundation and both quickly became foundation and both quickly became foundation and both quickly became members of a new Spanish Italian members of a new Spanish Italian members of a new Spanish Italian aristocracy, an aristocracy fueled by aristocracy, an aristocracy fueled by aristocracy, an aristocracy fueled by the lucrative Spanish olive oil trade. the lucrative Spanish olive oil trade. the lucrative Spanish olive oil trade. Hadrien's father was a well- reggarded Hadrien's father was a well- reggarded Hadrien's father was a well- reggarded senator like his neighbor and cousin senator like his neighbor and cousin senator like his neighbor and cousin Marcus Opius Trayianis the future Marcus Opius Trayianis the future Marcus Opius Trayianis the future emperor Trajan the elder Hadrien served emperor Trajan the elder Hadrien served emperor Trajan the elder Hadrien served with distinction across the empire with distinction across the empire with distinction across the empire eventually rising to the rank of prader eventually rising to the rank of prader eventually rising to the rank of prader before he died unexpectedly in 86 AD before he died unexpectedly in 86 AD before he died unexpectedly in 86 AD while still in his while still in his while still in his mid-4s. Hadrien was only 10 at the time mid-4s. Hadrien was only 10 at the time mid-4s. Hadrien was only 10 at the time and as the only male in line he was and as the only male in line he was and as the only male in line he was thrust into the role of Patter Familas thrust into the role of Patter Familas thrust into the role of Patter Familas at an incredibly young age. But since he at an incredibly young age. But since he at an incredibly young age. But since he was still a minor and everyone fredded was still a minor and everyone fredded was still a minor and everyone fredded about boys who grow up without strong about boys who grow up without strong about boys who grow up without strong male guidance, Hadrienne's education was male guidance, Hadrienne's education was male guidance, Hadrienne's education was entrusted to his cousin Trajan, who was entrusted to his cousin Trajan, who was entrusted to his cousin Trajan, who was fast rising in Roman politics, and

fast rising in Roman politics, and fast rising in Roman politics, and another Spanish Italian noble named another Spanish Italian noble named another Spanish Italian noble named Publius Etonis, who will play a key, if Publius Etonis, who will play a key, if Publius Etonis, who will play a key, if infamous, role in Hadrien's early infamous, role in Hadrien's early infamous, role in Hadrien's early administration. administration. administration. Young Hadrien was educated in classic Young Hadrien was educated in classic Young Hadrien was educated in classic Roman fashion, and the zeal the boy Roman fashion, and the zeal the boy Roman fashion, and the zeal the boy showed for all things Greek, literature, showed for all things Greek, literature, showed for all things Greek, literature, philosophy, art, whatever, earned him philosophy, art, whatever, earned him philosophy, art, whatever, earned him the nickname Graalis, which meant little the nickname Graalis, which meant little the nickname Graalis, which meant little Greek or Greekling. It was a mildly Greek or Greekling. It was a mildly Greek or Greekling. It was a mildly disparaging nickname, as the typical disparaging nickname, as the typical disparaging nickname, as the typical Roman aristocrat studied Greek culture, Roman aristocrat studied Greek culture, Roman aristocrat studied Greek culture, yes, but kept the sensuous and yes, but kept the sensuous and yes, but kept the sensuous and corrupting passions of the East at arms corrupting passions of the East at arms corrupting passions of the East at arms length. Hadrien though embraced all length. Hadrien though embraced all length. Hadrien though embraced all things Greek and for the rest of his things Greek and for the rest of his things Greek and for the rest of his life idolized and sought to emulate his life idolized and sought to emulate his life idolized and sought to emulate his heroes Homer and Zenifan and Plato. The heroes Homer and Zenifan and Plato. The heroes Homer and Zenifan and Plato. The villa complex he would build for himself villa complex he would build for himself villa complex he would build for himself after becoming emperor was nothing less after becoming emperor was nothing less after becoming emperor was nothing less than a massive homage to the Greeks in than a massive homage to the Greeks in than a massive homage to the Greeks in its architecture, landscaping and its architecture, landscaping and its architecture, landscaping and underlying philosophic principles. When Hadrien was 14, Trejan brought him When Hadrien was 14, Trejan brought him to Rome to personally supervise the last to Rome to personally supervise the last to Rome to personally supervise the last stages of the boy's education and stages of the boy's education and stages of the boy's education and oversee his transition to manhood.

oversee his transition to manhood. oversee his transition to manhood. Trejan was just completing the consil Trejan was just completing the consil Trejan was just completing the consil ship he had been awarded by dimmission ship he had been awarded by dimmission ship he had been awarded by dimmission for his rapid response to Saturninus' for his rapid response to Saturninus' for his rapid response to Saturninus' revolt, and the teenage Hadrien found revolt, and the teenage Hadrien found revolt, and the teenage Hadrien found himself planted right smack dab in the himself planted right smack dab in the himself planted right smack dab in the middle of Roman power politics. middle of Roman power politics. middle of Roman power politics. At this point, there would have been At this point, there would have been At this point, there would have been little reason for Hadrien to dream that little reason for Hadrien to dream that little reason for Hadrien to dream that he might himself dawn the purple one he might himself dawn the purple one he might himself dawn the purple one day, but his close relationship to day, but his close relationship to day, but his close relationship to Trajan meant that he was definitely Trajan meant that he was definitely Trajan meant that he was definitely being prepared for an important role in being prepared for an important role in being prepared for an important role in the imperial system somewhere. So, he the imperial system somewhere. So, he the imperial system somewhere. So, he best pay best pay best pay attention. Living in Rome during the attention. Living in Rome during the attention. Living in Rome during the last years of Dissision's reign, not last years of Dissision's reign, not last years of Dissision's reign, not that anyone knew that they were the last that anyone knew that they were the last that anyone knew that they were the last years of dimmission's reign, gave years of dimmission's reign, gave years of dimmission's reign, gave Hadrien a close-up view of what to do Hadrien a close-up view of what to do Hadrien a close-up view of what to do and what not to do with power. and his and what not to do with power. and his and what not to do with power. and his later conduct hints that he learned his later conduct hints that he learned his later conduct hints that he learned his lessons well, even if there were a few lessons well, even if there were a few lessons well, even if there were a few growing pains at growing pains at growing pains at first. Through the influence of Trajan, first. Through the influence of Trajan, first. Through the influence of Trajan, Hadrien received three consecutive Hadrien received three consecutive Hadrien received three consecutive military tribunships in Pannonia, military tribunships in Pannonia, military tribunships in Pannonia, Moicia, and Upper Germany Moicia, and Upper Germany Moicia, and Upper Germany successively. It was unusual for a young successively. It was unusual for a young successively. It was unusual for a young aristocrat to serve even two consecutive aristocrat to serve even two consecutive aristocrat to serve even two consecutive tours, as most simply did their year's tours, as most simply did their year's tours, as most simply did their year's service and went back to the comfort of service and went back to the comfort of service and went back to the comfort of their estates. But Trejan was obviously their estates. But Trejan was obviously their estates. But Trejan was obviously intent on instilling Hrien with all the intent on instilling Hrien with all the intent on instilling Hrien with all the marshall virtues that he himself so marshall virtues that he himself so marshall virtues that he himself so prized. For his part, Hadrien seems to prized. For his part, Hadrien seems to prized. For his part, Hadrien seems to have been an excellent and well-liked have been an excellent and well-liked have been an excellent and well-liked soldier. He enjoyed camp life. The soldier. He enjoyed camp life. The soldier. He enjoyed camp life. The camaraderie, the attention to detail, camaraderie, the attention to detail, camaraderie, the attention to detail, the rigorous exercise, all appealed to the rigorous exercise, all appealed to the rigorous exercise, all appealed to him, and for the rest of his life, he him, and for the rest of his life, he him, and for the rest of his life, he was able to come and go from legionary was able to come and go from legionary was able to come and go from legionary camps with ease, speaking the language camps with ease, speaking the language camps with ease, speaking the language of his soldiers and willingly sharing in

of his soldiers and willingly sharing in of his soldiers and willingly sharing in their hardships. their hardships. their hardships. Though he is remembered today as the Though he is remembered today as the Though he is remembered today as the quintessential pacifist emperor, Hadrien quintessential pacifist emperor, Hadrien quintessential pacifist emperor, Hadrien always loved military life and his always loved military life and his always loved military life and his troops in turn always loved troops in turn always loved troops in turn always loved him. It was while he was serving his him. It was while he was serving his him. It was while he was serving his second tribune ship in Moia that Hadrien second tribune ship in Moia that Hadrien second tribune ship in Moia that Hadrien learned that his elder cousin had been learned that his elder cousin had been learned that his elder cousin had been adopted by Nurva. And it was while he adopted by Nurva. And it was while he adopted by Nurva. And it was while he was serving on his third tour in Upper was serving on his third tour in Upper was serving on his third tour in Upper Germany a few months later that he Germany a few months later that he Germany a few months later that he learned that the old emperor was dead learned that the old emperor was dead learned that the old emperor was dead and Trejan now ruled in his own right. and Trejan now ruled in his own right. and Trejan now ruled in his own right. Tradition has it, as I mentioned, that Tradition has it, as I mentioned, that Tradition has it, as I mentioned, that it was Hrien himself who rode to it was Hrien himself who rode to it was Hrien himself who rode to Trajan's command post on the lower Rine Trajan's command post on the lower Rine Trajan's command post on the lower Rine and delivered news of Nurva's death. and delivered news of Nurva's death. and delivered news of Nurva's death. Just like that, in the span of about 4 Just like that, in the span of about 4 Just like that, in the span of about 4 months, Hrien went from a young months, Hrien went from a young months, Hrien went from a young provincial noble looking to get started provincial noble looking to get started provincial noble looking to get started on a career to the sole living male on a career to the sole living male on a career to the sole living male relative of the emperor of the Roman relative of the emperor of the Roman relative of the emperor of the Roman Empire. Needless to say, whatever Empire. Needless to say, whatever Empire. Needless to say, whatever ambitions he had had for himself were ambitions he had had for himself were ambitions he had had for himself were about to be ratcheted up about a,000%. But if Hadrien expected to be treated But if Hadrien expected to be treated like gas and Lucius or more recently like gas and Lucius or more recently like gas and Lucius or more recently Titus Flavius, he was sadly Titus Flavius, he was sadly Titus Flavius, he was sadly mistaken. Trajan showed absolutely no mistaken. Trajan showed absolutely no mistaken. Trajan showed absolutely no sign that he planned to share any of his sign that he planned to share any of his sign that he planned to share any of his imperial power with his young imperial power with his young imperial power with his young cousin. Hadrien's career would obviously cousin. Hadrien's career would obviously cousin. Hadrien's career would obviously receive a healthy leg up, but so did a receive a healthy leg up, but so did a receive a healthy leg up, but so did a lot of other people's careers. Everyone lot of other people's careers. Everyone lot of other people's careers. Everyone connected to Spanish Rome benefited from connected to Spanish Rome benefited from connected to Spanish Rome benefited from having one of their own on the throne.

having one of their own on the throne. having one of their own on the throne. But there is no indication that Trejan But there is no indication that Trejan But there is no indication that Trejan was any more or less disposed towards was any more or less disposed towards was any more or less disposed towards his former war than anyone else. Indeed, his former war than anyone else. Indeed, his former war than anyone else. Indeed, if we dig a little, we find that it's if we dig a little, we find that it's if we dig a little, we find that it's possible Trajan was skeptical that the possible Trajan was skeptical that the possible Trajan was skeptical that the brash bordering on flamboyant Greekling brash bordering on flamboyant Greekling brash bordering on flamboyant Greekling was fit for high office of any kind, and was fit for high office of any kind, and was fit for high office of any kind, and that it was the constant lobbying of that it was the constant lobbying of that it was the constant lobbying of Pompia who kept the future emperor's Pompia who kept the future emperor's Pompia who kept the future emperor's career moving steadily upward. career moving steadily upward. career moving steadily upward. Perhaps at Pompia's urging, Hadrien was Perhaps at Pompia's urging, Hadrien was Perhaps at Pompia's urging, Hadrien was assigned to act as the new emperor's assigned to act as the new emperor's assigned to act as the new emperor's official emissary in the Senate soon official emissary in the Senate soon official emissary in the Senate soon after Trajan's ascension. He was tasked after Trajan's ascension. He was tasked after Trajan's ascension. He was tasked with reading aloud the emperor's letters with reading aloud the emperor's letters with reading aloud the emperor's letters home, a job that apparently caused Hrien home, a job that apparently caused Hrien home, a job that apparently caused Hrien some embarrassment, as his rough accent, some embarrassment, as his rough accent, some embarrassment, as his rough accent, a mix of Spanish and military a mix of Spanish and military a mix of Spanish and military pronunciations, was ridiculed by the pronunciations, was ridiculed by the pronunciations, was ridiculed by the cultured Italian elite. cultured Italian elite. cultured Italian elite. But if he was bummed about not But if he was bummed about not But if he was bummed about not immediately being named Caesar and immediately being named Caesar and immediately being named Caesar and instead being turned into a glorified instead being turned into a glorified instead being turned into a glorified secretary, Hadrien could not help but secretary, Hadrien could not help but secretary, Hadrien could not help but believe he was still going to succeed believe he was still going to succeed believe he was still going to succeed Trejan one day as the emperor arranged Trejan one day as the emperor arranged Trejan one day as the emperor arranged for the daughter of his favorite niece for the daughter of his favorite niece for the daughter of his favorite niece Vivia Sabina to marry him in 100 AD, Vivia Sabina to marry him in 100 AD, Vivia Sabina to marry him in 100 AD, further strengthening the familial ties further strengthening the familial ties further strengthening the familial ties between the two between the two between the two men. The marriage would prove to be men. The marriage would prove to be men. The marriage would prove to be politically useful but personally politically useful but personally politically useful but personally unhappy as neither seems to have liked unhappy as neither seems to have liked unhappy as neither seems to have liked the other very much. For one thing, the other very much. For one thing, the other very much. For one thing, Hrien appears to have had far more Hrien appears to have had far more Hrien appears to have had far more affection for his mother-in-law than his affection for his mother-in-law than his affection for his mother-in-law than his wife, which forever rankled young wife, which forever rankled young wife, which forever rankled young Sabina. And of course, it did not help Sabina. And of course, it did not help Sabina. And of course, it did not help any that Hrien was gay, a fact we'll any that Hrien was gay, a fact we'll any that Hrien was gay, a fact we'll explore in more detail next week.

explore in more detail next week. explore in more detail next week. Obviously, the marriage produced no Obviously, the marriage produced no Obviously, the marriage produced no children. children. children. Hrien's career continued its vague Hrien's career continued its vague Hrien's career continued its vague course upwards and we know that he course upwards and we know that he course upwards and we know that he accompanied Trejan on both legs of the accompanied Trejan on both legs of the accompanied Trejan on both legs of the Dian wars but we have no record of what Dian wars but we have no record of what Dian wars but we have no record of what if anything the young officer if anything the young officer if anything the young officer accomplished in his first tours of real accomplished in his first tours of real accomplished in his first tours of real combat duty. He was awarded a prader combat duty. He was awarded a prader combat duty. He was awarded a prader ship in 106 after the final victory over ship in 106 after the final victory over ship in 106 after the final victory over to Kebellis and was given command of a to Kebellis and was given command of a to Kebellis and was given command of a legion in Germany that same year. The legion in Germany that same year. The legion in Germany that same year. The next year he was assigned a prop next year he was assigned a prop next year he was assigned a prop prioratorship in Panonia and once again prioratorship in Panonia and once again prioratorship in Panonia and once again commanded a legion but in both cases he commanded a legion but in both cases he commanded a legion but in both cases he was still subordinate to the sitting was still subordinate to the sitting was still subordinate to the sitting provincial provincial provincial governor. In 108 he was granted a governor. In 108 he was granted a governor. In 108 he was granted a console ship but it was a less console ship but it was a less console ship but it was a less prestigious Suffach consil ship a minor prestigious Suffach consil ship a minor prestigious Suffach consil ship a minor slight that escaped no one's slight that escaped no one's slight that escaped no one's attention. Trejan was obviously of two attention. Trejan was obviously of two attention. Trejan was obviously of two minds about Hadrien. On the one hand, he minds about Hadrien. On the one hand, he minds about Hadrien. On the one hand, he was moving his cousin up in the world, was moving his cousin up in the world, was moving his cousin up in the world, but on the other, he wasn't coming close but on the other, he wasn't coming close but on the other, he wasn't coming close to granting him heir status, to granting him heir status, to granting him heir status, presumptive, apparent, or presumptive, apparent, or presumptive, apparent, or otherwise. What Hrien made of all this otherwise. What Hrien made of all this otherwise. What Hrien made of all this is anyone's guess. I would suppose that is anyone's guess. I would suppose that is anyone's guess. I would suppose that he was somewhere in between two he was somewhere in between two he was somewhere in between two extremes. He doesn't seem to have been extremes. He doesn't seem to have been extremes. He doesn't seem to have been vocally cranky that he was being denied vocally cranky that he was being denied vocally cranky that he was being denied what he felt was rightfully his, but what he felt was rightfully his, but what he felt was rightfully his, but neither does he seem to have been neither does he seem to have been neither does he seem to have been relieved that he wasn't going to wind up relieved that he wasn't going to wind up relieved that he wasn't going to wind up on the hot seat himself one day.

on the hot seat himself one day. on the hot seat himself one day. He was ambitious and he was capable and He was ambitious and he was capable and He was ambitious and he was capable and likely coveted the imperial throne, but likely coveted the imperial throne, but likely coveted the imperial throne, but he wasn't marching around with an he wasn't marching around with an he wasn't marching around with an immature sense of entitlement immature sense of entitlement immature sense of entitlement either. He sort of disappears from the either. He sort of disappears from the either. He sort of disappears from the public record for a few years following public record for a few years following public record for a few years following his consilhship, eventually turning up his consilhship, eventually turning up his consilhship, eventually turning up in Athens in 112, where he was an eager in Athens in 112, where he was an eager in Athens in 112, where he was an eager tourist and student. He immersed himself tourist and student. He immersed himself tourist and student. He immersed himself in the cultural life of the city enough in the cultural life of the city enough in the cultural life of the city enough that he was given Athenian citizenship that he was given Athenian citizenship that he was given Athenian citizenship and elected an archon, one of the senior and elected an archon, one of the senior and elected an archon, one of the senior civic magistrates of the city. civic magistrates of the city. civic magistrates of the city. After his tour of Greece, Hadrien After his tour of Greece, Hadrien After his tour of Greece, Hadrien followed Trajan east in 114 and at least followed Trajan east in 114 and at least followed Trajan east in 114 and at least for the early part of the new campaign for the early part of the new campaign for the early part of the new campaign once again found himself assigned tasks once again found himself assigned tasks once again found himself assigned tasks beneath the purview of beneath the purview of beneath the purview of historians. He was likely attached to historians. He was likely attached to historians. He was likely attached to Trajan's staff as Cash's Dio mentions Trajan's staff as Cash's Dio mentions Trajan's staff as Cash's Dio mentions that he shared in the quote day-to-day that he shared in the quote day-to-day that he shared in the quote day-to-day activities of the emperor. activities of the emperor. activities of the emperor. While we don't know exactly what he got While we don't know exactly what he got While we don't know exactly what he got up to, we know that he had a front row up to, we know that he had a front row up to, we know that he had a front row seat for the initial conquest and the seat for the initial conquest and the seat for the initial conquest and the local revolts that followed. The speed local revolts that followed. The speed local revolts that followed. The speed with which he abandoned Trajan's with which he abandoned Trajan's with which he abandoned Trajan's conquered territories tells us that conquered territories tells us that conquered territories tells us that through this period, the reliably loyal through this period, the reliably loyal through this period, the reliably loyal Hadrien was likely critical of Trajan's Hadrien was likely critical of Trajan's Hadrien was likely critical of Trajan's policies in private. But his doubts policies in private. But his doubts policies in private. But his doubts don't seem to have affected his don't seem to have affected his don't seem to have affected his relationship with the emperor. And in relationship with the emperor. And in relationship with the emperor. And in 117, Hadrien was finally given an 117, Hadrien was finally given an 117, Hadrien was finally given an independent command. and not just any independent command. and not just any independent command. and not just any command but the governorship of Syria, command but the governorship of Syria, command but the governorship of Syria, one of the most important posts in the one of the most important posts in the one of the most important posts in the empire. Trejan had recently reassigned empire. Trejan had recently reassigned empire. Trejan had recently reassigned the previous governor to Deia where a the previous governor to Deia where a the previous governor to Deia where a revolt was underway and for the first

revolt was underway and for the first revolt was underway and for the first time he decided to hand his cousin some time he decided to hand his cousin some time he decided to hand his cousin some real real real power. Clearly whatever doubts he had power. Clearly whatever doubts he had power. Clearly whatever doubts he had had about the Greek ling had been had about the Greek ling had been had about the Greek ling had been satisfied as the governorship of Syria satisfied as the governorship of Syria satisfied as the governorship of Syria was no token was no token was no token prize. For Hadrien the promotion could prize. For Hadrien the promotion could prize. For Hadrien the promotion could not have come at a better time. No one not have come at a better time. No one not have come at a better time. No one could have known it at the time, but could have known it at the time, but could have known it at the time, but Trejan was entering his final year in Trejan was entering his final year in Trejan was entering his final year in office, and the issue of succession was office, and the issue of succession was office, and the issue of succession was about to rear its ugly and thus far about to rear its ugly and thus far about to rear its ugly and thus far still utterly unadressed head. It was by still utterly unadressed head. It was by still utterly unadressed head. It was by a lucky stroke of fate, then that rather a lucky stroke of fate, then that rather a lucky stroke of fate, then that rather than being just another staff officer, than being just another staff officer, than being just another staff officer, one likely assigned for no other reason one likely assigned for no other reason one likely assigned for no other reason than that he was related to the emperor, than that he was related to the emperor, than that he was related to the emperor, Hadrien found himself instead serving as Hadrien found himself instead serving as Hadrien found himself instead serving as the governor of Syria when Trajan died. the governor of Syria when Trajan died. the governor of Syria when Trajan died. Not only was it a prestigious and Not only was it a prestigious and Not only was it a prestigious and strategically critical post, but most strategically critical post, but most strategically critical post, but most importantly, it put him at the head of importantly, it put him at the head of importantly, it put him at the head of his very own army. It was one thing to his very own army. It was one thing to his very own army. It was one thing to buck for power from the shady corners of buck for power from the shady corners of buck for power from the shady corners of the Imperial entourage. It was quite the Imperial entourage. It was quite the Imperial entourage. It was quite another to do so from the head of the another to do so from the head of the another to do so from the head of the Eastern Eastern Eastern Legions. I don't think I need to rehash Legions. I don't think I need to rehash Legions. I don't think I need to rehash the circumstances of Trejun's death the circumstances of Trejun's death the circumstances of Trejun's death again, so I'll just leave it that again, so I'll just leave it that again, so I'll just leave it that Hadrien was in Antioch in August of 117 Hadrien was in Antioch in August of 117 Hadrien was in Antioch in August of 117 AD when he heard that Trejan was dead.

AD when he heard that Trejan was dead. AD when he heard that Trejan was dead. Through the string polling of Pompia, Through the string polling of Pompia, Through the string polling of Pompia, Hrien found out slightly before everyone Hrien found out slightly before everyone Hrien found out slightly before everyone else, and he was forced to sit on the else, and he was forced to sit on the else, and he was forced to sit on the news. He also was forced to sit on the news. He also was forced to sit on the news. He also was forced to sit on the news that it was going to be announced news that it was going to be announced news that it was going to be announced that Trejan had named him heir. News that Trejan had named him heir. News that Trejan had named him heir. News that cannot have been easy to just sit that cannot have been easy to just sit that cannot have been easy to just sit on. There were more than a few of on. There were more than a few of on. There were more than a few of Trejan's lieutenants, though, who could Trejan's lieutenants, though, who could Trejan's lieutenants, though, who could easily picture themselves in the purple, easily picture themselves in the purple, easily picture themselves in the purple, so it was going to be important to play so it was going to be important to play so it was going to be important to play the transfer of power just right. For the transfer of power just right. For the transfer of power just right. For the most part, at least in the initial the most part, at least in the initial the most part, at least in the initial stages, Hadrien hit a pitch-perfect stages, Hadrien hit a pitch-perfect stages, Hadrien hit a pitch-perfect note. He marched out to the head of his note. He marched out to the head of his note. He marched out to the head of his Syrian legions and formally announced Syrian legions and formally announced Syrian legions and formally announced the news of Trejan's death, at which the news of Trejan's death, at which the news of Trejan's death, at which point the troops spontaneously hailed point the troops spontaneously hailed point the troops spontaneously hailed him as emperor, just as they had likely him as emperor, just as they had likely him as emperor, just as they had likely been instructed to do. He then drafted a been instructed to do. He then drafted a been instructed to do. He then drafted a note to the Senate apologizing for the note to the Senate apologizing for the note to the Senate apologizing for the haste with which his soldiers had haste with which his soldiers had haste with which his soldiers had embraced him. He was sorry events had embraced him. He was sorry events had embraced him. He was sorry events had moved so quickly that the Senate had moved so quickly that the Senate had moved so quickly that the Senate had been cut out of the process. He promised been cut out of the process. He promised been cut out of the process. He promised to continue Nerva and Trajan's policy of to continue Nerva and Trajan's policy of to continue Nerva and Trajan's policy of leaving senators more or less leaving senators more or less leaving senators more or less sacrosanked and promised that once he sacrosanked and promised that once he sacrosanked and promised that once he was sure the borders were secure that he was sure the borders were secure that he was sure the borders were secure that he would return to Rome and consult with would return to Rome and consult with would return to Rome and consult with the venerable conscript the venerable conscript the venerable conscript fathers. Back in Rome, all of this hit fathers. Back in Rome, all of this hit fathers. Back in Rome, all of this hit the Senate at the same time. Trajan was the Senate at the same time. Trajan was the Senate at the same time. Trajan was dead. He had named Hadrien heir. The dead. He had named Hadrien heir. The dead. He had named Hadrien heir. The Eastern Legions had gone ahead and Eastern Legions had gone ahead and Eastern Legions had gone ahead and hailed Hadrien as emperor and he had hailed Hadrien as emperor and he had hailed Hadrien as emperor and he had accepted. What could they do about it?

accepted. What could they do about it? accepted. What could they do about it? So they ratified the quote unquote last So they ratified the quote unquote last So they ratified the quote unquote last witches of Trajan and confirmed Hadrien witches of Trajan and confirmed Hadrien witches of Trajan and confirmed Hadrien as the new emperor, heaping on him all as the new emperor, heaping on him all as the new emperor, heaping on him all the titles and honors of his the titles and honors of his the titles and honors of his predecessor. Hadrien accepted most of predecessor. Hadrien accepted most of predecessor. Hadrien accepted most of the accolades, but pointedly refused the the accolades, but pointedly refused the the accolades, but pointedly refused the title father of the people, an honorific title father of the people, an honorific title father of the people, an honorific he felt should be earned, not just he felt should be earned, not just he felt should be earned, not just handed out handed out handed out willy-nilly. The first thing the new willy-nilly. The first thing the new willy-nilly. The first thing the new emperor did was travel to Cissia to emperor did was travel to Cissia to emperor did was travel to Cissia to oversee the funeral and cremation of oversee the funeral and cremation of oversee the funeral and cremation of Trajan. Obviously, he could not have Trajan. Obviously, he could not have Trajan. Obviously, he could not have done otherwise, but beyond the purely done otherwise, but beyond the purely done otherwise, but beyond the purely ceremonial optics, the trip allowed ceremonial optics, the trip allowed ceremonial optics, the trip allowed Hrien an early opportunity to meet Hrien an early opportunity to meet Hrien an early opportunity to meet face-tof face with Trejan's inner circle face-tof face with Trejan's inner circle face-tof face with Trejan's inner circle and confirm their behind-the-scenes and confirm their behind-the-scenes and confirm their behind-the-scenes support for his new support for his new support for his new administration. Though Hrien maintained administration. Though Hrien maintained administration. Though Hrien maintained a confident public front, there was a confident public front, there was a confident public front, there was still much to fear in the political still much to fear in the political still much to fear in the political backrooms and the legionary tents of the backrooms and the legionary tents of the backrooms and the legionary tents of the empire. empire. empire. He seems to have secured the support of He seems to have secured the support of He seems to have secured the support of the Trajan loyalists, but there were a the Trajan loyalists, but there were a the Trajan loyalists, but there were a handful of powerful rivals who would handful of powerful rivals who would handful of powerful rivals who would need to be dealt with quickly to ensure need to be dealt with quickly to ensure need to be dealt with quickly to ensure that his reign was more Augustus and that his reign was more Augustus and that his reign was more Augustus and less less less Galba. At first, his narrow purge would Galba. At first, his narrow purge would Galba. At first, his narrow purge would only put proverbial heads on the only put proverbial heads on the only put proverbial heads on the chopping block. But in a few months, chopping block. But in a few months, chopping block. But in a few months, real heads would roll, causing Hadrien real heads would roll, causing Hadrien real heads would roll, causing Hadrien all manner of political all manner of political all manner of political havoc. Initially though, Hadrien refused havoc. Initially though, Hadrien refused havoc. Initially though, Hadrien refused to do anything violent. His old guardian to do anything violent. His old guardian to do anything violent. His old guardian Ationis had risen to the rank of Ptorian Ationis had risen to the rank of Ptorian Ationis had risen to the rank of Ptorian prefect and wrote to Hadrien soon after prefect and wrote to Hadrien soon after prefect and wrote to Hadrien soon after the latter's ascension that a few the latter's ascension that a few the latter's ascension that a few senators were plotting a coup. The senators were plotting a coup. The senators were plotting a coup. The prefect counledled immediate executions,

prefect counledled immediate executions, prefect counledled immediate executions, but Hrien disagreed. This was no time to but Hrien disagreed. This was no time to but Hrien disagreed. This was no time to go around lopping off heads. Maybe later go around lopping off heads. Maybe later go around lopping off heads. Maybe later if there was proof of their continued if there was proof of their continued if there was proof of their continued sedition, but for now the official sedition, but for now the official sedition, but for now the official policy was wait and see. But though he was not in the mood to But though he was not in the mood to stain his new administration with blood, stain his new administration with blood, stain his new administration with blood, at least not yet, Hadrien was well aware at least not yet, Hadrien was well aware at least not yet, Hadrien was well aware of what the score was. Men who could not of what the score was. Men who could not of what the score was. Men who could not be counted on or who were suspected of be counted on or who were suspected of be counted on or who were suspected of their own imperial ambitions needed to their own imperial ambitions needed to their own imperial ambitions needed to be removed from their positions and be removed from their positions and be removed from their positions and replaced with men loyal to replaced with men loyal to replaced with men loyal to Hadrien. One of the first and most Hadrien. One of the first and most Hadrien. One of the first and most famous to go was Lucius Quietus, the famous to go was Lucius Quietus, the famous to go was Lucius Quietus, the North African general Trajan had left in North African general Trajan had left in North African general Trajan had left in command of the legions in Mesopotamia. command of the legions in Mesopotamia. command of the legions in Mesopotamia. An aggressive trajeite, Aquatus not only An aggressive trajeite, Aquatus not only An aggressive trajeite, Aquatus not only had motivation to unseat the new had motivation to unseat the new had motivation to unseat the new emperor, but also the means to do emperor, but also the means to do emperor, but also the means to do something about it. What Hadrien needed something about it. What Hadrien needed something about it. What Hadrien needed to deny his rival for power was the to deny his rival for power was the to deny his rival for power was the opportunity to act. So he opportunity to act. So he opportunity to act. So he unceremoniously terminated Quiet's unceremoniously terminated Quiet's unceremoniously terminated Quiet's command and ordered him to head back command and ordered him to head back command and ordered him to head back west.

west. west. This command change was then followed by This command change was then followed by This command change was then followed by the famous order that very possibly the famous order that very possibly the famous order that very possibly would have spurned Quietis into open would have spurned Quietis into open would have spurned Quietis into open revolt had he still been in charge and revolt had he still been in charge and revolt had he still been in charge and an order that would set the tone for an order that would set the tone for an order that would set the tone for Hadrien's entire reign. Just days after Hadrien's entire reign. Just days after Hadrien's entire reign. Just days after becoming emperor, Hadrien ordered the becoming emperor, Hadrien ordered the becoming emperor, Hadrien ordered the legions to begin withdrawing from all legions to begin withdrawing from all legions to begin withdrawing from all the territories in the east Trejan had the territories in the east Trejan had the territories in the east Trejan had just just just conquered. The order would come as a conquered. The order would come as a conquered. The order would come as a shock to the political classes, and had shock to the political classes, and had shock to the political classes, and had he not already established himself as a he not already established himself as a he not already established himself as a favorite son of the legions, it is favorite son of the legions, it is favorite son of the legions, it is likely they would have rioted when he likely they would have rioted when he likely they would have rioted when he more or less declared they were going to more or less declared they were going to more or less declared they were going to abandon the territory they had all just abandon the territory they had all just abandon the territory they had all just won with their blood and won with their blood and won with their blood and sweat. I say more or less because Hrien sweat. I say more or less because Hrien sweat. I say more or less because Hrien never made any formal announcement of never made any formal announcement of never made any formal announcement of his intentions, likely recognizing that his intentions, likely recognizing that his intentions, likely recognizing that an openly stated policy of withdrawal an openly stated policy of withdrawal an openly stated policy of withdrawal would have been political suicide. would have been political suicide. would have been political suicide. Instead, he just began recalling the Instead, he just began recalling the Instead, he just began recalling the expeditionary forces back to their expeditionary forces back to their expeditionary forces back to their former barracks on the west side of the former barracks on the west side of the former barracks on the west side of the Euphrates. It is not a decision Hrien Euphrates. It is not a decision Hrien Euphrates. It is not a decision Hrien entered into lightly, and the speed with entered into lightly, and the speed with entered into lightly, and the speed with which he implemented his new policy, and which he implemented his new policy, and which he implemented his new policy, and the tenacity with which he stuck to it the tenacity with which he stuck to it the tenacity with which he stuck to it in the face of domestic political in the face of domestic political in the face of domestic political attacks demonstrates that he'd been attacks demonstrates that he'd been attacks demonstrates that he'd been thinking about it for a very long time.

thinking about it for a very long time. thinking about it for a very long time. Indeed, as we'll see, the idea of Indeed, as we'll see, the idea of Indeed, as we'll see, the idea of withdrawing behind the traditional withdrawing behind the traditional withdrawing behind the traditional defensible Augustine borders of the defensible Augustine borders of the defensible Augustine borders of the empire was at the very core of Hadrien's empire was at the very core of Hadrien's empire was at the very core of Hadrien's being. The abandonment of Mesopotamia being. The abandonment of Mesopotamia being. The abandonment of Mesopotamia was no tactical retreat. It was a was no tactical retreat. It was a was no tactical retreat. It was a strategic strategic strategic realignment. That didn't make the bitter realignment. That didn't make the bitter realignment. That didn't make the bitter pill of reducing the territory of the pill of reducing the territory of the pill of reducing the territory of the empire go down any easier. But the new empire go down any easier. But the new empire go down any easier. But the new emperor was adamant about his vision for emperor was adamant about his vision for emperor was adamant about his vision for the future. And it is a testament to his the future. And it is a testament to his the future. And it is a testament to his political skill that he was able to make political skill that he was able to make political skill that he was able to make such a hugely unpopular decision stick. Next week, we'll see that Hrien's stick. Next week, we'll see that Hrien's vision for an eternally defensible vision for an eternally defensible vision for an eternally defensible empire was not limited to the empire was not limited to the empire was not limited to the Euphrates. All across the empire, he Euphrates. All across the empire, he Euphrates. All across the empire, he would build defensive fortifications to would build defensive fortifications to would build defensive fortifications to mark the permanent boundary of the mark the permanent boundary of the mark the permanent boundary of the civilized world. civilized world. civilized world. But if in so doing he earned himself a But if in so doing he earned himself a But if in so doing he earned himself a reputation as a pacifist, then we need reputation as a pacifist, then we need reputation as a pacifist, then we need to rethink the meaning of that word. to rethink the meaning of that word. to rethink the meaning of that word. Whatever else it is, building huge stone Whatever else it is, building huge stone Whatever else it is, building huge stone walls that restrict the movement of walls that restrict the movement of walls that restrict the movement of previously unmolested locals is not a previously unmolested locals is not a previously unmolested locals is not a passive passive passive move. I think Hrien is best described as move. I think Hrien is best described as move. I think Hrien is best described as running a highly aggressive defense. His running a highly aggressive defense. His running a highly aggressive defense. His goal was not to just sit back and man goal was not to just sit back and man goal was not to just sit back and man the walls. It was to project Roman power the walls. It was to project Roman power the walls. It was to project Roman power across the Mediterranean and control not across the Mediterranean and control not across the Mediterranean and control not just the civilized interior but the just the civilized interior but the just the civilized interior but the unruly tribes beyond the unruly tribes beyond the unruly tribes beyond the frontier. Not with military occupation frontier. Not with military occupation frontier. Not with military occupation but with overwhelming economic and but with overwhelming economic and but with overwhelming economic and political dominance.

political dominance. political dominance. [Music] Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Rome. Episode 82, Hadrien's Walls. Rome. Episode 82, Hadrien's Walls. Rome. Episode 82, Hadrien's Walls. When Hadrien ascended to the throne in When Hadrien ascended to the throne in When Hadrien ascended to the throne in 117 AD, the Roman Empire was actually in 117 AD, the Roman Empire was actually in 117 AD, the Roman Empire was actually in a more precarious position than is often a more precarious position than is often a more precarious position than is often remembered. Though Trajan had taken the remembered. Though Trajan had taken the remembered. Though Trajan had taken the empire to its greatest territorial empire to its greatest territorial empire to its greatest territorial extent and been a shining example of extent and been a shining example of extent and been a shining example of enlightened despatism, rips in the enlightened despatism, rips in the enlightened despatism, rips in the imperial fabric had begun to show up imperial fabric had begun to show up imperial fabric had begun to show up across the Mediterranean. across the Mediterranean. across the Mediterranean. We have already seen that the conquest We have already seen that the conquest We have already seen that the conquest of Mesopotamia was in name only as the of Mesopotamia was in name only as the of Mesopotamia was in name only as the entire region was either preparing for entire region was either preparing for entire region was either preparing for or already engaged in uprisings against or already engaged in uprisings against or already engaged in uprisings against the Roman the Roman the Roman occupation. A revolt in Deia occupation. A revolt in Deia occupation. A revolt in Deia necessitated the transfer of the capable necessitated the transfer of the capable necessitated the transfer of the capable governor of Syria to the troubled new governor of Syria to the troubled new governor of Syria to the troubled new province, a transfer, recall, that province, a transfer, recall, that province, a transfer, recall, that opened the spot for Hadrien up. And opened the spot for Hadrien up. And opened the spot for Hadrien up. And shortly thereafter, tribal elements in shortly thereafter, tribal elements in shortly thereafter, tribal elements in northern Britain began to violently northern Britain began to violently northern Britain began to violently strike at their imperial masters. But strike at their imperial masters. But strike at their imperial masters. But more destructive than any of these more destructive than any of these more destructive than any of these frontier revolts was an uprising that I frontier revolts was an uprising that I frontier revolts was an uprising that I have only mentioned in passing thus far

have only mentioned in passing thus far have only mentioned in passing thus far that deserves far more attention for the that deserves far more attention for the that deserves far more attention for the shocking violence that defined it. Yes, shocking violence that defined it. Yes, shocking violence that defined it. Yes, but also for the reactionary attitude it but also for the reactionary attitude it but also for the reactionary attitude it couldn't have helped but imprint on the couldn't have helped but imprint on the couldn't have helped but imprint on the new new new emperor. A reactionary attitude that emperor. A reactionary attitude that emperor. A reactionary attitude that would come back to haunt Hadrien later would come back to haunt Hadrien later would come back to haunt Hadrien later in his reign. I am talking of course in his reign. I am talking of course in his reign. I am talking of course about the second Jewish war. about the second Jewish war. about the second Jewish war. I mentioned the revolt in passing while I mentioned the revolt in passing while I mentioned the revolt in passing while talking about Trajan's troubled supply talking about Trajan's troubled supply talking about Trajan's troubled supply lines during the last phase of his lines during the last phase of his lines during the last phase of his Middle Eastern campaign, but really Middle Eastern campaign, but really Middle Eastern campaign, but really issues with Trajan supply lines is the issues with Trajan supply lines is the issues with Trajan supply lines is the real passing issue. The revolt itself is real passing issue. The revolt itself is real passing issue. The revolt itself is the thing. And as it engulfed the the thing. And as it engulfed the the thing. And as it engulfed the southwest Mediterranean, the loss of southwest Mediterranean, the loss of southwest Mediterranean, the loss of life was shocking even by ancient life was shocking even by ancient life was shocking even by ancient standards. standards. standards. After the Flavians methodically After the Flavians methodically After the Flavians methodically conquered Judea during the first Jewish conquered Judea during the first Jewish conquered Judea during the first Jewish war, many of the Jews who were not war, many of the Jews who were not war, many of the Jews who were not killed or sold into slavery fled their killed or sold into slavery fled their killed or sold into slavery fled their decimated homeland for greener pastures decimated homeland for greener pastures decimated homeland for greener pastures elsewhere in the empire. But their elsewhere in the empire. But their elsewhere in the empire. But their refusal to forsake their traditions and refusal to forsake their traditions and refusal to forsake their traditions and assimilate into the local Greco Roman assimilate into the local Greco Roman assimilate into the local Greco Roman societies they arrived in led to fear, societies they arrived in led to fear, societies they arrived in led to fear, anger, and resentment on both sides.

anger, and resentment on both sides. anger, and resentment on both sides. Locals couldn't understand why the Jews Locals couldn't understand why the Jews Locals couldn't understand why the Jews were being so stubborn and tried to were being so stubborn and tried to were being so stubborn and tried to force them to change their ways. While force them to change their ways. While force them to change their ways. While the newly arrived Jews felt nothing but the newly arrived Jews felt nothing but the newly arrived Jews felt nothing but hostility and oppression from their new hostility and oppression from their new hostility and oppression from their new neighbors. In 115, a man named Lucis, a neighbors. In 115, a man named Lucis, a neighbors. In 115, a man named Lucis, a Jewish leader from Sirene, the province Jewish leader from Sirene, the province Jewish leader from Sirene, the province neighboring Egypt to the west, finally neighboring Egypt to the west, finally neighboring Egypt to the west, finally decided he had had enough. Announced decided he had had enough. Announced decided he had had enough. Announced that as the new king of the Jews, he was that as the new king of the Jews, he was that as the new king of the Jews, he was declaring war on his helanized declaring war on his helanized declaring war on his helanized neighbors. Though there is a great deal neighbors. Though there is a great deal neighbors. Though there is a great deal of anti-semitic hyperbole in the ancient of anti-semitic hyperbole in the ancient of anti-semitic hyperbole in the ancient histories, it seems clear that Loulus histories, it seems clear that Loulus histories, it seems clear that Loulus led the Jews of Sirene on a campaign of led the Jews of Sirene on a campaign of led the Jews of Sirene on a campaign of cultural cleansing. cultural cleansing. cultural cleansing. Greek and Roman temples were destroyed. Greek and Roman temples were destroyed. Greek and Roman temples were destroyed. Civic buildings were sacked. And all Civic buildings were sacked. And all Civic buildings were sacked. And all non-Jewish inhabitants, military and non-Jewish inhabitants, military and non-Jewish inhabitants, military and civilian alike, were killed on civilian alike, were killed on civilian alike, were killed on site. The revolt soon spread to the site. The revolt soon spread to the site. The revolt soon spread to the neighboring province of Egypt north to neighboring province of Egypt north to neighboring province of Egypt north to the island of Cyprus and eventually into the island of Cyprus and eventually into the island of Cyprus and eventually into the newly conquered Mesopotamia, where the newly conquered Mesopotamia, where the newly conquered Mesopotamia, where local Jews attacked Trajan's rear guard local Jews attacked Trajan's rear guard local Jews attacked Trajan's rear guard garrisons. At the height of the anarchy, garrisons. At the height of the anarchy, garrisons. At the height of the anarchy, Luis was able to seize control of Luis was able to seize control of Luis was able to seize control of Alexandria, and the city was partially Alexandria, and the city was partially Alexandria, and the city was partially burned to the ground.

burned to the ground. burned to the ground. North on the closed island of Cyprus. North on the closed island of Cyprus. North on the closed island of Cyprus. Reports have it that upwards of 200,000 Reports have it that upwards of 200,000 Reports have it that upwards of 200,000 Greco Roman residents were slaughtered Greco Roman residents were slaughtered Greco Roman residents were slaughtered by the Jews. At first, Trejan was sure by the Jews. At first, Trejan was sure by the Jews. At first, Trejan was sure his local governors would be able to his local governors would be able to his local governors would be able to deal with the problem without the need deal with the problem without the need deal with the problem without the need for further imperial support. But after for further imperial support. But after for further imperial support. But after the prefect of Egypt withdrew from the prefect of Egypt withdrew from the prefect of Egypt withdrew from Alexandria, Trejan became convinced that Alexandria, Trejan became convinced that Alexandria, Trejan became convinced that this was a much bigger deal than he this was a much bigger deal than he this was a much bigger deal than he wanted it to be. wanted it to be. wanted it to be. He dispatched a trusty lieutenant named He dispatched a trusty lieutenant named He dispatched a trusty lieutenant named Marcus Turbo with enough troops to Marcus Turbo with enough troops to Marcus Turbo with enough troops to retake Alexandria and ordered a full retake Alexandria and ordered a full retake Alexandria and ordered a full legion onto the usually unoccupied legion onto the usually unoccupied legion onto the usually unoccupied island of Cypress to put down the island of Cypress to put down the island of Cypress to put down the marauding marauding marauding Jews. While Cypress was easily Jews. While Cypress was easily Jews. While Cypress was easily repacified, the fighting in Egypt was repacified, the fighting in Egypt was repacified, the fighting in Egypt was much tougher and Turbo was only able to much tougher and Turbo was only able to much tougher and Turbo was only able to declare victory in late 117 after Trejan declare victory in late 117 after Trejan declare victory in late 117 after Trejan was dead. Luis and what was left of his was dead. Luis and what was left of his was dead. Luis and what was left of his army fled to the Judean city of Laa army fled to the Judean city of Laa army fled to the Judean city of Laa where they were besieged by the where they were besieged by the where they were besieged by the commander of Trajan's eastern invasion commander of Trajan's eastern invasion commander of Trajan's eastern invasion force Lucius force Lucius force Lucius Quietus. Eventually this last stronghold Quietus. Eventually this last stronghold Quietus. Eventually this last stronghold fell as a result of famine and disease fell as a result of famine and disease fell as a result of famine and disease and Luis the other Jewish commanders and and Luis the other Jewish commanders and and Luis the other Jewish commanders and an untold number of civilians were an untold number of civilians were an untold number of civilians were executed by the executed by the executed by the Romans. For his success, Quietus was Romans. For his success, Quietus was Romans. For his success, Quietus was summarily dismissed as too great a summarily dismissed as too great a summarily dismissed as too great a threat to Hadrien's new and thus far threat to Hadrien's new and thus far threat to Hadrien's new and thus far still shaky hold on still shaky hold on still shaky hold on power. That this second Jewish war was power. That this second Jewish war was power. That this second Jewish war was still ongoing as the transfer of power still ongoing as the transfer of power still ongoing as the transfer of power from Trajan to Hadrien took place from Trajan to Hadrien took place from Trajan to Hadrien took place mightily into the new emperor's decision mightily into the new emperor's decision mightily into the new emperor's decision to abandon the east and consolidate to abandon the east and consolidate to abandon the east and consolidate Roman control over what was already Roman control over what was already Roman control over what was already theirs. Of course, in Hadrien's mind,

theirs. Of course, in Hadrien's mind, theirs. Of course, in Hadrien's mind, this included Judea, Jewish uprising or this included Judea, Jewish uprising or this included Judea, Jewish uprising or no Jewish uprising. And after the revolt no Jewish uprising. And after the revolt no Jewish uprising. And after the revolt was over, a legion was moved back into was over, a legion was moved back into was over, a legion was moved back into the province to ensure its true the province to ensure its true the province to ensure its true pacification. Hadrien may have already pacification. Hadrien may have already pacification. Hadrien may have already been formulating his long-term and been formulating his long-term and been formulating his long-term and ill-fated plan for what to do about the ill-fated plan for what to do about the ill-fated plan for what to do about the troublesome Jewish province, but for now troublesome Jewish province, but for now troublesome Jewish province, but for now it was enough that the violence was it was enough that the violence was it was enough that the violence was stopped. As for Sirene, where the revolt stopped. As for Sirene, where the revolt stopped. As for Sirene, where the revolt began, the ancient sources report that began, the ancient sources report that began, the ancient sources report that the province was so depopulated that the province was so depopulated that the province was so depopulated that Hadrien was forced to actively engage in Hadrien was forced to actively engage in Hadrien was forced to actively engage in a recolonization project later in his a recolonization project later in his a recolonization project later in his reign. The island of Cyprus simply reign. The island of Cyprus simply reign. The island of Cyprus simply banned outright any further Jewish banned outright any further Jewish banned outright any further Jewish settlement. With the endgame of the Jewish revolt With the endgame of the Jewish revolt serving as a backdrop and remember that serving as a backdrop and remember that serving as a backdrop and remember that Hadrien was living in Antioch at the Hadrien was living in Antioch at the Hadrien was living in Antioch at the time just up the road, Hadrien made his time just up the road, Hadrien made his time just up the road, Hadrien made his fateful decision to pull out of the east fateful decision to pull out of the east fateful decision to pull out of the east and allow the Parthion king Trajan had and allow the Parthion king Trajan had and allow the Parthion king Trajan had deposed to return to the deposed to return to the deposed to return to the throne. There is a lot of talk about how throne. There is a lot of talk about how throne. There is a lot of talk about how much the withdrawal struck at the heart much the withdrawal struck at the heart much the withdrawal struck at the heart of the Roman notion that their empire of the Roman notion that their empire of the Roman notion that their empire would expand forever. But I think much would expand forever. But I think much would expand forever. But I think much closer to their hearts was the worship closer to their hearts was the worship closer to their hearts was the worship of an obscure god named Terminus who was of an obscure god named Terminus who was of an obscure god named Terminus who was the patron of boundaries and who it was the patron of boundaries and who it was the patron of boundaries and who it was said Jupiter himself could not move.

said Jupiter himself could not move. said Jupiter himself could not move. Deep in the center of the Roman identity Deep in the center of the Roman identity Deep in the center of the Roman identity was not simply the notion that they was not simply the notion that they was not simply the notion that they would expand forever, but that what was would expand forever, but that what was would expand forever, but that what was taken once could never be lost. Once taken once could never be lost. Once taken once could never be lost. Once Terminus had set a new boundary, Jupiter Terminus had set a new boundary, Jupiter Terminus had set a new boundary, Jupiter himself could not move it. And yet here himself could not move it. And yet here himself could not move it. And yet here was Hadrien, a mere mortal, retreating was Hadrien, a mere mortal, retreating was Hadrien, a mere mortal, retreating from Terminus's new line, moving him from Terminus's new line, moving him from Terminus's new line, moving him backwards. I think this is really what backwards. I think this is really what backwards. I think this is really what offended the Senate, who were mightily offended the Senate, who were mightily offended the Senate, who were mightily offended by Hrien's decision. But Hrien, offended by Hrien's decision. But Hrien, offended by Hrien's decision. But Hrien, as I said, would stand firm, and the as I said, would stand firm, and the as I said, would stand firm, and the Eastern Pullout was just the opening Eastern Pullout was just the opening Eastern Pullout was just the opening shot in his war on future military shot in his war on future military shot in his war on future military adventurism. adventurism. adventurism. In October of 117, Hadrien decided that In October of 117, Hadrien decided that In October of 117, Hadrien decided that things in the east were settled enough things in the east were settled enough things in the east were settled enough that he could begin the journey back to that he could begin the journey back to that he could begin the journey back to Rome. He marched up along the Danube and Rome. He marched up along the Danube and Rome. He marched up along the Danube and inspected the imperial defenses, inspected the imperial defenses, inspected the imperial defenses, appointing a new governor of Lower appointing a new governor of Lower appointing a new governor of Lower Moisia named Avidius Negrinus and took Moisia named Avidius Negrinus and took Moisia named Avidius Negrinus and took another shot at Terminus by ordering the another shot at Terminus by ordering the another shot at Terminus by ordering the legions to withdraw from the territory legions to withdraw from the territory legions to withdraw from the territory they had seized on the far side of the they had seized on the far side of the they had seized on the far side of the Danube. Like with Mesopotamia, Hrien Danube. Like with Mesopotamia, Hrien Danube. Like with Mesopotamia, Hrien determined the land was too difficult to determined the land was too difficult to determined the land was too difficult to hold for too little benefit. And as with hold for too little benefit. And as with hold for too little benefit. And as with Mesopotamia, the decision was met with Mesopotamia, the decision was met with Mesopotamia, the decision was met with ridicule in the ridicule in the ridicule in the Senate. Hadrien was digging himself into Senate. Hadrien was digging himself into Senate. Hadrien was digging himself into quite a political hole, and he would quite a political hole, and he would quite a political hole, and he would need to do some serious damage control need to do some serious damage control need to do some serious damage control when he returned to Rome. But before he when he returned to Rome. But before he when he returned to Rome. But before he made it back to Italy, that political made it back to Italy, that political made it back to Italy, that political hole would become something of a hole would become something of a hole would become something of a bottomless pit. either through Hrien's bottomless pit. either through Hrien's bottomless pit. either through Hrien's own misguided paranoia or because of the own misguided paranoia or because of the own misguided paranoia or because of the misguided paranoia of a few overzealous

misguided paranoia of a few overzealous misguided paranoia of a few overzealous allies. Or maybe it wasn't misguided at allies. Or maybe it wasn't misguided at allies. Or maybe it wasn't misguided at all. Maybe it was all totally all. Maybe it was all totally all. Maybe it was all totally justified. Whatever it was and whoever justified. Whatever it was and whoever justified. Whatever it was and whoever was behind it, the political murders of was behind it, the political murders of was behind it, the political murders of four ex consoles in early 118 would be a four ex consoles in early 118 would be a four ex consoles in early 118 would be a black mark that Hadrien would spend the black mark that Hadrien would spend the black mark that Hadrien would spend the rest of his life trying to spin, rest of his life trying to spin, rest of his life trying to spin, justify, deny, ignore, and just plain justify, deny, ignore, and just plain justify, deny, ignore, and just plain forget. forget. forget. The affair was eventually laid at the The affair was eventually laid at the The affair was eventually laid at the feet of Hadrien's old guardian and the feet of Hadrien's old guardian and the feet of Hadrien's old guardian and the current Ptorian prefect Aionis, who as I current Ptorian prefect Aionis, who as I current Ptorian prefect Aionis, who as I mentioned last week was from the word go mentioned last week was from the word go mentioned last week was from the word go urging Hadrien to engage in some kind of urging Hadrien to engage in some kind of urging Hadrien to engage in some kind of purge. Aianis supposedly uncovered purge. Aianis supposedly uncovered purge. Aianis supposedly uncovered information that the four highranking information that the four highranking information that the four highranking senators were engaged in a plot to senators were engaged in a plot to senators were engaged in a plot to murder or overthrow Hadrien and either murder or overthrow Hadrien and either murder or overthrow Hadrien and either at Hrien's direct order or on his own at Hrien's direct order or on his own at Hrien's direct order or on his own initiative had the men seized and initiative had the men seized and initiative had the men seized and executed without trial. executed without trial. executed without trial. The first two victims were Cornelius The first two victims were Cornelius The first two victims were Cornelius Palma, former governor of Syria, and Palma, former governor of Syria, and Palma, former governor of Syria, and Publius Kelsus, who had already been Publius Kelsus, who had already been Publius Kelsus, who had already been kicked out of Trajan's inner circle for kicked out of Trajan's inner circle for kicked out of Trajan's inner circle for suspicion of suspicion of suspicion of treason. Both of these men, Aionis had treason. Both of these men, Aionis had treason. Both of these men, Aionis had already advised Hrien to kill, though already advised Hrien to kill, though already advised Hrien to kill, though the first time around, as I said last the first time around, as I said last the first time around, as I said last week, Hrien advised less drastic week, Hrien advised less drastic week, Hrien advised less drastic measures.

measures. measures. The second two victims, though, seemed The second two victims, though, seemed The second two victims, though, seemed to come out of nowhere, and their deaths to come out of nowhere, and their deaths to come out of nowhere, and their deaths shocked the Roman elite, who became shocked the Roman elite, who became shocked the Roman elite, who became convinced that regardless of Hadrien's convinced that regardless of Hadrien's convinced that regardless of Hadrien's stated desire to leave the Senate in stated desire to leave the Senate in stated desire to leave the Senate in peace, that they were dealing with a peace, that they were dealing with a peace, that they were dealing with a megalomaniacal, psychopathic egotist. In megalomaniacal, psychopathic egotist. In megalomaniacal, psychopathic egotist. In other words, nothing less than the other words, nothing less than the other words, nothing less than the second coming of dimmission. second coming of dimmission. second coming of dimmission. The continuity is confused about who did The continuity is confused about who did The continuity is confused about who did what to who when. But at the end of the what to who when. But at the end of the what to who when. But at the end of the day, Lucius Quietus on his way home to day, Lucius Quietus on his way home to day, Lucius Quietus on his way home to Moretania and Avidius Negrinus, the Moretania and Avidius Negrinus, the Moretania and Avidius Negrinus, the recently appointed but quickly dismissed recently appointed but quickly dismissed recently appointed but quickly dismissed governor of Lower Moia, were both governor of Lower Moia, were both governor of Lower Moia, were both dead. Even more offensive than the dead. Even more offensive than the dead. Even more offensive than the murders themselves was the fact that murders themselves was the fact that murders themselves was the fact that Hadrien, or at the very least Ationis, Hadrien, or at the very least Ationis, Hadrien, or at the very least Ationis, had compelled the Senate to act as an had compelled the Senate to act as an had compelled the Senate to act as an accomplice. Just as had been dimmissions accomplice. Just as had been dimmissions accomplice. Just as had been dimmissions practice, the Senate was forced to sign practice, the Senate was forced to sign practice, the Senate was forced to sign the death warrants themselves, the death warrants themselves, the death warrants themselves, officially confirming that the threat officially confirming that the threat officially confirming that the threat against the new emperor was real and the against the new emperor was real and the against the new emperor was real and the executions executions executions justified. No one in the Senate believed justified. No one in the Senate believed justified. No one in the Senate believed a word of the trumped up charges, and a word of the trumped up charges, and a word of the trumped up charges, and the murderous coercion enraged them to a the murderous coercion enraged them to a the murderous coercion enraged them to a man.

man. man. When Hadrien finally arrived in Rome in When Hadrien finally arrived in Rome in When Hadrien finally arrived in Rome in July of 118, he was greeted by a more or July of 118, he was greeted by a more or July of 118, he was greeted by a more or less joyful citizen body, but was less joyful citizen body, but was less joyful citizen body, but was scorned by a super duper pissed-off scorned by a super duper pissed-off scorned by a super duper pissed-off Senate. Adrienne's wisdom, though, was Senate. Adrienne's wisdom, though, was Senate. Adrienne's wisdom, though, was not limited to law and justice and the not limited to law and justice and the not limited to law and justice and the arts and all the other things he is arts and all the other things he is arts and all the other things he is remembered for. It also included that remembered for. It also included that remembered for. It also included that keen sense of self-awareness that is an keen sense of self-awareness that is an keen sense of self-awareness that is an oftlooked quality of really effective oftlooked quality of really effective oftlooked quality of really effective leaders. leaders. leaders. In essence, Hadrien knew that he had In essence, Hadrien knew that he had In essence, Hadrien knew that he had stepped in it big time and that he stepped in it big time and that he stepped in it big time and that he needed to do everything in his power to needed to do everything in his power to needed to do everything in his power to repair the damage the murders had repair the damage the murders had repair the damage the murders had caused. The ambitious new emperor had an caused. The ambitious new emperor had an caused. The ambitious new emperor had an impressive list of things he wanted to impressive list of things he wanted to impressive list of things he wanted to accomplish during his years in power, accomplish during his years in power, accomplish during his years in power, and he knew nothing was going to get and he knew nothing was going to get and he knew nothing was going to get done if he was forever undercut by a done if he was forever undercut by a done if he was forever undercut by a sulking Senate. Or perhaps more likely, sulking Senate. Or perhaps more likely, sulking Senate. Or perhaps more likely, he was afraid that they would finally he was afraid that they would finally he was afraid that they would finally put together a real conspiracy and kill put together a real conspiracy and kill put together a real conspiracy and kill him outright. It had happened before. him outright. It had happened before. him outright. It had happened before. So Hadrien went out of his way to make So Hadrien went out of his way to make So Hadrien went out of his way to make amends. He pleaded innocence in the amends. He pleaded innocence in the amends. He pleaded innocence in the affair and claimed his subordinates had affair and claimed his subordinates had affair and claimed his subordinates had acted without his knowledge. He removed acted without his knowledge. He removed acted without his knowledge. He removed Aionis' prefect and swore up and down Aionis' prefect and swore up and down Aionis' prefect and swore up and down that he would prove good to his word that he would prove good to his word that he would prove good to his word that the Senate would remain that the Senate would remain that the Senate would remain sacrian. In the weeks that followed, he sacrian. In the weeks that followed, he sacrian. In the weeks that followed, he made sure to make himself seen publicly made sure to make himself seen publicly made sure to make himself seen publicly and invited anyone who so desired to and invited anyone who so desired to and invited anyone who so desired to come visit him at the imperial palace.

come visit him at the imperial palace. come visit him at the imperial palace. If they believed he would prove to be a If they believed he would prove to be a If they believed he would prove to be a reclusive autocratic demission, then he reclusive autocratic demission, then he reclusive autocratic demission, then he would show them with his actions that he would show them with his actions that he would show them with his actions that he was an available genial was an available genial was an available genial Augustus. In all his words and deeds, Augustus. In all his words and deeds, Augustus. In all his words and deeds, Hrien sought to continue the principate Hrien sought to continue the principate Hrien sought to continue the principate and studiously avoided anything that and studiously avoided anything that and studiously avoided anything that would remind anyone of dimmission's would remind anyone of dimmission's would remind anyone of dimmission's autocratic autocratic autocratic dominant. In a final nod to the dominant. In a final nod to the dominant. In a final nod to the disaffected Senate, he declared that disaffected Senate, he declared that disaffected Senate, he declared that henceforth any proceeds from legal henceforth any proceeds from legal henceforth any proceeds from legal penalties, fines and confiscations and penalties, fines and confiscations and penalties, fines and confiscations and such would go directly to the state such would go directly to the state such would go directly to the state treasury, not the imperial accounts. treasury, not the imperial accounts. treasury, not the imperial accounts. Hadrien hoped everyone would understand Hadrien hoped everyone would understand Hadrien hoped everyone would understand that under his regime, the fundraising that under his regime, the fundraising that under his regime, the fundraising possibilities of prescriptions and possibilities of prescriptions and possibilities of prescriptions and treason trials, that old imperial treason trials, that old imperial treason trials, that old imperial boogeyman, would be null and boogeyman, would be null and boogeyman, would be null and void. Though for a variety of reasons, void. Though for a variety of reasons, void. Though for a variety of reasons, he would never fully win over the he would never fully win over the he would never fully win over the Senate. In time, they at least came to Senate. In time, they at least came to Senate. In time, they at least came to believe that another reign of terror was believe that another reign of terror was believe that another reign of terror was no longer right around the corner. He no longer right around the corner. He no longer right around the corner. He may have been a lot of things, some good may have been a lot of things, some good may have been a lot of things, some good and some bad, but he was not another and some bad, but he was not another and some bad, but he was not another dimmission. With the Senate attended to dimmission. With the Senate attended to dimmission. With the Senate attended to as best as they could be, after all, as best as they could be, after all, as best as they could be, after all, time was the only salve that would truly time was the only salve that would truly time was the only salve that would truly heal their wounds, Hrien moved on to heal their wounds, Hrien moved on to heal their wounds, Hrien moved on to securing the support of the people at securing the support of the people at securing the support of the people at large.

large. large. He wanted to make a big splash, both to He wanted to make a big splash, both to He wanted to make a big splash, both to celebrate his ascension, but also to get celebrate his ascension, but also to get celebrate his ascension, but also to get the masses fully behind him so he could the masses fully behind him so he could the masses fully behind him so he could leverage his popularity with them leverage his popularity with them leverage his popularity with them against the suspicious against the suspicious against the suspicious Senate. A big splash then may actually Senate. A big splash then may actually Senate. A big splash then may actually be a bit of an understatement, and I be a bit of an understatement, and I be a bit of an understatement, and I have to believe that most citizens have to believe that most citizens have to believe that most citizens thought it some kind of joke when they thought it some kind of joke when they thought it some kind of joke when they heard that the emperor planned to cancel heard that the emperor planned to cancel heard that the emperor planned to cancel all outstanding debts on any state loan all outstanding debts on any state loan all outstanding debts on any state loan taken out in the past 15 years. But it taken out in the past 15 years. But it taken out in the past 15 years. But it was no joke. And to prove his point, he was no joke. And to prove his point, he was no joke. And to prove his point, he had the Ptorians march the loan records had the Ptorians march the loan records had the Ptorians march the loan records out into Trajan's forum and burn them out into Trajan's forum and burn them out into Trajan's forum and burn them all in a great p. A coin commemorates all in a great p. A coin commemorates all in a great p. A coin commemorates the event that, yeah, made Hadrien an the event that, yeah, made Hadrien an the event that, yeah, made Hadrien an instant hit with the instant hit with the instant hit with the people. He then announced that he people. He then announced that he people. He then announced that he intended to revise and extend the intended to revise and extend the intended to revise and extend the elementary system begun by Nerva and elementary system begun by Nerva and elementary system begun by Nerva and perpetuated by Trajan, and further the perpetuated by Trajan, and further the perpetuated by Trajan, and further the number of financial burdens that had number of financial burdens that had number of financial burdens that had previously been borne by the local previously been borne by the local previously been borne by the local municipalities would now be funded municipalities would now be funded municipalities would now be funded directly from the Imperial Treasury. directly from the Imperial Treasury. directly from the Imperial Treasury. Finally, Hrien gave the people what they Finally, Hrien gave the people what they Finally, Hrien gave the people what they really wanted. Games, games, and more really wanted. Games, games, and more really wanted. Games, games, and more games. Gladatorial shows and chariot games. Gladatorial shows and chariot games. Gladatorial shows and chariot races were a given. But Hrien's early races were a given. But Hrien's early races were a given. But Hrien's early games, especially the ones celebrating games, especially the ones celebrating games, especially the ones celebrating his 43rd birthday in January 119, marked his 43rd birthday in January 119, marked his 43rd birthday in January 119, marked Hrien as an unequal patron of wild Hrien as an unequal patron of wild Hrien as an unequal patron of wild animal hunts in the arena.

animal hunts in the arena. animal hunts in the arena. The emperor, somewhat in the face of The emperor, somewhat in the face of The emperor, somewhat in the face of aristocratic good taste, was an avid aristocratic good taste, was an avid aristocratic good taste, was an avid hunter and did his best to bring the hunter and did his best to bring the hunter and did his best to bring the thrill of felling a great beast to his thrill of felling a great beast to his thrill of felling a great beast to his subjects, who ate up all his bread and subjects, who ate up all his bread and subjects, who ate up all his bread and circuses with relish. With any descent in Italy more relish. With any descent in Italy more or less pacified, and his regime now or less pacified, and his regime now or less pacified, and his regime now fully legitimized, Hrien turned his fully legitimized, Hrien turned his fully legitimized, Hrien turned his attention to the provinces. attention to the provinces. attention to the provinces. But unlike previous emperors who were But unlike previous emperors who were But unlike previous emperors who were content to rule the empire by way of content to rule the empire by way of content to rule the empire by way of correspondence, Hadrien believed that correspondence, Hadrien believed that correspondence, Hadrien believed that the only way he could make a proper the only way he could make a proper the only way he could make a proper decision about anything was to be there decision about anything was to be there decision about anything was to be there for for for himself. Unlike Trajan, who was disposed himself. Unlike Trajan, who was disposed himself. Unlike Trajan, who was disposed to let his subordinates figure it out to let his subordinates figure it out to let his subordinates figure it out for themselves, Hadrien was a for themselves, Hadrien was a for themselves, Hadrien was a micromanager of the highest order, who micromanager of the highest order, who micromanager of the highest order, who had no intention of letting any decision had no intention of letting any decision had no intention of letting any decision of import pass his desk without comment. of import pass his desk without comment. of import pass his desk without comment. If you combine the need to micromanage If you combine the need to micromanage If you combine the need to micromanage with an active personality determined to with an active personality determined to with an active personality determined to assess all situations for himself, what assess all situations for himself, what assess all situations for himself, what you get is an emperor who has no you get is an emperor who has no you get is an emperor who has no intention of lounging around Rome all intention of lounging around Rome all intention of lounging around Rome all day. What you get is an emperor who will day. What you get is an emperor who will day. What you get is an emperor who will spend more time on the road and visit spend more time on the road and visit spend more time on the road and visit more provinces than any other emperor more provinces than any other emperor more provinces than any other emperor before or before or before or since. By my calculations, Hrien spent since. By my calculations, Hrien spent since. By my calculations, Hrien spent roughly half of his 21-year reign on one roughly half of his 21-year reign on one roughly half of his 21-year reign on one of his extended tours of the empire. And of his extended tours of the empire. And of his extended tours of the empire. And even when he was home in Italy, he even when he was home in Italy, he even when he was home in Italy, he resided at his villa in Tvoli rather resided at his villa in Tvoli rather resided at his villa in Tvoli rather than in Rome than in Rome than in Rome itself. The total number of hours he itself. The total number of hours he itself. The total number of hours he spent inside the city cannot be spent inside the city cannot be spent inside the city cannot be accurately calculated. But having spent accurately calculated. But having spent accurately calculated. But having spent his formative years in Spain, his early

his formative years in Spain, his early his formative years in Spain, his early career stationed in the provincial career stationed in the provincial career stationed in the provincial legions, and the majority of his reign legions, and the majority of his reign legions, and the majority of his reign on the road or at his Italian villa, I on the road or at his Italian villa, I on the road or at his Italian villa, I think it is safe to say that Rome saw think it is safe to say that Rome saw think it is safe to say that Rome saw less of Hadrien over the course of his less of Hadrien over the course of his less of Hadrien over the course of his life than any of his predecessors. life than any of his predecessors. life than any of his predecessors. As we move forward, this will become a As we move forward, this will become a As we move forward, this will become a growing trend as more militant growing trend as more militant growing trend as more militant provincials will dawn the purple and provincials will dawn the purple and provincials will dawn the purple and never even dain to return to the alleged never even dain to return to the alleged never even dain to return to the alleged capital of the empire. The trend will capital of the empire. The trend will capital of the empire. The trend will reach its full expression with the rise reach its full expression with the rise reach its full expression with the rise of Diolesian, who despised the city, and of Diolesian, who despised the city, and of Diolesian, who despised the city, and Constantine, who would abandon it Constantine, who would abandon it Constantine, who would abandon it forever. Hrien set out on his first forever. Hrien set out on his first forever. Hrien set out on his first grand tour in 121, intent on inspecting grand tour in 121, intent on inspecting grand tour in 121, intent on inspecting the Western Empire for himself. the Western Empire for himself. the Western Empire for himself. He had seen much of the east while He had seen much of the east while He had seen much of the east while attached to Trajan's staff, but had been attached to Trajan's staff, but had been attached to Trajan's staff, but had been away from the west for the better part away from the west for the better part away from the west for the better part of 15 years and wanted to make sure the of 15 years and wanted to make sure the of 15 years and wanted to make sure the frontiers were secure and the people frontiers were secure and the people frontiers were secure and the people prosperous. He headed north to inspect prosperous. He headed north to inspect prosperous. He headed north to inspect the Ryan legions, who had for so many the Ryan legions, who had for so many the Ryan legions, who had for so many years been the cream of the Roman armed years been the cream of the Roman armed years been the cream of the Roman armed forces, but since imperial focus had forces, but since imperial focus had forces, but since imperial focus had shifted east, had become somewhat of a shifted east, had become somewhat of a shifted east, had become somewhat of a lax force of time servers.

lax force of time servers. lax force of time servers. Hrien arrived in the camps and set about Hrien arrived in the camps and set about Hrien arrived in the camps and set about restoring discipline and a sense of restoring discipline and a sense of restoring discipline and a sense of purpose. But he was not all Martinette, purpose. But he was not all Martinette, purpose. But he was not all Martinette, and coupled with severity were reforms and coupled with severity were reforms and coupled with severity were reforms designed to increase the general designed to increase the general designed to increase the general happiness of his men, including a long happiness of his men, including a long happiness of his men, including a long overdue change to the laws restricting overdue change to the laws restricting overdue change to the laws restricting marriage while still in the service. He marriage while still in the service. He marriage while still in the service. He spent the rest of the year in the tents spent the rest of the year in the tents spent the rest of the year in the tents with his rin legions, joining them on with his rin legions, joining them on with his rin legions, joining them on their marches, often walking right their marches, often walking right their marches, often walking right alongside them, and never ever being alongside them, and never ever being alongside them, and never ever being carried in an opulent litter. While in carried in an opulent litter. While in carried in an opulent litter. While in Italy, Hadrien used the ornaments of Italy, Hadrien used the ornaments of Italy, Hadrien used the ornaments of power skillfully to subtly cow the power skillfully to subtly cow the power skillfully to subtly cow the Senate. But out in the provinces, he Senate. But out in the provinces, he Senate. But out in the provinces, he assued the trappings of power in favor assued the trappings of power in favor assued the trappings of power in favor of simple clothes and unpretentious lodgings. When he left the Rine in 122, lodgings. When he left the Rine in 122, he left his men more disciplined and he left his men more disciplined and he left his men more disciplined and more focused than they had been in more focused than they had been in more focused than they had been in years, which was a good thing because years, which was a good thing because years, which was a good thing because Hadrien had no intention of ever Hadrien had no intention of ever Hadrien had no intention of ever actually using them in battle. He left actually using them in battle. He left actually using them in battle. He left them instead happily toiling away on an them instead happily toiling away on an them instead happily toiling away on an extended upgrade to dimmission's lime extended upgrade to dimmission's lime extended upgrade to dimmission's lime germanicus which Hadrien hoped would germanicus which Hadrien hoped would germanicus which Hadrien hoped would give them a sense of purpose and more give them a sense of purpose and more give them a sense of purpose and more importantly exhaust them physically so importantly exhaust them physically so importantly exhaust them physically so that idle hands would not become the that idle hands would not become the that idle hands would not become the devil's playground.

devil's playground. devil's playground. The emperor's next stop was Bratannia, The emperor's next stop was Bratannia, The emperor's next stop was Bratannia, that foggy island on the edge of the that foggy island on the edge of the that foggy island on the edge of the world that as a minor province had world that as a minor province had world that as a minor province had hosted a surprising number of major hosted a surprising number of major hosted a surprising number of major imperial figures, including Julius imperial figures, including Julius imperial figures, including Julius Caesar, Claudius, Vespacian, Titus, and Caesar, Claudius, Vespacian, Titus, and Caesar, Claudius, Vespacian, Titus, and now now now Hadrien. Hrien's purpose in Britain was Hadrien. Hrien's purpose in Britain was Hadrien. Hrien's purpose in Britain was the same as his stop along the Rine. the same as his stop along the Rine. the same as his stop along the Rine. Inspect the frontier defenses and ensure Inspect the frontier defenses and ensure Inspect the frontier defenses and ensure the discipline and reliability of the the discipline and reliability of the the discipline and reliability of the legions stationed there. legions stationed there. legions stationed there. The island had seen a local revolt The island had seen a local revolt The island had seen a local revolt accompanying Trejan's death in 117, and accompanying Trejan's death in 117, and accompanying Trejan's death in 117, and Hadrien was looking for a permanent Hadrien was looking for a permanent Hadrien was looking for a permanent solution to the periodic British solution to the periodic British solution to the periodic British uprising. The emperor's solution became uprising. The emperor's solution became uprising. The emperor's solution became the defining artifact of his reign. the defining artifact of his reign. the defining artifact of his reign. This was certainly not Hrien's This was certainly not Hrien's This was certainly not Hrien's intention, given the myriad other intention, given the myriad other intention, given the myriad other splendid works of art and architecture splendid works of art and architecture splendid works of art and architecture he devoted his full time and attention he devoted his full time and attention he devoted his full time and attention to. But the 70-mi long wall he ordered to. But the 70-mi long wall he ordered to. But the 70-mi long wall he ordered built from the Sowway F to the North Sea built from the Sowway F to the North Sea built from the Sowway F to the North Sea has stood the test of time, and its has stood the test of time, and its has stood the test of time, and its stone ruins seem to tell the whole story stone ruins seem to tell the whole story stone ruins seem to tell the whole story of Hadrien's reign in one dull gray of Hadrien's reign in one dull gray of Hadrien's reign in one dull gray package. his peace and defense policy, package. his peace and defense policy, package. his peace and defense policy, his provincial travels, his love of his provincial travels, his love of his provincial travels, his love of architecture, his savvy economic and architecture, his savvy economic and architecture, his savvy economic and political instincts. It's all there in political instincts. It's all there in political instincts. It's all there in the wall that cuts a line across the wall that cuts a line across the wall that cuts a line across northern northern northern Britain. At its heart, though, the wall Britain. At its heart, though, the wall Britain. At its heart, though, the wall was not meant to be a simple defensive was not meant to be a simple defensive was not meant to be a simple defensive frontier, and we shouldn't accept the frontier, and we shouldn't accept the frontier, and we shouldn't accept the this side civilization, that side this side civilization, that side this side civilization, that side barbarism that summaries of historical barbarism that summaries of historical barbarism that summaries of historical summaries often reduce it to.

summaries often reduce it to. summaries often reduce it to. I think part of the key to understanding I think part of the key to understanding I think part of the key to understanding the true purpose of the wall is the fact the true purpose of the wall is the fact the true purpose of the wall is the fact that it biseected Burggante's that it biseected Burggante's that it biseected Burggante's territory. That strongest and typically territory. That strongest and typically territory. That strongest and typically allied with Roman interest, northern allied with Roman interest, northern allied with Roman interest, northern British tribe, had caused trouble British tribe, had caused trouble British tribe, had caused trouble before, had possibly been involved in before, had possibly been involved in before, had possibly been involved in the 117 difficulties, and no doubt was the 117 difficulties, and no doubt was the 117 difficulties, and no doubt was forever seen as a sleeping menace by the forever seen as a sleeping menace by the forever seen as a sleeping menace by the Roman Roman Roman authorities. By slicing their territory authorities. By slicing their territory authorities. By slicing their territory in two and forcing all north south in two and forcing all north south in two and forcing all north south traffic to pass through Roman traffic to pass through Roman traffic to pass through Roman checkpoints, the imperial authorities checkpoints, the imperial authorities checkpoints, the imperial authorities were able to effectively divide and were able to effectively divide and were able to effectively divide and monitor the monitor the monitor the Bgantes. The wall was also a tax Bgantes. The wall was also a tax Bgantes. The wall was also a tax collection point, a place where Roman collection point, a place where Roman collection point, a place where Roman civilization was able to take root in civilization was able to take root in civilization was able to take root in the form of the garrison towns that the form of the garrison towns that the form of the garrison towns that naturally grew around the legionary naturally grew around the legionary naturally grew around the legionary barracks. And of course, it was an awe barracks. And of course, it was an awe barracks. And of course, it was an awe inspiring projection of Roman power. inspiring projection of Roman power. inspiring projection of Roman power. It is interesting to remember that what It is interesting to remember that what It is interesting to remember that what we see today is just the leftover we see today is just the leftover we see today is just the leftover remains and that when it was originally remains and that when it was originally remains and that when it was originally built, Hadrien's wall was whitewashed a built, Hadrien's wall was whitewashed a built, Hadrien's wall was whitewashed a spotless ivory color. In the dark spotless ivory color. In the dark spotless ivory color. In the dark climate of the north, the wall was a climate of the north, the wall was a climate of the north, the wall was a glowing white line that reminded glowing white line that reminded glowing white line that reminded everyone who the true masters of the everyone who the true masters of the everyone who the true masters of the world world world were. Though the wall is of course a were. Though the wall is of course a were. Though the wall is of course a historical treasure, I can't help but historical treasure, I can't help but historical treasure, I can't help but laugh when I think of what Hrien's laugh when I think of what Hrien's laugh when I think of what Hrien's reaction would be upon learning that for reaction would be upon learning that for reaction would be upon learning that for all his philhelenism, patronage of the all his philhelenism, patronage of the all his philhelenism, patronage of the arts and sciences, and the myriad great arts and sciences, and the myriad great arts and sciences, and the myriad great temples he left in his wake, that a temples he left in his wake, that a temples he left in his wake, that a simple stone wall in far off Britain simple stone wall in far off Britain simple stone wall in far off Britain would be his defining legacy.

Leaving the British legions toiling away Leaving the British legions toiling away on a wall just as he had left the Ryan on a wall just as he had left the Ryan on a wall just as he had left the Ryan legions toiling away on their wall, legions toiling away on their wall, legions toiling away on their wall, Adrien headed south through Gaul and Adrien headed south through Gaul and Adrien headed south through Gaul and into his old home country of Spain, into his old home country of Spain, into his old home country of Spain, where he spent the winter of 1221 123, where he spent the winter of 1221 123, where he spent the winter of 1221 123, likely hunting and enjoying the rustic likely hunting and enjoying the rustic likely hunting and enjoying the rustic pleasures of the Iberian pleasures of the Iberian pleasures of the Iberian Peninsula. When spring came, he headed Peninsula. When spring came, he headed Peninsula. When spring came, he headed across the straits of Gibralar into across the straits of Gibralar into across the straits of Gibralar into Moritania, where a Morish rebellion had Moritania, where a Morish rebellion had Moritania, where a Morish rebellion had broken out. broken out. broken out. The brief rebellion seems to have come The brief rebellion seems to have come The brief rebellion seems to have come to nothing, but it would be enough to to nothing, but it would be enough to to nothing, but it would be enough to prompt Hadrien on a subsequent trip to prompt Hadrien on a subsequent trip to prompt Hadrien on a subsequent trip to Africa to order that a defensive line be Africa to order that a defensive line be Africa to order that a defensive line be built facing into the Atlas Mountains built facing into the Atlas Mountains built facing into the Atlas Mountains where the nomadic raiders were where the nomadic raiders were where the nomadic raiders were based. As with his wall in Britain, the based. As with his wall in Britain, the based. As with his wall in Britain, the North African wall was designed as much North African wall was designed as much North African wall was designed as much to manipulate and monitor traffic flow to manipulate and monitor traffic flow to manipulate and monitor traffic flow as anything else. The nomads needed to as anything else. The nomads needed to as anything else. The nomads needed to periodically cross the Roman frontier on periodically cross the Roman frontier on periodically cross the Roman frontier on their way to freshwater and pasture their way to freshwater and pasture their way to freshwater and pasture lands, and Hadrien wanted to make sure lands, and Hadrien wanted to make sure lands, and Hadrien wanted to make sure that they were inspected and counted as that they were inspected and counted as that they were inspected and counted as they came and they came and they came and went. Details of the rest of his stay in went. Details of the rest of his stay in went. Details of the rest of his stay in Africa are sketchy, but the imperial Africa are sketchy, but the imperial Africa are sketchy, but the imperial entourage seems to have headed east to entourage seems to have headed east to entourage seems to have headed east to the depopulated province of Sirene, the depopulated province of Sirene, the depopulated province of Sirene, where they then either set sail for where they then either set sail for where they then either set sail for Syria directly or where they simply Syria directly or where they simply Syria directly or where they simply passed through on their way to passed through on their way to passed through on their way to Alexandria, where they then set sail Alexandria, where they then set sail Alexandria, where they then set sail from. Either way, in June 123, Hadrien from. Either way, in June 123, Hadrien from. Either way, in June 123, Hadrien pops up in Antioch, where he intended to pops up in Antioch, where he intended to pops up in Antioch, where he intended to deal with a resurgent Parthion Empire. With their ill-defined political Empire. With their ill-defined political structure, the Parththeians were forever structure, the Parththeians were forever structure, the Parththeians were forever racked by internal squables over who racked by internal squables over who racked by internal squables over who should be king. But during the brief

should be king. But during the brief should be king. But during the brief periods where one claimant united the periods where one claimant united the periods where one claimant united the fractured eastern kingdoms, Rome had to fractured eastern kingdoms, Rome had to fractured eastern kingdoms, Rome had to be on guard against possible be on guard against possible be on guard against possible encroachment. And that was exactly what encroachment. And that was exactly what encroachment. And that was exactly what Hadrien was in Syria to do. Hadrien was in Syria to do. Hadrien was in Syria to do. But following the example of Augustus But following the example of Augustus But following the example of Augustus rather than Trajan, Hadrien planned to rather than Trajan, Hadrien planned to rather than Trajan, Hadrien planned to solve all the disputes between the two solve all the disputes between the two solve all the disputes between the two great empires great empires great empires diplomatically. Though the ancient diplomatically. Though the ancient diplomatically. Though the ancient sources are once again maddeningly sources are once again maddeningly sources are once again maddeningly vague, Hadrien appears to have met in vague, Hadrien appears to have met in vague, Hadrien appears to have met in personal conference with the Parthion personal conference with the Parthion personal conference with the Parthion king along the Euphrates, and the two king along the Euphrates, and the two king along the Euphrates, and the two hammered out a deal that confirmed the hammered out a deal that confirmed the hammered out a deal that confirmed the river as the border between them. river as the border between them. river as the border between them. The details of what concessions were The details of what concessions were The details of what concessions were made along the way were not recorded, made along the way were not recorded, made along the way were not recorded, but whatever the cost, Hadrien no doubt but whatever the cost, Hadrien no doubt but whatever the cost, Hadrien no doubt saw it as a cheaper alternative to the saw it as a cheaper alternative to the saw it as a cheaper alternative to the blood and treasure war in the East would blood and treasure war in the East would blood and treasure war in the East would naturally naturally naturally drain. The settlement once again sent drain. The settlement once again sent drain. The settlement once again sent the hawkish Senate into a tizzy, who the hawkish Senate into a tizzy, who the hawkish Senate into a tizzy, who couldn't understand why the emperor was couldn't understand why the emperor was couldn't understand why the emperor was bothering to deal with a kingdom the bothering to deal with a kingdom the bothering to deal with a kingdom the legions had so recently steamrolled. But legions had so recently steamrolled. But legions had so recently steamrolled. But Hadrien had a vision of peace and Hadrien had a vision of peace and Hadrien had a vision of peace and stability and he was not going to stability and he was not going to stability and he was not going to abandon it just to satisfy the egos of a abandon it just to satisfy the egos of a abandon it just to satisfy the egos of a bunch of rich old aristocrats back in bunch of rich old aristocrats back in bunch of rich old aristocrats back in Rome. Having come to terms with the Rome. Having come to terms with the Rome. Having come to terms with the Parththeians, Hadrien headed back to the Parththeians, Hadrien headed back to the Parththeians, Hadrien headed back to the west through Asia Minor. Throughout 124, west through Asia Minor. Throughout 124, west through Asia Minor. Throughout 124, he played the part of tourist, judge, he played the part of tourist, judge, he played the part of tourist, judge, and director of public works. and every and director of public works. and every and director of public works. and every stop along the way, and indeed stop along the way, and indeed stop along the way, and indeed practically every city he would ever practically every city he would ever practically every city he would ever visit during his 21 years in office, was visit during his 21 years in office, was visit during his 21 years in office, was left with an improved aqueduct system, left with an improved aqueduct system, left with an improved aqueduct system, an expanded street, or a new theater, or

an expanded street, or a new theater, or an expanded street, or a new theater, or some other civic improvement Hrien had some other civic improvement Hrien had some other civic improvement Hrien had devised or approved devised or approved devised or approved of. His last stop in Asia Minor before of. His last stop in Asia Minor before of. His last stop in Asia Minor before he landed in Athens in the autumn of 124 he landed in Athens in the autumn of 124 he landed in Athens in the autumn of 124 was the province of Bethnia Pontis on was the province of Bethnia Pontis on was the province of Bethnia Pontis on the southern coast of the Black Sea. the southern coast of the Black Sea. the southern coast of the Black Sea. The stopover is important because it was The stopover is important because it was The stopover is important because it was while passing through the city of while passing through the city of while passing through the city of Claudiopoulos that Hadrien possibly Claudiopoulos that Hadrien possibly Claudiopoulos that Hadrien possibly first met Antinuis, the young Bethnian first met Antinuis, the young Bethnian first met Antinuis, the young Bethnian who would come to mean so much to the who would come to mean so much to the who would come to mean so much to the emperor. No record exists of when the emperor. No record exists of when the emperor. No record exists of when the two first met, but the journey through two first met, but the journey through two first met, but the journey through Antinuis's home province is as likely a Antinuis's home province is as likely a Antinuis's home province is as likely a time as any. I thought I would get into time as any. I thought I would get into time as any. I thought I would get into the Hrien and Tinuous relationship this the Hrien and Tinuous relationship this the Hrien and Tinuous relationship this week, but I'm going to put it off until week, but I'm going to put it off until week, but I'm going to put it off until next week, as I would very much like to next week, as I would very much like to next week, as I would very much like to get Hrien back to Italy before we close get Hrien back to Italy before we close get Hrien back to Italy before we close out this week's episode. So, I'm just out this week's episode. So, I'm just out this week's episode. So, I'm just going to leave it that this is the time going to leave it that this is the time going to leave it that this is the time Hrien may have first laid eyes on the Hrien may have first laid eyes on the Hrien may have first laid eyes on the boy. Hadrien then crossed the Aian and boy. Hadrien then crossed the Aian and boy. Hadrien then crossed the Aian and settled into Athens for the winter. He settled into Athens for the winter. He settled into Athens for the winter. He was driven to make it back to the city was driven to make it back to the city was driven to make it back to the city before the famous rights of the before the famous rights of the before the famous rights of the Elucinian mysteries took place in the Elucinian mysteries took place in the Elucinian mysteries took place in the autumn. A mystical experience the autumn. A mystical experience the autumn. A mystical experience the emperor very much wanted to take part emperor very much wanted to take part emperor very much wanted to take part in. He arrived in time and became an in. He arrived in time and became an in. He arrived in time and became an initiate in the elaborate Greek mystery initiate in the elaborate Greek mystery initiate in the elaborate Greek mystery religion just as had Augustus before religion just as had Augustus before religion just as had Augustus before him. He spent the winter in Greece him. He spent the winter in Greece him. He spent the winter in Greece laying out plans to transform Athens laying out plans to transform Athens laying out plans to transform Athens from decaying backwater into refurbished from decaying backwater into refurbished from decaying backwater into refurbished cultural capital. A plan the Greeks cultural capital. A plan the Greeks cultural capital. A plan the Greeks looked upon as a mixed blessing. Ever looked upon as a mixed blessing. Ever looked upon as a mixed blessing. Ever proud of their historical independence, proud of their historical independence, proud of their historical independence, they appreciated the emperor's interest, they appreciated the emperor's interest, they appreciated the emperor's interest, but were a bit annoyed at the extent to

but were a bit annoyed at the extent to but were a bit annoyed at the extent to which Hadrien was planning to put his which Hadrien was planning to put his which Hadrien was planning to put his own stamp on the ancient own stamp on the ancient own stamp on the ancient city. Hadrien may have loved all things city. Hadrien may have loved all things city. Hadrien may have loved all things Greek, but the Greeks did not Greek, but the Greeks did not Greek, but the Greeks did not necessarily love all things necessarily love all things necessarily love all things Hadrien. By 125, Hadrien had been out of Hadrien. By 125, Hadrien had been out of Hadrien. By 125, Hadrien had been out of Italy for 4 years. And though if he had Italy for 4 years. And though if he had Italy for 4 years. And though if he had had his brothers, he probably would have had his brothers, he probably would have had his brothers, he probably would have just settled permanently in Athens, the just settled permanently in Athens, the just settled permanently in Athens, the city he truly loved, he knew that he had city he truly loved, he knew that he had city he truly loved, he knew that he had to return to Rome at some point, or the to return to Rome at some point, or the to return to Rome at some point, or the Senate would ratchet up their feelings Senate would ratchet up their feelings Senate would ratchet up their feelings of neglect into feelings of of neglect into feelings of of neglect into feelings of rebellion. But it would not be all bad. rebellion. But it would not be all bad. rebellion. But it would not be all bad. Before leaving, Hadrien had left Before leaving, Hadrien had left Before leaving, Hadrien had left detailed instructions for the detailed instructions for the detailed instructions for the construction of a new imperial villa construction of a new imperial villa construction of a new imperial villa complex in Tivoli, about 20 mi from complex in Tivoli, about 20 mi from complex in Tivoli, about 20 mi from Rome, that would be a little slice of Rome, that would be a little slice of Rome, that would be a little slice of Greece in the heart of Italy. His Greece in the heart of Italy. His Greece in the heart of Italy. His on-site managers had reported that the on-site managers had reported that the on-site managers had reported that the villa, while not totally finished, was villa, while not totally finished, was villa, while not totally finished, was at least habitable, and the emperor at least habitable, and the emperor at least habitable, and the emperor could look forward to residing in his could look forward to residing in his could look forward to residing in his new home upon his new home upon his new home upon his return. In 125, Hadrien sailed from return. In 125, Hadrien sailed from return. In 125, Hadrien sailed from Greece, and after passing through Sicily Greece, and after passing through Sicily Greece, and after passing through Sicily to inspect the bread basket of the to inspect the bread basket of the to inspect the bread basket of the empire, the emperor finally made his empire, the emperor finally made his empire, the emperor finally made his triumphant return to the capital.

triumphant return to the capital. triumphant return to the capital. Though he had no love for the city Though he had no love for the city Though he had no love for the city itself, his return meant that he could itself, his return meant that he could itself, his return meant that he could tour all of the new construction he had tour all of the new construction he had tour all of the new construction he had ordered before he ordered before he ordered before he left. Knowing that he was going to be left. Knowing that he was going to be left. Knowing that he was going to be gone for years, Hrien wanted to make gone for years, Hrien wanted to make gone for years, Hrien wanted to make sure the citizens of Rome did not feel sure the citizens of Rome did not feel sure the citizens of Rome did not feel that the emperor had forgotten them, and that the emperor had forgotten them, and that the emperor had forgotten them, and the capital was already feeling the the capital was already feeling the the capital was already feeling the effects of Hadrien's new architectural effects of Hadrien's new architectural effects of Hadrien's new architectural vision, including the recently completed vision, including the recently completed vision, including the recently completed reconstruction of a Grippa's burned out reconstruction of a Grippa's burned out reconstruction of a Grippa's burned out pantheon. Next week, we'll set out once again with Next week, we'll set out once again with Hadrien as the restless emperor tours Hadrien as the restless emperor tours Hadrien as the restless emperor tours the Italian peninsula, returns to North the Italian peninsula, returns to North the Italian peninsula, returns to North Africa, and then heads back to the Africa, and then heads back to the Africa, and then heads back to the Eastern Empire, where his heart truly Eastern Empire, where his heart truly Eastern Empire, where his heart truly resided. Along the way, he would pass resided. Along the way, he would pass resided. Along the way, he would pass through the destroyed ruins of through the destroyed ruins of through the destroyed ruins of Jerusalem, where he would make a fateful Jerusalem, where he would make a fateful Jerusalem, where he would make a fateful decision to rebrand the city and the decision to rebrand the city and the decision to rebrand the city and the wider territory of Judea as a truly wider territory of Judea as a truly wider territory of Judea as a truly Greco Roman province. A decision that Greco Roman province. A decision that Greco Roman province. A decision that would have serious consequences as yet would have serious consequences as yet would have serious consequences as yet another brutal Jewish revolt would break another brutal Jewish revolt would break another brutal Jewish revolt would break out, disrupting the uninterrupted peace out, disrupting the uninterrupted peace out, disrupting the uninterrupted peace had worked so hard to maintain had worked so hard to maintain had worked so hard to maintain [Music]

Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Rome. Episode 83. May his bones be Rome. Episode 83. May his bones be Rome. Episode 83. May his bones be crushed. In 125, Hadrien returned to crushed. In 125, Hadrien returned to crushed. In 125, Hadrien returned to Rome for the first time in 4 years. In Rome for the first time in 4 years. In Rome for the first time in 4 years. In that time he had completed one full that time he had completed one full that time he had completed one full counterclockwise circuit of the empire counterclockwise circuit of the empire counterclockwise circuit of the empire up through Gaul to Britain. Then down up through Gaul to Britain. Then down up through Gaul to Britain. Then down through Spain into Africa, east across through Spain into Africa, east across through Spain into Africa, east across North Africa, up into Syria, then west North Africa, up into Syria, then west North Africa, up into Syria, then west across Asia Minor to Greece, and then across Asia Minor to Greece, and then across Asia Minor to Greece, and then after a brief final stop in Sicily, back after a brief final stop in Sicily, back after a brief final stop in Sicily, back to the Italian to the Italian to the Italian Peninsula. His return to the capital was Peninsula. His return to the capital was Peninsula. His return to the capital was greeted with a mixture of enthusiasm by greeted with a mixture of enthusiasm by greeted with a mixture of enthusiasm by some, annoyance by others, and some, annoyance by others, and some, annoyance by others, and indifference by the rest. In the seven indifference by the rest. In the seven indifference by the rest. In the seven plus years Hadrien had already logged on plus years Hadrien had already logged on plus years Hadrien had already logged on the throne, he had earned a reputation the throne, he had earned a reputation the throne, he had earned a reputation as an everactive polymath executive as an everactive polymath executive as an everactive polymath executive whose interest extended to every corner whose interest extended to every corner whose interest extended to every corner of the of the of the empire. While the provincials loved the empire. While the provincials loved the empire. While the provincials loved the personal attention Hadrien lavished upon personal attention Hadrien lavished upon personal attention Hadrien lavished upon them, the Roman Romans, the ones who them, the Roman Romans, the ones who them, the Roman Romans, the ones who actually lived in Rome, were less actually lived in Rome, were less actually lived in Rome, were less enthused by the emperor's corresponding enthused by the emperor's corresponding enthused by the emperor's corresponding inattention. inattention. inattention. Hrien had kept the bread and circuses Hrien had kept the bread and circuses Hrien had kept the bread and circuses flowing and continued the building boom flowing and continued the building boom flowing and continued the building boom that had rolled on uninterrupted since that had rolled on uninterrupted since that had rolled on uninterrupted since the reign of dimmission. But there was a the reign of dimmission. But there was a the reign of dimmission. But there was a growing feeling that in most respects growing feeling that in most respects growing feeling that in most respects Hrien was not really one of them. In the Hrien was not really one of them. In the Hrien was not really one of them. In the final analysis, the emperor turned out final analysis, the emperor turned out final analysis, the emperor turned out to be a greapile Spaniard who loved all to be a greapile Spaniard who loved all to be a greapile Spaniard who loved all the things a proper Roman was supposed the things a proper Roman was supposed the things a proper Roman was supposed to hate, hunting, astrology, poetry. He to hate, hunting, astrology, poetry. He to hate, hunting, astrology, poetry. He was also an unapologetic and open was also an unapologetic and open was also an unapologetic and open homosexual. And of course, there was his homosexual. And of course, there was his homosexual. And of course, there was his trivial but somehow still trivial but somehow still trivial but somehow still earthshattering decision to abandon the

earthshattering decision to abandon the earthshattering decision to abandon the austere clean shaven face that had austere clean shaven face that had austere clean shaven face that had defined the look of the Roman defined the look of the Roman defined the look of the Roman aristocracy for centuries in favor of a aristocracy for centuries in favor of a aristocracy for centuries in favor of a full full full beard. Hadrien was an emperor, yes, but beard. Hadrien was an emperor, yes, but beard. Hadrien was an emperor, yes, but whether he was a Roman emperor was whether he was a Roman emperor was whether he was a Roman emperor was something of an open something of an open something of an open question. For his part, Hrien did not question. For his part, Hrien did not question. For his part, Hrien did not trouble himself too much with the social trouble himself too much with the social trouble himself too much with the social taboos he was upending, and for the most taboos he was upending, and for the most taboos he was upending, and for the most part, his iconoclasm seems to have part, his iconoclasm seems to have part, his iconoclasm seems to have happened by accident. That is to say, he happened by accident. That is to say, he happened by accident. That is to say, he wasn't deliberately setting himself wasn't deliberately setting himself wasn't deliberately setting himself against existing tradition. He was against existing tradition. He was against existing tradition. He was instead simply supremely confident in instead simply supremely confident in instead simply supremely confident in who he was and what he was who he was and what he was who he was and what he was doing. There are a couple of doing. There are a couple of doing. There are a couple of explanations for his beard, for example, explanations for his beard, for example, explanations for his beard, for example, from it being an extension of his from it being an extension of his from it being an extension of his philanism to it being an easy way to philanism to it being an easy way to philanism to it being an easy way to connect with rank and file soldiers who connect with rank and file soldiers who connect with rank and file soldiers who often wore beards to a simple desire to often wore beards to a simple desire to often wore beards to a simple desire to cover a pockmarked and warty face. But cover a pockmarked and warty face. But cover a pockmarked and warty face. But nowhere does anyone report that he wore nowhere does anyone report that he wore nowhere does anyone report that he wore a beard just to tick off the a beard just to tick off the a beard just to tick off the conservative elites back in Rome. On a conservative elites back in Rome. On a conservative elites back in Rome. On a larger scale, his promotion of Greece at larger scale, his promotion of Greece at larger scale, his promotion of Greece at the expense of Italy was not undertaken the expense of Italy was not undertaken the expense of Italy was not undertaken because he wanted to spit on Italian because he wanted to spit on Italian because he wanted to spit on Italian exceptionalism, but because he knew that exceptionalism, but because he knew that exceptionalism, but because he knew that the long-term interests of the empire the long-term interests of the empire the long-term interests of the empire begged for all of the provinces to begged for all of the provinces to begged for all of the provinces to become united on a more equal footing.

become united on a more equal footing. become united on a more equal footing. As I said when I was introducing Trajan, As I said when I was introducing Trajan, As I said when I was introducing Trajan, it was fast becoming counterproductive it was fast becoming counterproductive it was fast becoming counterproductive to view the empire as a collection of to view the empire as a collection of to view the empire as a collection of provinces ruled by Rome rather than a provinces ruled by Rome rather than a provinces ruled by Rome rather than a single cosmopolitan paniterranean single cosmopolitan paniterranean single cosmopolitan paniterranean political political political unit. While the vast majority of unit. While the vast majority of unit. While the vast majority of subjects within the empire eyed this subjects within the empire eyed this subjects within the empire eyed this change of focus with relish, it all went change of focus with relish, it all went change of focus with relish, it all went over like a lead balloon in Italy, where over like a lead balloon in Italy, where over like a lead balloon in Italy, where every man, woman, and child had been every man, woman, and child had been every man, woman, and child had been raised from birth to believe that they raised from birth to believe that they raised from birth to believe that they were in fact exceptional in every single were in fact exceptional in every single were in fact exceptional in every single way and ruled the world by divine right. Hrien lived in his villa at Tivoli from Hrien lived in his villa at Tivoli from 125 to the beginning of 127 conducting 125 to the beginning of 127 conducting 125 to the beginning of 127 conducting the business of empire from the newly the business of empire from the newly the business of empire from the newly constructed compound rather than from constructed compound rather than from constructed compound rather than from the imperial palace on the Palatine or the imperial palace on the Palatine or the imperial palace on the Palatine or god forbid the halls of the Senate. The god forbid the halls of the Senate. The god forbid the halls of the Senate. The world no longer revolved around Rome. It world no longer revolved around Rome. It world no longer revolved around Rome. It revolved around Hadrien, just as Hadrien revolved around Hadrien, just as Hadrien revolved around Hadrien, just as Hadrien wanted. In 127, he got restless again wanted. In 127, he got restless again wanted. In 127, he got restless again and decided to go on a quick tour of the and decided to go on a quick tour of the and decided to go on a quick tour of the one province he had thus far neglected, one province he had thus far neglected, one province he had thus far neglected, Italy itself. So he spent the rest of Italy itself. So he spent the rest of Italy itself. So he spent the rest of the year traveling around the peninsula, the year traveling around the peninsula, the year traveling around the peninsula, doing what he did best, adjudicating doing what he did best, adjudicating doing what he did best, adjudicating legal disputes and ordering legal disputes and ordering legal disputes and ordering architectural improvements in every architectural improvements in every architectural improvements in every municipality he passed through. It was municipality he passed through. It was municipality he passed through. It was during this tour that Hadrien decided to during this tour that Hadrien decided to during this tour that Hadrien decided to implement one of the few reforms that implement one of the few reforms that implement one of the few reforms that would not survive his death.

would not survive his death. would not survive his death. Future emperors would follow Hadrien's Future emperors would follow Hadrien's Future emperors would follow Hadrien's precedence consciously or unconsciously precedence consciously or unconsciously precedence consciously or unconsciously for years, right down to the bearded for years, right down to the bearded for years, right down to the bearded face. But the emperor's reform of face. But the emperor's reform of face. But the emperor's reform of Italian political administration would Italian political administration would Italian political administration would be repealed practically hours after he be repealed practically hours after he be repealed practically hours after he died. Since the days of Augustus, Italy died. Since the days of Augustus, Italy died. Since the days of Augustus, Italy had been divided into 17 administrative had been divided into 17 administrative had been divided into 17 administrative districts, but the local towns and districts, but the local towns and districts, but the local towns and cities were mostly left to their own cities were mostly left to their own cities were mostly left to their own devices. devices. devices. Hadrien decided to divide the peninsula Hadrien decided to divide the peninsula Hadrien decided to divide the peninsula into four zones, each run by an imperial into four zones, each run by an imperial into four zones, each run by an imperial procurator, who would answer directly to procurator, who would answer directly to procurator, who would answer directly to the the the emperor. It may seem an innocuous shift, emperor. It may seem an innocuous shift, emperor. It may seem an innocuous shift, but the Italians resented the hell out but the Italians resented the hell out but the Italians resented the hell out of the fact that Hadrien was effectively of the fact that Hadrien was effectively of the fact that Hadrien was effectively turning Italy into just another turning Italy into just another turning Italy into just another province. So, like I say, the province. So, like I say, the province. So, like I say, the reorganization of the peninsula would be reorganization of the peninsula would be reorganization of the peninsula would be repealed immediately once Hadrien wasn't repealed immediately once Hadrien wasn't repealed immediately once Hadrien wasn't around to defend this universally around to defend this universally around to defend this universally unpopular idea. unpopular idea. unpopular idea. Italian exceptionalism would die one Italian exceptionalism would die one Italian exceptionalism would die one day, but not yet. 127 also marked Hrien's 10th year yet. 127 also marked Hrien's 10th year in office, which he celebrated with in office, which he celebrated with in office, which he celebrated with appropriate games and banquetss. The appropriate games and banquetss. The appropriate games and banquetss. The auspicious occasion was marked with auspicious occasion was marked with auspicious occasion was marked with darkness, though, as the emperor seems darkness, though, as the emperor seems darkness, though, as the emperor seems to have either fallen ill or suffered to have either fallen ill or suffered to have either fallen ill or suffered from a serious accident that laid him up from a serious accident that laid him up from a serious accident that laid him up for months, right around the time of his for months, right around the time of his for months, right around the time of his denial celebrations.

denial celebrations. denial celebrations. But the emperor was not going to be held But the emperor was not going to be held But the emperor was not going to be held down for long. And in the spring of 128, down for long. And in the spring of 128, down for long. And in the spring of 128, he was healthy enough to make a return he was healthy enough to make a return he was healthy enough to make a return trip to North Africa, which he had been trip to North Africa, which he had been trip to North Africa, which he had been forced to speed through on his way to forced to speed through on his way to forced to speed through on his way to the summit with the Parththeians in the summit with the Parththeians in the summit with the Parththeians in 123. Before he left, though, he finally 123. Before he left, though, he finally 123. Before he left, though, he finally accepted the one honorific he had thus accepted the one honorific he had thus accepted the one honorific he had thus far refused, having decided he had far refused, having decided he had far refused, having decided he had finally done enough good to be hailed finally done enough good to be hailed finally done enough good to be hailed father of the people. father of the people. father of the people. On this latest trip to Africa, he was On this latest trip to Africa, he was On this latest trip to Africa, he was able to focus more intently on the able to focus more intently on the able to focus more intently on the particulars of the North African particulars of the North African particulars of the North African provinces, though the visit basically provinces, though the visit basically provinces, though the visit basically followed the standard Hriionic template. followed the standard Hriionic template. followed the standard Hriionic template. Inspect the troops, order defensive Inspect the troops, order defensive Inspect the troops, order defensive fortifications built, improve municipal fortifications built, improve municipal fortifications built, improve municipal infrastructure, and settle legal infrastructure, and settle legal infrastructure, and settle legal disputes. Hadrien's standout disputes. Hadrien's standout disputes. Hadrien's standout accomplishment during his time in Africa accomplishment during his time in Africa accomplishment during his time in Africa happened just as he was arriving. happened just as he was arriving. happened just as he was arriving. Plagued by drought, the arrival of the Plagued by drought, the arrival of the Plagued by drought, the arrival of the emperor had been accompanied by sudden emperor had been accompanied by sudden emperor had been accompanied by sudden rainstorms, prompting coins to be issued rainstorms, prompting coins to be issued rainstorms, prompting coins to be issued praising Hadrien the rain praising Hadrien the rain praising Hadrien the rain maker. Before the fall came, Hrien maker. Before the fall came, Hrien maker. Before the fall came, Hrien skipped back to Italy on his way to skipped back to Italy on his way to skipped back to Italy on his way to Greece, where he planned to take part in Greece, where he planned to take part in Greece, where he planned to take part in the Elysian mysteries for a second time.

the Elysian mysteries for a second time. the Elysian mysteries for a second time. this time as a full initiate. The cult this time as a full initiate. The cult this time as a full initiate. The cult tickled all the emperor's sweet spots tickled all the emperor's sweet spots tickled all the emperor's sweet spots from its classical Greek character to from its classical Greek character to from its classical Greek character to its overt mysticism to its ability to its overt mysticism to its ability to its overt mysticism to its ability to bring together the helanized world in bring together the helanized world in bring together the helanized world in one unifying one unifying one unifying ceremony. This last point stuck in the ceremony. This last point stuck in the ceremony. This last point stuck in the emperor's head and on this his third emperor's head and on this his third emperor's head and on this his third long-term stay in Greece. He initiated a long-term stay in Greece. He initiated a long-term stay in Greece. He initiated a plan to bring the Greeks together as a plan to bring the Greeks together as a plan to bring the Greeks together as a single political force. single political force. single political force. The Greeks had of course always been the The Greeks had of course always been the The Greeks had of course always been the cultural engine of the empire, but their cultural engine of the empire, but their cultural engine of the empire, but their long history of city-state independence long history of city-state independence long history of city-state independence and its attendant intro Greek and its attendant intro Greek and its attendant intro Greek squabbbling had always left them weak squabbbling had always left them weak squabbbling had always left them weak politically. So hot on the heels of his politically. So hot on the heels of his politically. So hot on the heels of his decision to downgrade Italy to just decision to downgrade Italy to just decision to downgrade Italy to just another province status. Hadrien pushed another province status. Hadrien pushed another province status. Hadrien pushed the Greeks to join together in a new the Greeks to join together in a new the Greeks to join together in a new panh helenian league designed to raise panh helenian league designed to raise panh helenian league designed to raise them from eastern backwater to major them from eastern backwater to major them from eastern backwater to major player. player. player. He personally lobbyed the magistrates of He personally lobbyed the magistrates of He personally lobbyed the magistrates of Athens and Sparta, the two most Athens and Sparta, the two most Athens and Sparta, the two most important and most antagonistic cities, important and most antagonistic cities, important and most antagonistic cities, to join in the new league that would to join in the new league that would to join in the new league that would unite Greece and bring them power within unite Greece and bring them power within unite Greece and bring them power within the empire that they had thus far never the empire that they had thus far never the empire that they had thus far never dreamed possible.

dreamed possible. dreamed possible. Intrigued by Hadrien's promise of Intrigued by Hadrien's promise of Intrigued by Hadrien's promise of increased influence, the Greeks began to increased influence, the Greeks began to increased influence, the Greeks began to work on the details of who would be work on the details of who would be work on the details of who would be allowed to join the League, where allowed to join the League, where allowed to join the League, where meetings would be held, for how long, meetings would be held, for how long, meetings would be held, for how long, and what the extent of its powers would and what the extent of its powers would and what the extent of its powers would be, and all the other minutiae that be, and all the other minutiae that be, and all the other minutiae that accompanied these sorts of high-minded accompanied these sorts of high-minded accompanied these sorts of high-minded diplomatic diplomatic diplomatic assemblies. Just to be clear, though, assemblies. Just to be clear, though, assemblies. Just to be clear, though, the practical power the new Panhalenian the practical power the new Panhalenian the practical power the new Panhalenian League would wield would be none, as League would wield would be none, as League would wield would be none, as Hadrien had no intention of Hadrien had no intention of Hadrien had no intention of relinquishing any imperial prerogatives. relinquishing any imperial prerogatives. relinquishing any imperial prerogatives. But he hoped a unified community of But he hoped a unified community of But he hoped a unified community of Greeks would nonetheless contribute to Greeks would nonetheless contribute to Greeks would nonetheless contribute to the future stability of the empire. the future stability of the empire. the future stability of the empire. Despite his hopes though, the League Despite his hopes though, the League Despite his hopes though, the League collapsed after his death. Without the collapsed after his death. Without the collapsed after his death. Without the emperor's active attention, the Greeks emperor's active attention, the Greeks emperor's active attention, the Greeks fell back to their old ways and did what fell back to their old ways and did what fell back to their old ways and did what Greeks do best, squabbbling with each Greeks do best, squabbbling with each Greeks do best, squabbbling with each other until the League was left an other until the League was left an other until the League was left an irrelevant irrelevant irrelevant shell. In 129, the emperor sailed from shell. In 129, the emperor sailed from shell. In 129, the emperor sailed from Athens to Anatolia. And from there he Athens to Anatolia. And from there he Athens to Anatolia. And from there he traveled down into the eastern provinces traveled down into the eastern provinces traveled down into the eastern provinces where he called together presumably in where he called together presumably in where he called together presumably in Antioch though I haven't been able to Antioch though I haven't been able to Antioch though I haven't been able to confirm that little detail the confirm that little detail the confirm that little detail the collection of client kings who served as collection of client kings who served as collection of client kings who served as the buffer between the empire proper and the buffer between the empire proper and the buffer between the empire proper and the barbarian lands beyond the frontier the barbarian lands beyond the frontier the barbarian lands beyond the frontier of of of civilization. For the hawkish Senate the civilization. For the hawkish Senate the civilization. For the hawkish Senate the summit was a complete embarrassment as summit was a complete embarrassment as summit was a complete embarrassment as it shoved in their faces once again it shoved in their faces once again it shoved in their faces once again Hadrien's policy of purchasing peace Hadrien's policy of purchasing peace Hadrien's policy of purchasing peace rather than fighting for it as had rather than fighting for it as had rather than fighting for it as had always been the Roman way.

always been the Roman way. always been the Roman way. Client kings were client kings because Client kings were client kings because Client kings were client kings because they were paid by the emperor to stay they were paid by the emperor to stay they were paid by the emperor to stay client kings. The crass financial nature client kings. The crass financial nature client kings. The crass financial nature of the relationship offended the Senate, of the relationship offended the Senate, of the relationship offended the Senate, but Hadrien paid them no mind, boasting but Hadrien paid them no mind, boasting but Hadrien paid them no mind, boasting about the fact that he had won more by about the fact that he had won more by about the fact that he had won more by doing nothing than others had by waging doing nothing than others had by waging doing nothing than others had by waging war. Hadrien then traveled south to war. Hadrien then traveled south to war. Hadrien then traveled south to Egypt in 130, but along the way he Egypt in 130, but along the way he Egypt in 130, but along the way he stopped off at the ruins of Jerusalem to stopped off at the ruins of Jerusalem to stopped off at the ruins of Jerusalem to take care of some unfinished business. take care of some unfinished business. take care of some unfinished business. The province had been heavily The province had been heavily The province had been heavily depopulated during the various Jewish depopulated during the various Jewish depopulated during the various Jewish revolts. Its great cities had been revolts. Its great cities had been revolts. Its great cities had been destroyed. The temple of Solomon had destroyed. The temple of Solomon had destroyed. The temple of Solomon had burned to the ground. And the political burned to the ground. And the political burned to the ground. And the political authority of the Jewish high priest a authority of the Jewish high priest a authority of the Jewish high priest a thing of the thing of the thing of the past. Hadrien decided to bring the past. Hadrien decided to bring the past. Hadrien decided to bring the troubled region back to life by troubled region back to life by troubled region back to life by annihilating the last vestigages of annihilating the last vestigages of annihilating the last vestigages of Judaism and rebranding the old province Judaism and rebranding the old province Judaism and rebranding the old province as a hellistic colony of the Grecoman as a hellistic colony of the Grecoman as a hellistic colony of the Grecoman world. world. world. He ordered the devastated Jerusalem He ordered the devastated Jerusalem He ordered the devastated Jerusalem rebuilt, renaming the city Alia rebuilt, renaming the city Alia rebuilt, renaming the city Alia Capitalina. The Alia part coming from Capitalina. The Alia part coming from Capitalina. The Alia part coming from Hrien's own name and the capitalina Hrien's own name and the capitalina Hrien's own name and the capitalina part, signaling that the city was part, signaling that the city was part, signaling that the city was dedicated in the name of Jupiter.

dedicated in the name of Jupiter. dedicated in the name of Jupiter. Hadrien then ordered a temple be built Hadrien then ordered a temple be built Hadrien then ordered a temple be built on the site of the old Jewish temple. on the site of the old Jewish temple. on the site of the old Jewish temple. And a front that on its own may have And a front that on its own may have And a front that on its own may have been enough to spark another revolt, but been enough to spark another revolt, but been enough to spark another revolt, but coupled with the emperor's new ban on coupled with the emperor's new ban on coupled with the emperor's new ban on circumcision was simply the straw that circumcision was simply the straw that circumcision was simply the straw that broke the camel's back. In just two broke the camel's back. In just two broke the camel's back. In just two years time, revolt in Judea would once years time, revolt in Judea would once years time, revolt in Judea would once again be headline news, and no fewer again be headline news, and no fewer again be headline news, and no fewer than 12 legions would be needed to than 12 legions would be needed to than 12 legions would be needed to prosecute and win the third Jewish prosecute and win the third Jewish prosecute and win the third Jewish war. Hadrien was blightly unaware of the war. Hadrien was blightly unaware of the war. Hadrien was blightly unaware of the train wreck he was setting in motion, train wreck he was setting in motion, train wreck he was setting in motion, though, and no doubt pleased with how though, and no doubt pleased with how though, and no doubt pleased with how nice and Greek he had left the region, nice and Greek he had left the region, nice and Greek he had left the region, he traveled south to Egypt, where he he traveled south to Egypt, where he he traveled south to Egypt, where he planned to indulge in every tourist trap planned to indulge in every tourist trap planned to indulge in every tourist trap the ancient kingdom had to offer. the ancient kingdom had to offer. the ancient kingdom had to offer. It is the emperor's trip up the Nile It is the emperor's trip up the Nile It is the emperor's trip up the Nile that finally brings us to the that finally brings us to the that finally brings us to the relationship that had dominated Hrien's relationship that had dominated Hrien's relationship that had dominated Hrien's personal life the past 5 years. His personal life the past 5 years. His personal life the past 5 years. His long-standing affair with the teenage long-standing affair with the teenage long-standing affair with the teenage boy boy boy Antinuis. Now, a homosexuality is a Antinuis. Now, a homosexuality is a Antinuis. Now, a homosexuality is a psychological identity was still 2,000 psychological identity was still 2,000 psychological identity was still 2,000 years or so from being created. And in years or so from being created. And in years or so from being created. And in the classical world, gender roles and the classical world, gender roles and the classical world, gender roles and sex were not nearly as defined as they sex were not nearly as defined as they sex were not nearly as defined as they are today. So it is hard to come right are today. So it is hard to come right are today. So it is hard to come right out and say that Hadrien was gay or that out and say that Hadrien was gay or that out and say that Hadrien was gay or that that made him unique among Roman that made him unique among Roman that made him unique among Roman emperors. Gibbon, for example, famously emperors. Gibbon, for example, famously emperors. Gibbon, for example, famously commented that Claudius was the only commented that Claudius was the only commented that Claudius was the only emperor whose taste in love was quote emperor whose taste in love was quote emperor whose taste in love was quote entirely entirely entirely correct. In the ancient world, the line correct. In the ancient world, the line correct. In the ancient world, the line of appropriateness came down to whether of appropriateness came down to whether of appropriateness came down to whether one was the dominant or passive partner.

one was the dominant or passive partner. one was the dominant or passive partner. The former being all well and good, The former being all well and good, The former being all well and good, while the latter was seen as a mark of while the latter was seen as a mark of while the latter was seen as a mark of great shame, and as with the case of great shame, and as with the case of great shame, and as with the case of Julius Caesar and Octavian both, the Julius Caesar and Octavian both, the Julius Caesar and Octavian both, the source of frequent political source of frequent political source of frequent political jabs. That all being said, though, there jabs. That all being said, though, there jabs. That all being said, though, there were certain mores concerning homosexual were certain mores concerning homosexual were certain mores concerning homosexual interactions that it seems, as in interactions that it seems, as in interactions that it seems, as in everything else he did with his life, everything else he did with his life, everything else he did with his life, flouted with impunity. His choice of flouted with impunity. His choice of flouted with impunity. His choice of partners, his complete abandonment of partners, his complete abandonment of partners, his complete abandonment of women, and above all, his willingness to women, and above all, his willingness to women, and above all, his willingness to do everything out in the open bothered do everything out in the open bothered do everything out in the open bothered the permissive, but subtly so Roman the permissive, but subtly so Roman the permissive, but subtly so Roman aristocracy. And this brings us to aristocracy. And this brings us to aristocracy. And this brings us to Intenuous, the boy from Bethnia. Intenuous, the boy from Bethnia. Intenuous, the boy from Bethnia. How the emperor and the young man met is How the emperor and the young man met is How the emperor and the young man met is a matter of historical speculation. But a matter of historical speculation. But a matter of historical speculation. But however he became attached to the however he became attached to the however he became attached to the imperial entourage, be it at Hrien's imperial entourage, be it at Hrien's imperial entourage, be it at Hrien's specific request or through some more specific request or through some more specific request or through some more general order by the emperor to bring general order by the emperor to bring general order by the emperor to bring all the most beautiful youth to his all the most beautiful youth to his all the most beautiful youth to his court. By 125, the 48-year-old Hadrien court. By 125, the 48-year-old Hadrien court. By 125, the 48-year-old Hadrien and the 14-year-old Antininois were and the 14-year-old Antininois were and the 14-year-old Antininois were likely living together openly in Hrien's likely living together openly in Hrien's likely living together openly in Hrien's Italian villa.

Italian villa. Italian villa. The age difference is shocking to modern The age difference is shocking to modern The age difference is shocking to modern sensibilities, but in a world where sensibilities, but in a world where sensibilities, but in a world where teenage girls were routinely married to teenage girls were routinely married to teenage girls were routinely married to middle-aged men, the gap was not a middle-aged men, the gap was not a middle-aged men, the gap was not a serious impedment to their serious impedment to their serious impedment to their relationship. Plus, one of those relationship. Plus, one of those relationship. Plus, one of those unstated mores regarding homosexual unstated mores regarding homosexual unstated mores regarding homosexual behavior was that a young man could behavior was that a young man could behavior was that a young man could indulge in a sort of exploratory indulge in a sort of exploratory indulge in a sort of exploratory bisexual period that was often guided by bisexual period that was often guided by bisexual period that was often guided by an older man during his teen years. So an older man during his teen years. So an older man during his teen years. So while the relationship between Hadrien while the relationship between Hadrien while the relationship between Hadrien and Antinuis was something of a scandal, and Antinuis was something of a scandal, and Antinuis was something of a scandal, those exploratory years were supposed to those exploratory years were supposed to those exploratory years were supposed to be handled with all due discretion by be handled with all due discretion by be handled with all due discretion by the older partner, the emperor himself the older partner, the emperor himself the older partner, the emperor himself felt no significant pressure to end the felt no significant pressure to end the felt no significant pressure to end the relationship. Besides, by all accounts, relationship. Besides, by all accounts, relationship. Besides, by all accounts, this was no fling for Hrien. He appears this was no fling for Hrien. He appears this was no fling for Hrien. He appears to have been genuinely in to have been genuinely in to have been genuinely in love. Antonis had been born in 111 in love. Antonis had been born in 111 in love. Antonis had been born in 111 in Bethnia and was by all accounts a Bethnia and was by all accounts a Bethnia and was by all accounts a beautiful young man. It is supposed that beautiful young man. It is supposed that beautiful young man. It is supposed that sometime around 124, Antinuis was sometime around 124, Antinuis was sometime around 124, Antinuis was enrolled in the imperial page program enrolled in the imperial page program enrolled in the imperial page program that trained young men for service as that trained young men for service as that trained young men for service as valet, secretaries, couriers, and valet, secretaries, couriers, and valet, secretaries, couriers, and whatever else the emperor required. It whatever else the emperor required. It whatever else the emperor required. It is also supposed that it was around the is also supposed that it was around the is also supposed that it was around the time Hadrien returned from his first time Hadrien returned from his first time Hadrien returned from his first tour of the empire in 125 that Antinuis tour of the empire in 125 that Antinuis tour of the empire in 125 that Antinuis officially joined the imperial officially joined the imperial officially joined the imperial entourage.

entourage. entourage. Moving into the emperor's villa, Moving into the emperor's villa, Moving into the emperor's villa, Antininois quickly became the emperor's Antininois quickly became the emperor's Antininois quickly became the emperor's constant companion. And for the next 5 constant companion. And for the next 5 constant companion. And for the next 5 years, wherever Hadrien went, so went years, wherever Hadrien went, so went years, wherever Hadrien went, so went Antininois. For all the happiness they Antininois. For all the happiness they Antininois. For all the happiness they shared, though, the couple was headed shared, though, the couple was headed shared, though, the couple was headed for a tragedy that we are still at a for a tragedy that we are still at a for a tragedy that we are still at a loss to explain loss to explain loss to explain today. In 130, as I said, the imperial today. In 130, as I said, the imperial today. In 130, as I said, the imperial court moved south into Egypt, where court moved south into Egypt, where court moved south into Egypt, where Hadrien intended to bask in the glow of Hadrien intended to bask in the glow of Hadrien intended to bask in the glow of the most ancient kingdom of the known the most ancient kingdom of the known the most ancient kingdom of the known world. They took in the pyramids and the world. They took in the pyramids and the world. They took in the pyramids and the Sphinx and visited the tomb of Alexander Sphinx and visited the tomb of Alexander Sphinx and visited the tomb of Alexander the Great. Then they boarded a grand the Great. Then they boarded a grand the Great. Then they boarded a grand flotillaa that headed up the Nile to the flotillaa that headed up the Nile to the flotillaa that headed up the Nile to the ancient Egyptian capital of Memphis and ancient Egyptian capital of Memphis and ancient Egyptian capital of Memphis and beyond. In October of 1:30, the flotilla beyond. In October of 1:30, the flotilla beyond. In October of 1:30, the flotilla stopped off at Hermopoulos to visit an stopped off at Hermopoulos to visit an stopped off at Hermopoulos to visit an old temple dedicated by Ramsy's II. And old temple dedicated by Ramsy's II. And old temple dedicated by Ramsy's II. And it was while inport there that the it was while inport there that the it was while inport there that the drowned body of Antinuis washed up on drowned body of Antinuis washed up on drowned body of Antinuis washed up on the banks. Hadrien was crushed. Like I said, no one knows for crushed. Like I said, no one knows for sure what happened, and I am certainly sure what happened, and I am certainly sure what happened, and I am certainly not going to push some version or not going to push some version or not going to push some version or another with certainty. Most of the another with certainty. Most of the another with certainty. Most of the ancient sources report that it was ancient sources report that it was ancient sources report that it was simply an accident while Antennis was simply an accident while Antennis was simply an accident while Antennis was off on a swim. But others suppose that off on a swim. But others suppose that off on a swim. But others suppose that Antennis committed suicide, either Antennis committed suicide, either Antennis committed suicide, either because he knew that the aged emperor because he knew that the aged emperor because he knew that the aged emperor would soon grow tired of him, or perhaps would soon grow tired of him, or perhaps would soon grow tired of him, or perhaps worse yet, that the emperor would not worse yet, that the emperor would not worse yet, that the emperor would not grow tired of him, and Antinuis would be grow tired of him, and Antinuis would be grow tired of him, and Antinuis would be trapped in a shameful pseudo marriage he trapped in a shameful pseudo marriage he trapped in a shameful pseudo marriage he could not control.

could not control. could not control. Still others state that Antinuis was Still others state that Antinuis was Still others state that Antinuis was sacrificed according to the mystical sacrificed according to the mystical sacrificed according to the mystical advice of Egyptian holy men who told the advice of Egyptian holy men who told the advice of Egyptian holy men who told the emperor he could achieve long life if emperor he could achieve long life if emperor he could achieve long life if another died in his another died in his another died in his place. In this last telling, some have place. In this last telling, some have place. In this last telling, some have it that Antinuis willingly gave himself it that Antinuis willingly gave himself it that Antinuis willingly gave himself up. Some that Hadrienne's agents killed up. Some that Hadrienne's agents killed up. Some that Hadrienne's agents killed the boy in his name, but without his the boy in his name, but without his the boy in his name, but without his knowledge, and others that Hrien ordered knowledge, and others that Hrien ordered knowledge, and others that Hrien ordered up the murder up the murder up the murder himself. What are we to make of this himself. What are we to make of this himself. What are we to make of this jumble? Honestly, I don't think anyone jumble? Honestly, I don't think anyone jumble? Honestly, I don't think anyone knows, but the emperor's reaction to the knows, but the emperor's reaction to the knows, but the emperor's reaction to the news seems to bely that he was anywhere news seems to bely that he was anywhere news seems to bely that he was anywhere near growing tired of the boy or that he near growing tired of the boy or that he near growing tired of the boy or that he ordered Antinuis killed. Because while ordered Antinuis killed. Because while ordered Antinuis killed. Because while in mourning, Hadrien founded a city in in mourning, Hadrien founded a city in in mourning, Hadrien founded a city in Antinuous's honor at the site where he Antinuous's honor at the site where he Antinuous's honor at the site where he died. died. died. Further, the various astrologers and Further, the various astrologers and Further, the various astrologers and mystics the emperor often kept hanging mystics the emperor often kept hanging mystics the emperor often kept hanging around assured the emperor that the new around assured the emperor that the new around assured the emperor that the new star in the sky he had detected was star in the sky he had detected was star in the sky he had detected was indeed Antinuis. And Hadrien declared indeed Antinuis. And Hadrien declared indeed Antinuis. And Hadrien declared that the boy had attained true godhood that the boy had attained true godhood that the boy had attained true godhood and a new cult would be created to and a new cult would be created to and a new cult would be created to worship worship worship him. In fact, as it stands, Antinuis is him. In fact, as it stands, Antinuis is him. In fact, as it stands, Antinuis is one of the most well-known faces of the one of the most well-known faces of the one of the most well-known faces of the ancient world due to the proliferation ancient world due to the proliferation ancient world due to the proliferation of statues and monuments Hadrien erected of statues and monuments Hadrien erected of statues and monuments Hadrien erected in his honor across the empire.

in his honor across the empire. in his honor across the empire. Eventually, Hadrien's sadness was Eventually, Hadrien's sadness was Eventually, Hadrien's sadness was overtaken by pressing business. But the overtaken by pressing business. But the overtaken by pressing business. But the cult of Antenna was spread across the cult of Antenna was spread across the cult of Antenna was spread across the east as local municipalities of every east as local municipalities of every east as local municipalities of every size quickly recognized that an easy way size quickly recognized that an easy way size quickly recognized that an easy way to curry favor with the emperor was to to curry favor with the emperor was to to curry favor with the emperor was to direct a few dollars to the worship of direct a few dollars to the worship of direct a few dollars to the worship of his dead lover. For a while, the cult of his dead lover. For a while, the cult of his dead lover. For a while, the cult of the now idealized vision of youthful the now idealized vision of youthful the now idealized vision of youthful beauty that Antinuis came to represent beauty that Antinuis came to represent beauty that Antinuis came to represent competed head-to-head with the emerging competed head-to-head with the emerging competed head-to-head with the emerging cult of Jesus Christ for adherence. Back in Rome, the news of Antinuis's Back in Rome, the news of Antinuis's death was accompanied by the news that death was accompanied by the news that death was accompanied by the news that Hadrien had ordered the boy Hadrien had ordered the boy Hadrien had ordered the boy deified. The Senate was taken aback by deified. The Senate was taken aback by deified. The Senate was taken aback by what they considered to be a double what they considered to be a double what they considered to be a double insult. First, there was the fact that a insult. First, there was the fact that a insult. First, there was the fact that a non-Imperial family member was being non-Imperial family member was being non-Imperial family member was being deified. Mothers, sisters, fathers, deified. Mothers, sisters, fathers, deified. Mothers, sisters, fathers, sons, they were all welcome in the cult sons, they were all welcome in the cult sons, they were all welcome in the cult of the Caesars. but a 19-year-old boy of the Caesars. but a 19-year-old boy of the Caesars. but a 19-year-old boy with no legal or familial connection to with no legal or familial connection to with no legal or familial connection to the emperor, who was by all accounts the emperor, who was by all accounts the emperor, who was by all accounts simply Hadrien's simply Hadrien's simply Hadrien's lover. People knew Caligula had really lover. People knew Caligula had really lover. People knew Caligula had really gone round the bend when he threatened gone round the bend when he threatened gone round the bend when he threatened to make his horse a console. Was this to make his horse a console. Was this to make his horse a console. Was this really so really so really so different? Perhaps the more pressing different? Perhaps the more pressing different? Perhaps the more pressing concern for the Senate, though, was that concern for the Senate, though, was that concern for the Senate, though, was that Hadrien, in his grief, had bypassed them Hadrien, in his grief, had bypassed them Hadrien, in his grief, had bypassed them completely. Emperors who wanted to stand completely. Emperors who wanted to stand completely. Emperors who wanted to stand the good side of the aristocracy asked the good side of the aristocracy asked the good side of the aristocracy asked the Senate's permission to deify dead the Senate's permission to deify dead the Senate's permission to deify dead relatives. It was just good manners. The relatives. It was just good manners. The relatives. It was just good manners. The last emperor to simply declare someone's last emperor to simply declare someone's last emperor to simply declare someone's divinity was dimmission very early on in divinity was dimmission very early on in divinity was dimmission very early on in his his his reign. Not that he really cared much

reign. Not that he really cared much reign. Not that he really cared much right at that moment, but by deifying right at that moment, but by deifying right at that moment, but by deifying intenuous, Hadrien suddenly found intenuous, Hadrien suddenly found intenuous, Hadrien suddenly found himself being compared not to Augustus himself being compared not to Augustus himself being compared not to Augustus and Trajan, but to Caligula and and Trajan, but to Caligula and and Trajan, but to Caligula and Demission. Demission. Demission. So, like I said, Hadrien never would get So, like I said, Hadrien never would get So, like I said, Hadrien never would get the aristocracy on his side. And when it the aristocracy on his side. And when it the aristocracy on his side. And when it came time for Antonyinus to deify came time for Antonyinus to deify came time for Antonyinus to deify Hadrien after the emperor's death in Hadrien after the emperor's death in Hadrien after the emperor's death in 137, well, that became something of a 137, well, that became something of a 137, well, that became something of a protracted struggle. Antonyinus finally protracted struggle. Antonyinus finally protracted struggle. Antonyinus finally threatened to resign, forcing the Senate threatened to resign, forcing the Senate threatened to resign, forcing the Senate to deify his adoptive father or face the to deify his adoptive father or face the to deify his adoptive father or face the prospect of civil war. After laying the foundations of the war. After laying the foundations of the new city of Antininois, Hrien made his new city of Antininois, Hrien made his new city of Antininois, Hrien made his way back down the Nile to Alexandria and way back down the Nile to Alexandria and way back down the Nile to Alexandria and from there seems to have headed for from there seems to have headed for from there seems to have headed for Greece. We don't know whether he Greece. We don't know whether he Greece. We don't know whether he returned to Italy at all in the returned to Italy at all in the returned to Italy at all in the meantime, but Hadrien was definitely in meantime, but Hadrien was definitely in meantime, but Hadrien was definitely in Athens in 132 when news came that a Athens in 132 when news came that a Athens in 132 when news came that a violent revolt had broken out in Judea. violent revolt had broken out in Judea. violent revolt had broken out in Judea. The reason why a rebellion broke out at The reason why a rebellion broke out at The reason why a rebellion broke out at that precise moment is still unknown. that precise moment is still unknown. that precise moment is still unknown. But in general, the Jews had been in a But in general, the Jews had been in a But in general, the Jews had been in a state of apoplelexi since Hadrien had state of apoplelexi since Hadrien had state of apoplelexi since Hadrien had wandered through their homeland, all but wandered through their homeland, all but wandered through their homeland, all but outlawed their religion, and then outlawed their religion, and then outlawed their religion, and then rebuilt Jerusalem as some pagan colony.

rebuilt Jerusalem as some pagan colony. rebuilt Jerusalem as some pagan colony. So, the fact that an uprising began at So, the fact that an uprising began at So, the fact that an uprising began at all was one of those when, not all was one of those when, not all was one of those when, not ifs. One thing we do know is that the ifs. One thing we do know is that the ifs. One thing we do know is that the revolt was not spontaneous. It was a revolt was not spontaneous. It was a revolt was not spontaneous. It was a carefully planned affair. It had carefully planned affair. It had carefully planned affair. It had probably been in the making from the probably been in the making from the probably been in the making from the moment Hadrien departed Judea for moment Hadrien departed Judea for moment Hadrien departed Judea for Egypt. In addition to the network of Egypt. In addition to the network of Egypt. In addition to the network of caves and tunnels the Jewish fighters caves and tunnels the Jewish fighters caves and tunnels the Jewish fighters constructed to offer safe harbor in what constructed to offer safe harbor in what constructed to offer safe harbor in what was sure to be a guerilla campaign, the was sure to be a guerilla campaign, the was sure to be a guerilla campaign, the Jewish leadership also hit upon a neat Jewish leadership also hit upon a neat Jewish leadership also hit upon a neat trick to help them secretly stockpile trick to help them secretly stockpile trick to help them secretly stockpile weapons. weapons. weapons. Knowing Hadrien's exceedingly high Knowing Hadrien's exceedingly high Knowing Hadrien's exceedingly high standards for military equipment, local standards for military equipment, local standards for military equipment, local Jewish craftsmen sent in deliberately Jewish craftsmen sent in deliberately Jewish craftsmen sent in deliberately shoddy weapons to the local Roman shoddy weapons to the local Roman shoddy weapons to the local Roman garrisons. When the equipment was garrisons. When the equipment was garrisons. When the equipment was predictably returned as substandard, it predictably returned as substandard, it predictably returned as substandard, it was picked out of the rubbish bin and was picked out of the rubbish bin and was picked out of the rubbish bin and reworked for use by the Jewish reworked for use by the Jewish reworked for use by the Jewish rebels. When the revolt finally did rebels. When the revolt finally did rebels. When the revolt finally did break out, Roman commanders were shocked break out, Roman commanders were shocked break out, Roman commanders were shocked at how well the Jews were at how well the Jews were at how well the Jews were armed. In 132, prepared as they were armed. In 132, prepared as they were armed. In 132, prepared as they were ever going to be, the Jewish leader, ever going to be, the Jewish leader, ever going to be, the Jewish leader, Simon Bar Kakba, announced that he was Simon Bar Kakba, announced that he was Simon Bar Kakba, announced that he was the Messiah Jewish prophecy had long the Messiah Jewish prophecy had long the Messiah Jewish prophecy had long promised and that he was going to drive promised and that he was going to drive promised and that he was going to drive the pagans out of Judea and restore the the pagans out of Judea and restore the the pagans out of Judea and restore the independent kingdom of independent kingdom of independent kingdom of Israel. At first, the lunatic ravings of Israel. At first, the lunatic ravings of Israel. At first, the lunatic ravings of yet another Jewish Messiah struck the yet another Jewish Messiah struck the yet another Jewish Messiah struck the local Roman administrator Tinus Rufus as local Roman administrator Tinus Rufus as local Roman administrator Tinus Rufus as beneath his time and attention. But it beneath his time and attention. But it beneath his time and attention. But it soon became clear that Simon was leading soon became clear that Simon was leading soon became clear that Simon was leading a well-armed and politically unified a well-armed and politically unified a well-armed and politically unified insurrection force. The two legions at insurrection force. The two legions at insurrection force. The two legions at Rufus' disposal sustained heavy damage

Rufus' disposal sustained heavy damage Rufus' disposal sustained heavy damage from the quick and mobile Jewish from the quick and mobile Jewish from the quick and mobile Jewish guerrillas, and reinforcements had to be guerrillas, and reinforcements had to be guerrillas, and reinforcements had to be sent in from Syria and Egypt. But the sent in from Syria and Egypt. But the sent in from Syria and Egypt. But the ineffectiveness of the new arrivals only ineffectiveness of the new arrivals only ineffectiveness of the new arrivals only bolstered Jewish confidence, and the bolstered Jewish confidence, and the bolstered Jewish confidence, and the legion from Egypt appears to have been legion from Egypt appears to have been legion from Egypt appears to have been completely wiped out sometime in 133. completely wiped out sometime in 133. completely wiped out sometime in 133. By this point, the whole province was in By this point, the whole province was in By this point, the whole province was in revolt, and the regular Jewish fighters revolt, and the regular Jewish fighters revolt, and the regular Jewish fighters found plenty of housing and supplies found plenty of housing and supplies found plenty of housing and supplies from non-combatant sympathizers across from non-combatant sympathizers across from non-combatant sympathizers across the the the country. Simon then declared country. Simon then declared country. Simon then declared independence for the new state of independence for the new state of independence for the new state of Israel, and with the Romans reeling from Israel, and with the Romans reeling from Israel, and with the Romans reeling from the unexpected force of the rebellion, the unexpected force of the rebellion, the unexpected force of the rebellion, the Jewish leadership found themselves the Jewish leadership found themselves the Jewish leadership found themselves in effective control of much of the in effective control of much of the in effective control of much of the province. Coins and edicts were issued, province. Coins and edicts were issued, province. Coins and edicts were issued, marking 132 as year one of a new Jewish marking 132 as year one of a new Jewish marking 132 as year one of a new Jewish state. state. state. But Hadrien was not going to stand by But Hadrien was not going to stand by But Hadrien was not going to stand by and watch a Roman province simply shrug and watch a Roman province simply shrug and watch a Roman province simply shrug off their imperial off their imperial off their imperial masters. He may have been a skeptic of masters. He may have been a skeptic of masters. He may have been a skeptic of the efficacy of war when it came to the efficacy of war when it came to the efficacy of war when it came to external threats, but internal threats external threats, but internal threats external threats, but internal threats were something else were something else were something else entirely. He ordered his best general, entirely. He ordered his best general, entirely. He ordered his best general, Sexus Julius Seis, to leave his post in Sexus Julius Seis, to leave his post in Sexus Julius Seis, to leave his post in Britain and make with all haste for Britain and make with all haste for Britain and make with all haste for Judea and pick up as many troops as he Judea and pick up as many troops as he Judea and pick up as many troops as he felt necessary along the felt necessary along the felt necessary along the way. Hadrien and Seis's plan was simple.

way. Hadrien and Seis's plan was simple. way. Hadrien and Seis's plan was simple. methodically use overwhelming force to methodically use overwhelming force to methodically use overwhelming force to crush the crush the crush the insurrection. It took plenty of time, insurrection. It took plenty of time, insurrection. It took plenty of time, money, and men to slowly grind out money, and men to slowly grind out money, and men to slowly grind out victory in Judea. But in 135, victory victory in Judea. But in 135, victory victory in Judea. But in 135, victory did did did come. It is reported that no fewer than come. It is reported that no fewer than come. It is reported that no fewer than 12 legions took part in the action that 12 legions took part in the action that 12 legions took part in the action that saw the Romans destroy 50 fortified saw the Romans destroy 50 fortified saw the Romans destroy 50 fortified towns and almost a thousand separate towns and almost a thousand separate towns and almost a thousand separate villages. villages. villages. In addition to the heavy Roman In addition to the heavy Roman In addition to the heavy Roman casualties, almost 600,000 Jews were casualties, almost 600,000 Jews were casualties, almost 600,000 Jews were killed during the retaking of killed during the retaking of killed during the retaking of Judea. Seis finally strangled off Simon Judea. Seis finally strangled off Simon Judea. Seis finally strangled off Simon in the last holdouts in 135, and the in the last holdouts in 135, and the in the last holdouts in 135, and the legions declared victory. legions declared victory. legions declared victory. The devastation and depopulation that The devastation and depopulation that The devastation and depopulation that accompanied this last Jewish war, a war accompanied this last Jewish war, a war accompanied this last Jewish war, a war many scholars mark as the true beginning many scholars mark as the true beginning many scholars mark as the true beginning of the diaspora, reminds one of Tacitus' of the diaspora, reminds one of Tacitus' of the diaspora, reminds one of Tacitus' famous line, which the historian famous line, which the historian famous line, which the historian attributed to a British chieftain, that attributed to a British chieftain, that attributed to a British chieftain, that the Romans make a desert, and they call the Romans make a desert, and they call the Romans make a desert, and they call it peace. Surveying this desert, Hrien peace. Surveying this desert, Hrien decided to double down on his plan to decided to double down on his plan to decided to double down on his plan to eradicate the Jews and leave in their eradicate the Jews and leave in their eradicate the Jews and leave in their place a helanized population of Greer place a helanized population of Greer place a helanized population of Greer Romans.

Romans. Romans. Hadrien's postwar policy then was Hadrien's postwar policy then was Hadrien's postwar policy then was nothing less than cultural nothing less than cultural nothing less than cultural genocide. He banned the Jews from genocide. He banned the Jews from genocide. He banned the Jews from entering Jerusalem, still called Alia, entering Jerusalem, still called Alia, entering Jerusalem, still called Alia, capitalina, continued his ban on capitalina, continued his ban on capitalina, continued his ban on circumcision, outlawed the Hebrew circumcision, outlawed the Hebrew circumcision, outlawed the Hebrew calendar, and prohibited the use of calendar, and prohibited the use of calendar, and prohibited the use of Torah law. The sacred scroll was carried Torah law. The sacred scroll was carried Torah law. The sacred scroll was carried up to the Temple Mount and burned. And up to the Temple Mount and burned. And up to the Temple Mount and burned. And for years afterward, Jewish scholars for years afterward, Jewish scholars for years afterward, Jewish scholars were executed for perpetuating their were executed for perpetuating their were executed for perpetuating their outlawed outlawed outlawed religion. As a final reminder that in religion. As a final reminder that in religion. As a final reminder that in Hadrien's eyes, Judaism was dead. The Hadrien's eyes, Judaism was dead. The Hadrien's eyes, Judaism was dead. The emperor renamed the province Syria emperor renamed the province Syria emperor renamed the province Syria Palestinia after the Philistines, that Palestinia after the Philistines, that Palestinia after the Philistines, that ancient enemy of the ancient enemy of the ancient enemy of the Jews. It is hard to understate the Jews. It is hard to understate the Jews. It is hard to understate the effect all this had on the future of effect all this had on the future of effect all this had on the future of Judaism. From 135 on, Judea was no Judaism. From 135 on, Judea was no Judaism. From 135 on, Judea was no longer the cultural, political, or longer the cultural, political, or longer the cultural, political, or religious center of Jewish life and religious center of Jewish life and religious center of Jewish life and would not be again until well into the would not be again until well into the would not be again until well into the modern era. modern era. modern era. The Jewish communities scattered across The Jewish communities scattered across The Jewish communities scattered across the Roman Empire were forced to look to the Roman Empire were forced to look to the Roman Empire were forced to look to an enclave of Babylonian Jews for an enclave of Babylonian Jews for an enclave of Babylonian Jews for guidance, safe as those leaders were guidance, safe as those leaders were guidance, safe as those leaders were within the more tolerant borders of the within the more tolerant borders of the within the more tolerant borders of the Parthion Empire. As I just mentioned, Parthion Empire. As I just mentioned, Parthion Empire. As I just mentioned, some scholars mark the true beginning of some scholars mark the true beginning of some scholars mark the true beginning of the diaspora at Hadrien's genocidal the diaspora at Hadrien's genocidal the diaspora at Hadrien's genocidal victory of 135 rather than by the tame victory of 135 rather than by the tame victory of 135 rather than by the tame by comparison victory of the Flavians in by comparison victory of the Flavians in by comparison victory of the Flavians in 70.

70. 70. For having ordered the death and For having ordered the death and For having ordered the death and enslavement of their race and the enslavement of their race and the enslavement of their race and the eradication of their religion, Hadrien eradication of their religion, Hadrien eradication of their religion, Hadrien is uniquely despised within Jewish is uniquely despised within Jewish is uniquely despised within Jewish histories, who always follow the histories, who always follow the histories, who always follow the emperor's name with the epitap, "May his emperor's name with the epitap, "May his emperor's name with the epitap, "May his bones be crushed." Next week, Hadrien will return crushed." Next week, Hadrien will return to Italy, where he will spend the last to Italy, where he will spend the last to Italy, where he will spend the last years of his life decaying into a years of his life decaying into a years of his life decaying into a bitter, agonized bitter, agonized bitter, agonized mess. Just as his ascension to power had mess. Just as his ascension to power had mess. Just as his ascension to power had been marked by political murder, so too been marked by political murder, so too been marked by political murder, so too would his release of it. would his release of it. would his release of it. These violent bookends to the emperor's These violent bookends to the emperor's These violent bookends to the emperor's career were all the proof the Senate career were all the proof the Senate career were all the proof the Senate needed to become convinced that despite needed to become convinced that despite needed to become convinced that despite all his avowed pacifism, generosity, all his avowed pacifism, generosity, all his avowed pacifism, generosity, wisdom, and benevolence, that Hrien was wisdom, and benevolence, that Hrien was wisdom, and benevolence, that Hrien was at his core a paranoid psychotic who at his core a paranoid psychotic who at his core a paranoid psychotic who would kill them all if given half a would kill them all if given half a would kill them all if given half a chance. chance. chance. [Music] Hello and welcome to the history of Hello and welcome to the history of Rome. Episode 84. Longing for Rome. Episode 84. Longing for Rome. Episode 84. Longing for death. Hadrien had been in Athens when

death. Hadrien had been in Athens when death. Hadrien had been in Athens when word came in 132 that another revolt had word came in 132 that another revolt had word came in 132 that another revolt had broken out in Judea. The 2 and 1/2 years broken out in Judea. The 2 and 1/2 years broken out in Judea. The 2 and 1/2 years of fighting to retake the province would of fighting to retake the province would of fighting to retake the province would prove to be the most significant prove to be the most significant prove to be the most significant military operation Rome would engage in military operation Rome would engage in military operation Rome would engage in during Hadrien's reign. And it is during Hadrien's reign. And it is during Hadrien's reign. And it is likely, bordering on confirmed fact, likely, bordering on confirmed fact, likely, bordering on confirmed fact, that the emperor traveled to the trouble that the emperor traveled to the trouble that the emperor traveled to the trouble region to oversee the campaign for region to oversee the campaign for region to oversee the campaign for himself. himself. himself. But he did not stick around to see the But he did not stick around to see the But he did not stick around to see the conflict's resolution. And by 134, the conflict's resolution. And by 134, the conflict's resolution. And by 134, the emperor was back in Italy, having left emperor was back in Italy, having left emperor was back in Italy, having left the prosecution of the war in the hands the prosecution of the war in the hands the prosecution of the war in the hands of his best general, Sexus Julius of his best general, Sexus Julius of his best general, Sexus Julius Seis. This final trip back from the east Seis. This final trip back from the east Seis. This final trip back from the east would mark Hadrien's last tour as the would mark Hadrien's last tour as the would mark Hadrien's last tour as the great traveling emperor, and when he great traveling emperor, and when he great traveling emperor, and when he settled into his vile Tvoli, whether he settled into his vile Tvoli, whether he settled into his vile Tvoli, whether he knew it or not, he was settling in for knew it or not, he was settling in for knew it or not, he was settling in for good. good. good. By all accounts, the last few years of By all accounts, the last few years of By all accounts, the last few years of Hadrien's reign were unhappy ones, both Hadrien's reign were unhappy ones, both Hadrien's reign were unhappy ones, both for the emperor himself and for everyone for the emperor himself and for everyone for the emperor himself and for everyone around him. His mental and physical around him. His mental and physical around him. His mental and physical health began to deteriorate, and as his health began to deteriorate, and as his health began to deteriorate, and as his life grew shorter, so too did his life grew shorter, so too did his life grew shorter, so too did his temper.

temper. temper. The image of himself Hadrien had worked The image of himself Hadrien had worked The image of himself Hadrien had worked so hard to create, that of a patient, so hard to create, that of a patient, so hard to create, that of a patient, generous, enlightened monarch, began to generous, enlightened monarch, began to generous, enlightened monarch, began to fall apart, and all the close friends fall apart, and all the close friends fall apart, and all the close friends and associates who had stood by his side and associates who had stood by his side and associates who had stood by his side through thick and thin, began to be through thick and thin, began to be through thick and thin, began to be pushed away one by pushed away one by pushed away one by one. Hadrien had been proud to call the one. Hadrien had been proud to call the one. Hadrien had been proud to call the best and brightest the empire had to best and brightest the empire had to best and brightest the empire had to offer his personal friends. When he offer his personal friends. When he offer his personal friends. When he died, though, he was attended by none died, though, he was attended by none died, though, he was attended by none but a few slaves. but a few slaves. but a few slaves. Every man who should have stood by the Every man who should have stood by the Every man who should have stood by the emperor as he slipped away was either emperor as he slipped away was either emperor as he slipped away was either dead or exiled or had chosen to withdraw dead or exiled or had chosen to withdraw dead or exiled or had chosen to withdraw from a ruler who seemed to be lashing from a ruler who seemed to be lashing from a ruler who seemed to be lashing out at those he trusted and who trusted out at those he trusted and who trusted out at those he trusted and who trusted him the him the him the most. Those who knew him best saw most. Those who knew him best saw most. Those who knew him best saw Hrien's final years as a departure from Hrien's final years as a departure from Hrien's final years as a departure from his natural disposition, while his his natural disposition, while his his natural disposition, while his enemies in the Senate saw it as enemies in the Senate saw it as enemies in the Senate saw it as confirmation that he had been a monster confirmation that he had been a monster confirmation that he had been a monster all along. For a while after he returned to along. For a while after he returned to Italy, things seemed to be okay. Hrien, Italy, things seemed to be okay. Hrien, Italy, things seemed to be okay. Hrien, naturally feeling the effects of nearly naturally feeling the effects of nearly naturally feeling the effects of nearly two decades on the throne, began to two decades on the throne, began to two decades on the throne, began to think about what the world would be like think about what the world would be like think about what the world would be like when he was gone. Frequent unstoppable when he was gone. Frequent unstoppable when he was gone. Frequent unstoppable nosebleleeds had him thinking about his nosebleleeds had him thinking about his nosebleleeds had him thinking about his own mortality. Who would follow him on own mortality. Who would follow him on own mortality. Who would follow him on the throne? And how would history the throne? And how would history the throne? And how would history remember remember remember him? Much like Augustus, Hadrien him? Much like Augustus, Hadrien him? Much like Augustus, Hadrien displayed concern about the future of displayed concern about the future of displayed concern about the future of both the Imperial Dynasty and the empire both the Imperial Dynasty and the empire both the Imperial Dynasty and the empire as a whole. For an emperor obsessed with as a whole. For an emperor obsessed with as a whole. For an emperor obsessed with the stability and strength of Rome, it the stability and strength of Rome, it the stability and strength of Rome, it would have been nearly impossible for would have been nearly impossible for would have been nearly impossible for him to treat the question of succession him to treat the question of succession him to treat the question of succession with the same cavalier attitude Trajan with the same cavalier attitude Trajan with the same cavalier attitude Trajan had had had displayed. He had spent his life

displayed. He had spent his life displayed. He had spent his life consolidating Rome's holdings and consolidating Rome's holdings and consolidating Rome's holdings and establishing peaceful relations with establishing peaceful relations with establishing peaceful relations with potential external threats. He did not potential external threats. He did not potential external threats. He did not want it all to be thrown away by some want it all to be thrown away by some want it all to be thrown away by some less enlightened less enlightened less enlightened successor. He needed to think long and successor. He needed to think long and successor. He needed to think long and hard about who he was going to hand hard about who he was going to hand hard about who he was going to hand power to. But it soon became apparent power to. But it soon became apparent power to. But it soon became apparent that the aging and very possibly dying that the aging and very possibly dying that the aging and very possibly dying emperor was not the same eminently emperor was not the same eminently emperor was not the same eminently rational man who had ruled the empire rational man who had ruled the empire rational man who had ruled the empire for so for so for so long. The ancient histories first point long. The ancient histories first point long. The ancient histories first point to the emperor's feud with Appalodoris to the emperor's feud with Appalodoris to the emperor's feud with Appalodoris of Damascus as proof that he was of Damascus as proof that he was of Damascus as proof that he was beginning to lose his beginning to lose his beginning to lose his grip. Hadrien who always fancied himself grip. Hadrien who always fancied himself grip. Hadrien who always fancied himself an excellent architect had designed a an excellent architect had designed a an excellent architect had designed a great temple of Venus that was dedicated great temple of Venus that was dedicated great temple of Venus that was dedicated in Rome in 135. in Rome in 135. in Rome in 135. Proud of what he considered a Proud of what he considered a Proud of what he considered a magnificent work of art, Hrien asked the magnificent work of art, Hrien asked the magnificent work of art, Hrien asked the greatest architect of his generation, greatest architect of his generation, greatest architect of his generation, Appalodoris, to comment on the design Appalodoris, to comment on the design Appalodoris, to comment on the design and and and construction. Obviously fishing for construction. Obviously fishing for construction. Obviously fishing for compliment, Hrien was deeply grieved compliment, Hrien was deeply grieved compliment, Hrien was deeply grieved when Appalodoris sent back a stern when Appalodoris sent back a stern when Appalodoris sent back a stern critique of the building's foundation, critique of the building's foundation, critique of the building's foundation, the line of sight for visitors the line of sight for visitors the line of sight for visitors approaching along the sacred way, the approaching along the sacred way, the approaching along the sacred way, the size of the doors, they were too small, size of the doors, they were too small, size of the doors, they were too small, and the size of the statue of Venus and the size of the statue of Venus and the size of the statue of Venus inside, it was too large. If Venus ever inside, it was too large. If Venus ever inside, it was too large. If Venus ever wished to go out for a stroll, wished to go out for a stroll, wished to go out for a stroll, Appalidoris costically informed the Appalidoris costically informed the Appalidoris costically informed the emperor she would be unable to fit emperor she would be unable to fit emperor she would be unable to fit through the through the through the entryway. Now, the emperor and the entryway. Now, the emperor and the entryway. Now, the emperor and the architect had been on tense terms for architect had been on tense terms for architect had been on tense terms for years. Standard legend has it that at years. Standard legend has it that at years. Standard legend has it that at some point during the Deian wars, some point during the Deian wars, some point during the Deian wars, Hadrien had interrupted a conference Hadrien had interrupted a conference Hadrien had interrupted a conference between Trajan and Appalodoris to offer

between Trajan and Appalodoris to offer between Trajan and Appalodoris to offer his own opinion of the project they were his own opinion of the project they were his own opinion of the project they were discussing. And Appalodoris insensed discussing. And Appalodoris insensed discussing. And Appalodoris insensed that this young amateur was even that this young amateur was even that this young amateur was even approaching the grown-ups table, approaching the grown-ups table, approaching the grown-ups table, dismissed Hrien, telling him to go back dismissed Hrien, telling him to go back dismissed Hrien, telling him to go back to his drawings, that he understood none to his drawings, that he understood none to his drawings, that he understood none of of of this. Relations between the enthusiastic this. Relations between the enthusiastic this. Relations between the enthusiastic amateur and the proud professional never amateur and the proud professional never amateur and the proud professional never got much better. Though Hadrien seems to got much better. Though Hadrien seems to got much better. Though Hadrien seems to have respected Appaloris enough that he have respected Appaloris enough that he have respected Appaloris enough that he asked the architect to help design war asked the architect to help design war asked the architect to help design war machines that would allow the legions to machines that would allow the legions to machines that would allow the legions to attack Jewish cave bases during the attack Jewish cave bases during the attack Jewish cave bases during the third Jewish third Jewish third Jewish war. But respect no cashes do reports war. But respect no cashes do reports war. But respect no cashes do reports that when Hadrien read Appalodoris's that when Hadrien read Appalodoris's that when Hadrien read Appalodoris's critique that he became enraged and critique that he became enraged and critique that he became enraged and ordered the architect banished from Rome ordered the architect banished from Rome ordered the architect banished from Rome and shortly thereafter had him executed. and shortly thereafter had him executed. and shortly thereafter had him executed. If this seems like an overly rash If this seems like an overly rash If this seems like an overly rash response to what was probably reasonable response to what was probably reasonable response to what was probably reasonable criticism, you're right. And most modern criticism, you're right. And most modern criticism, you're right. And most modern historians do not believe that historians do not believe that historians do not believe that Appalodoris was actually killed by Appalodoris was actually killed by Appalodoris was actually killed by Hadrien, but that instead the old Hadrien, but that instead the old Hadrien, but that instead the old architect simply died of natural causes architect simply died of natural causes architect simply died of natural causes around the time of the exchange and that around the time of the exchange and that around the time of the exchange and that Hrien's enemies drew their own lielist Hrien's enemies drew their own lielist Hrien's enemies drew their own lielist conclusions.

conclusions. conclusions. But if the crime itself never took But if the crime itself never took But if the crime itself never took place, the mood of Hrien's last years place, the mood of Hrien's last years place, the mood of Hrien's last years certainly made believing that the crime certainly made believing that the crime certainly made believing that the crime did take place easy to swallow. And that did take place easy to swallow. And that did take place easy to swallow. And that more than anything else is the moral of more than anything else is the moral of more than anything else is the moral of the story. Because while he may not have the story. Because while he may not have the story. Because while he may not have executed Appalodoris, the Emperor's executed Appalodoris, the Emperor's executed Appalodoris, the Emperor's treatment of his own family is confirmed treatment of his own family is confirmed treatment of his own family is confirmed fact. Placing Appalodoris's blood on fact. Placing Appalodoris's blood on fact. Placing Appalodoris's blood on Hrien's hands is not so much a matter of Hrien's hands is not so much a matter of Hrien's hands is not so much a matter of falsely accusing the innocent as it is falsely accusing the innocent as it is falsely accusing the innocent as it is adding one more name to the list. adding one more name to the list. adding one more name to the list. As 135 gave way to 136, the issue of As 135 gave way to 136, the issue of As 135 gave way to 136, the issue of succession began to consume the emperor. succession began to consume the emperor. succession began to consume the emperor. That and the completion of his great That and the completion of his great That and the completion of his great mausoleum on the banks of the Tyber, mausoleum on the banks of the Tyber, mausoleum on the banks of the Tyber, which is still standing in Rome, so go which is still standing in Rome, so go which is still standing in Rome, so go visit that, visit that, visit that, too. For Naspedanius Fuscus, the only too. For Naspedanius Fuscus, the only too. For Naspedanius Fuscus, the only living male relative of the emperor, living male relative of the emperor, living male relative of the emperor, this should have come as welcome news. this should have come as welcome news. this should have come as welcome news. Fuscus was Hadrien's teenage great Fuscus was Hadrien's teenage great Fuscus was Hadrien's teenage great nephew, the grandson of his sister and a nephew, the grandson of his sister and a nephew, the grandson of his sister and a powerful senator named Lucius Julius powerful senator named Lucius Julius powerful senator named Lucius Julius Servianis. But unfortunately for Fuscus, Servianis. But unfortunately for Fuscus, Servianis. But unfortunately for Fuscus, Hrien had watched the boy grow up and Hrien had watched the boy grow up and Hrien had watched the boy grow up and determined that he was utterly unfit for determined that he was utterly unfit for determined that he was utterly unfit for power, that his tastes were too lavish power, that his tastes were too lavish power, that his tastes were too lavish and too petty, a Nero in the making if and too petty, a Nero in the making if and too petty, a Nero in the making if there ever was one.

there ever was one. there ever was one. Hrien's unwillingness to commit to Hrien's unwillingness to commit to Hrien's unwillingness to commit to Fuscus greatly annoyed his grandfather, Fuscus greatly annoyed his grandfather, Fuscus greatly annoyed his grandfather, Servianis, who was past 90 years old, Servianis, who was past 90 years old, Servianis, who was past 90 years old, but still growing but still growing but still growing strong. Servianis and Hrien had never strong. Servianis and Hrien had never strong. Servianis and Hrien had never gotten along, and the fact that they gotten along, and the fact that they gotten along, and the fact that they were brothers-in-law seems only to have were brothers-in-law seems only to have were brothers-in-law seems only to have widened the gap rather than Bridget. widened the gap rather than Bridget. widened the gap rather than Bridget. It certainly did not help that it had It certainly did not help that it had It certainly did not help that it had been widely reported Servianis was one been widely reported Servianis was one been widely reported Servianis was one of the few names Trejan had ever firmly of the few names Trejan had ever firmly of the few names Trejan had ever firmly put forward as a possible worthy heir to put forward as a possible worthy heir to put forward as a possible worthy heir to the throne back in the throne back in the throne back in 11617. That he had been passed over in 11617. That he had been passed over in 11617. That he had been passed over in favor of his younger cockier favor of his younger cockier favor of his younger cockier brother-in-law likely through the brother-in-law likely through the brother-in-law likely through the machinations of a woman at that had machinations of a woman at that had machinations of a woman at that had always stuck in Servianis' craw. But in always stuck in Servianis' craw. But in always stuck in Servianis' craw. But in his last years, the unmistakable reality his last years, the unmistakable reality his last years, the unmistakable reality that his grandson was the only man that his grandson was the only man that his grandson was the only man living with a blood relation to the living with a blood relation to the living with a blood relation to the emperor seemed to serve to resemble some emperor seemed to serve to resemble some emperor seemed to serve to resemble some kind of cosmic kind of cosmic kind of cosmic justice. But in defiance of this cosmic justice. But in defiance of this cosmic justice. But in defiance of this cosmic justice, Hadrien determined that whoever justice, Hadrien determined that whoever justice, Hadrien determined that whoever he chose, young Fuscus would not be his he chose, young Fuscus would not be his he chose, young Fuscus would not be his man. Blood ties be damned.

man. Blood ties be damned. man. Blood ties be damned. The second Passover of Servianis' family The second Passover of Servianis' family The second Passover of Servianis' family maybe, maybe would have gone without maybe, maybe would have gone without maybe, maybe would have gone without incident had Hadrien chosen as heir incident had Hadrien chosen as heir incident had Hadrien chosen as heir someone whose worth could not be denied someone whose worth could not be denied someone whose worth could not be denied by anyone. Much as nervous choice of by anyone. Much as nervous choice of by anyone. Much as nervous choice of Trajan had put to rest every other claim Trajan had put to rest every other claim Trajan had put to rest every other claim on power, even amongst those who really on power, even amongst those who really on power, even amongst those who really thought they deserved the call. thought they deserved the call. thought they deserved the call. Hrien could have settled Servianis' Hrien could have settled Servianis' Hrien could have settled Servianis' discontent by choosing some worthy man, discontent by choosing some worthy man, discontent by choosing some worthy man, like for example, and I'm just throwing like for example, and I'm just throwing like for example, and I'm just throwing this out there, Sexist Julius Seis, the this out there, Sexist Julius Seis, the this out there, Sexist Julius Seis, the troubleshooting general who had just won troubleshooting general who had just won troubleshooting general who had just won the war in the war in the war in Judea. But instead, in 136, prompted by Judea. But instead, in 136, prompted by Judea. But instead, in 136, prompted by a massive hemorrhage that nearly killed a massive hemorrhage that nearly killed a massive hemorrhage that nearly killed him, Hadrien announced to a shocked him, Hadrien announced to a shocked him, Hadrien announced to a shocked Roman world that he was adopting a Roman world that he was adopting a Roman world that he was adopting a relatively obscure and unaccomplished relatively obscure and unaccomplished relatively obscure and unaccomplished man named Lucius Caius man named Lucius Caius man named Lucius Caius Comedus. Mcutrigers immediately pointed Comedus. Mcutrigers immediately pointed Comedus. Mcutrigers immediately pointed to Lucius's reputation as a pretty to Lucius's reputation as a pretty to Lucius's reputation as a pretty dilotant as the deciding factor. But the dilotant as the deciding factor. But the dilotant as the deciding factor. But the emperor sympathizers argued that Hadrien emperor sympathizers argued that Hadrien emperor sympathizers argued that Hadrien was playing a game of four-dimensional was playing a game of four-dimensional was playing a game of four-dimensional chess with the succession issue that chess with the succession issue that chess with the succession issue that only the brilliant emperor himself could only the brilliant emperor himself could only the brilliant emperor himself could fully fully fully understand. I, of course, would adopt understand. I, of course, would adopt understand. I, of course, would adopt the boring conclusion that it was likely the boring conclusion that it was likely the boring conclusion that it was likely somewhere in between these two extremes.

somewhere in between these two extremes. somewhere in between these two extremes. The choice of Lucius, who changed his The choice of Lucius, who changed his The choice of Lucius, who changed his name to Lucius Alias Caesar when the name to Lucius Alias Caesar when the name to Lucius Alias Caesar when the adoption went through, does seem a adoption went through, does seem a adoption went through, does seem a curious one taken on its own, though. curious one taken on its own, though. curious one taken on its own, though. Lucius was a capable enough senator, but Lucius was a capable enough senator, but Lucius was a capable enough senator, but he had well-known health problems, he had well-known health problems, he had well-known health problems, likely suffering from likely suffering from likely suffering from tuberculosis. If Hadrien wanted to tuberculosis. If Hadrien wanted to tuberculosis. If Hadrien wanted to ensure the stability of the dynasty and ensure the stability of the dynasty and ensure the stability of the dynasty and the empire, choosing the perpetually the empire, choosing the perpetually the empire, choosing the perpetually bedridden Lucius, was an odd choice to bedridden Lucius, was an odd choice to bedridden Lucius, was an odd choice to say the least. say the least. say the least. But like I say, it is entirely possible But like I say, it is entirely possible But like I say, it is entirely possible that Hadrien was looking beyond Lucius that Hadrien was looking beyond Lucius that Hadrien was looking beyond Lucius to the man or men he really wanted to to the man or men he really wanted to to the man or men he really wanted to control the empire down the control the empire down the control the empire down the road. Lucius would be his stop gap, his road. Lucius would be his stop gap, his road. Lucius would be his stop gap, his very own Nerva to bridge the interagnum very own Nerva to bridge the interagnum very own Nerva to bridge the interagnum between Hadrien and the young men he between Hadrien and the young men he between Hadrien and the young men he really had his eyes on. But before we really had his eyes on. But before we really had his eyes on. But before we get into them, it is worth mentioning get into them, it is worth mentioning get into them, it is worth mentioning one other salient detail about Lucius one other salient detail about Lucius one other salient detail about Lucius that may have recommended him to the that may have recommended him to the that may have recommended him to the emperor. namely that he was the emperor. namely that he was the emperor. namely that he was the son-in-law of Publius Nagrinus, one of son-in-law of Publius Nagrinus, one of son-in-law of Publius Nagrinus, one of the four ex-conils who had been murdered the four ex-conils who had been murdered the four ex-conils who had been murdered in in in 118. Hadrien was concerned about his 118. Hadrien was concerned about his 118. Hadrien was concerned about his legacy and the choice of Lucius may have legacy and the choice of Lucius may have legacy and the choice of Lucius may have been an olive branch to the Senate. An been an olive branch to the Senate. An been an olive branch to the Senate. An admission that he understood their anger admission that he understood their anger admission that he understood their anger and that he wanted to set things right.

Most agree though that Lucius was not Most agree though that Lucius was not the true object of the emperor's plans. the true object of the emperor's plans. the true object of the emperor's plans. That the fourth dimension of Hadrien's That the fourth dimension of Hadrien's That the fourth dimension of Hadrien's scheme was the grandson of one of the scheme was the grandson of one of the scheme was the grandson of one of the emperor's closest friends and advisers, emperor's closest friends and advisers, emperor's closest friends and advisers, Marcus Anus Marcus Anus Marcus Anus Varys. Born with his father and Varys. Born with his father and Varys. Born with his father and grandfather's name, young Marcus Varys, grandfather's name, young Marcus Varys, grandfather's name, young Marcus Varys, then 15 years old, had caught the then 15 years old, had caught the then 15 years old, had caught the emperor's attention early as an emperor's attention early as an emperor's attention early as an unusually serious and intelligent boy. unusually serious and intelligent boy. unusually serious and intelligent boy. Having been raised in part by his Having been raised in part by his Having been raised in part by his grandfather, who Hadrien held in the grandfather, who Hadrien held in the grandfather, who Hadrien held in the highest esteem, young Marcus was marked highest esteem, young Marcus was marked highest esteem, young Marcus was marked from the beginning as one worth from the beginning as one worth from the beginning as one worth watching. As the emperor watched Marcus watching. As the emperor watched Marcus watching. As the emperor watched Marcus grow up, he was impressed more and more grow up, he was impressed more and more grow up, he was impressed more and more with the studious and capable teenager. with the studious and capable teenager. with the studious and capable teenager. We'll get more into the biographical We'll get more into the biographical We'll get more into the biographical particulars of the man history will come particulars of the man history will come particulars of the man history will come to know as Marcus Aurelius in our next to know as Marcus Aurelius in our next to know as Marcus Aurelius in our next episode, but I just want to note for now episode, but I just want to note for now episode, but I just want to note for now that upon Lucius's adoption in 136, that upon Lucius's adoption in 136, that upon Lucius's adoption in 136, Marcus was engaged to Lucius's daughter Marcus was engaged to Lucius's daughter Marcus was engaged to Lucius's daughter almost almost almost immediately. Though he had a son of his immediately. Though he had a son of his immediately. Though he had a son of his own, a six-year-old also named Lucius own, a six-year-old also named Lucius own, a six-year-old also named Lucius Cayonius Cometus. Hadrien seems to have Cayonius Cometus. Hadrien seems to have Cayonius Cometus. Hadrien seems to have been setting things up so that when the been setting things up so that when the been setting things up so that when the perpetually ill Lucius Caesar inevitably perpetually ill Lucius Caesar inevitably perpetually ill Lucius Caesar inevitably succumbed to one of his many ailments, succumbed to one of his many ailments, succumbed to one of his many ailments, power would transfer naturally to his power would transfer naturally to his power would transfer naturally to his new son-in-law, new son-in-law, new son-in-law, Marcus. This of course begs us to ask Marcus. This of course begs us to ask Marcus. This of course begs us to ask the question, why not just adopt Marcus the question, why not just adopt Marcus the question, why not just adopt Marcus straight away? Why take the scenic route straight away? Why take the scenic route straight away? Why take the scenic route through Lucius? The one obvious answer through Lucius? The one obvious answer through Lucius? The one obvious answer is that at 15, Marcus may have been a is that at 15, Marcus may have been a is that at 15, Marcus may have been a promising candidate for power, but was promising candidate for power, but was promising candidate for power, but was not yet seasoned enough for Hadrien's not yet seasoned enough for Hadrien's not yet seasoned enough for Hadrien's tastes. Narrow and Caligula, had proven

tastes. Narrow and Caligula, had proven tastes. Narrow and Caligula, had proven the folly of allowing the young too much the folly of allowing the young too much the folly of allowing the young too much power. Lucius, though weakly power. Lucius, though weakly power. Lucius, though weakly constituted, was still in the prime of constituted, was still in the prime of constituted, was still in the prime of his middle age, and would likely last his middle age, and would likely last his middle age, and would likely last long enough to at least get Marcus into long enough to at least get Marcus into long enough to at least get Marcus into his mid20s, at which point he would his mid20s, at which point he would his mid20s, at which point he would hopefully have enough experience to hopefully have enough experience to hopefully have enough experience to temper the excesses of youth. But who temper the excesses of youth. But who temper the excesses of youth. But who knows, maybe Hrien was trying to have knows, maybe Hrien was trying to have knows, maybe Hrien was trying to have his cake and eat it too. Adopt the his cake and eat it too. Adopt the his cake and eat it too. Adopt the son-in-law of Ninus to appease the son-in-law of Ninus to appease the son-in-law of Ninus to appease the Senate, knowing full well that Lucius Senate, knowing full well that Lucius Senate, knowing full well that Lucius would die off quickly and Hadrienne's would die off quickly and Hadrienne's would die off quickly and Hadrienne's real choice of heir could take real choice of heir could take real choice of heir could take over. The choice of Lucius appears to over. The choice of Lucius appears to over. The choice of Lucius appears to have been too much for Servianis and have been too much for Servianis and have been too much for Servianis and Fuscus to take. Fuscus especially saw Fuscus to take. Fuscus especially saw Fuscus to take. Fuscus especially saw the throne as his birthright. And when the throne as his birthright. And when the throne as his birthright. And when he learned that he had been passed over, he learned that he had been passed over, he learned that he had been passed over, just as his grandfather had before him, just as his grandfather had before him, just as his grandfather had before him, the young man set himself on a plan to the young man set himself on a plan to the young man set himself on a plan to overthrow the aging Hadrien and seize overthrow the aging Hadrien and seize overthrow the aging Hadrien and seize power for power for power for himself. At some point in late 137, himself. At some point in late 137, himself. At some point in late 137, Hrien's spy network, informed him of the Hrien's spy network, informed him of the Hrien's spy network, informed him of the plot, and the emperor took decisive plot, and the emperor took decisive plot, and the emperor took decisive action. He seized young Fuscus, who was action. He seized young Fuscus, who was action. He seized young Fuscus, who was no doubt close at hand, as he was still no doubt close at hand, as he was still no doubt close at hand, as he was still a member of the Imperial Court, even if a member of the Imperial Court, even if a member of the Imperial Court, even if his relevance was now virtually his relevance was now virtually his relevance was now virtually non-existent. Feeling the brunt of the non-existent. Feeling the brunt of the non-existent. Feeling the brunt of the emperor's wrath, the young alleged emperor's wrath, the young alleged emperor's wrath, the young alleged usurper was ordered to commit usurper was ordered to commit usurper was ordered to commit suicide. But the death of his great suicide. But the death of his great suicide. But the death of his great nephew was apparently not enough, and nephew was apparently not enough, and nephew was apparently not enough, and shortly after Fuscus' death, Hadrien shortly after Fuscus' death, Hadrien shortly after Fuscus' death, Hadrien unexpectedly turned on Servianis and unexpectedly turned on Servianis and unexpectedly turned on Servianis and ordered him too to commit suicide.

ordered him too to commit suicide. ordered him too to commit suicide. The Roman elites could take in stride The Roman elites could take in stride The Roman elites could take in stride the political assassination of a young the political assassination of a young the political assassination of a young man who was very possibly himself man who was very possibly himself man who was very possibly himself plotting political assassination. But plotting political assassination. But plotting political assassination. But forcing an old man to end his life in forcing an old man to end his life in forcing an old man to end his life in such a dishonorable way, especially one such a dishonorable way, especially one such a dishonorable way, especially one who had spent that life nobly serving who had spent that life nobly serving who had spent that life nobly serving the empire was a pointless the empire was a pointless the empire was a pointless outrage. Servianis, as you can imagine, outrage. Servianis, as you can imagine, outrage. Servianis, as you can imagine, was himself outraged. But after firmly was himself outraged. But after firmly was himself outraged. But after firmly avowing his innocence and his fidelity avowing his innocence and his fidelity avowing his innocence and his fidelity both to Rome and the emperor, he did both to Rome and the emperor, he did both to Rome and the emperor, he did indeed kill himself. indeed kill himself. indeed kill himself. But before he died, he swore one solemn, But before he died, he swore one solemn, But before he died, he swore one solemn, bitter prayer. May Hadrien long for bitter prayer. May Hadrien long for bitter prayer. May Hadrien long for death, yet be unable to death, yet be unable to death, yet be unable to die. It seems clear that the case die. It seems clear that the case die. It seems clear that the case against Servianis was trumped up, and against Servianis was trumped up, and against Servianis was trumped up, and that Hadrien was finally acting on a that Hadrien was finally acting on a that Hadrien was finally acting on a long-held grudge. But what are we to long-held grudge. But what are we to long-held grudge. But what are we to make of Fuskus' alleged coup plot? For make of Fuskus' alleged coup plot? For make of Fuskus' alleged coup plot? For the Senate, it was not even a matter of the Senate, it was not even a matter of the Senate, it was not even a matter of debate. Hadrien had invented charges debate. Hadrien had invented charges debate. Hadrien had invented charges against and then murdered his great against and then murdered his great against and then murdered his great nephew to ensure that his own diabolical nephew to ensure that his own diabolical nephew to ensure that his own diabolical plans for the future of Rome progressed plans for the future of Rome progressed plans for the future of Rome progressed unhindered. Some sources claim that unhindered. Some sources claim that unhindered. Some sources claim that other men of senatorial rank were also other men of senatorial rank were also other men of senatorial rank were also caught up in Hadrien's paranoid net and caught up in Hadrien's paranoid net and caught up in Hadrien's paranoid net and killed at the same time, implying that killed at the same time, implying that killed at the same time, implying that Hadrien had basically cooked up a Hadrien had basically cooked up a Hadrien had basically cooked up a wide-ranging conspiracy so he could wide-ranging conspiracy so he could wide-ranging conspiracy so he could prosecute anyone who might trouble his prosecute anyone who might trouble his prosecute anyone who might trouble his plan for succession.

plan for succession. plan for succession. In the end, it's really hard to tell In the end, it's really hard to tell In the end, it's really hard to tell what's true and what's not, especially what's true and what's not, especially what's true and what's not, especially given the Senate's clear enmity toward given the Senate's clear enmity toward given the Senate's clear enmity toward Hadrien. But given the Emperor's mood at Hadrien. But given the Emperor's mood at Hadrien. But given the Emperor's mood at the time, it is possible that he did the time, it is possible that he did the time, it is possible that he did engage in a carefully planned purge to engage in a carefully planned purge to engage in a carefully planned purge to clear the path for his chosen heirs and clear the path for his chosen heirs and clear the path for his chosen heirs and perhaps deal a bit of vengeance to his perhaps deal a bit of vengeance to his perhaps deal a bit of vengeance to his enemies before he enemies before he enemies before he died. Some sources even have it that died. Some sources even have it that died. Some sources even have it that Hrien's long estranged wife, Sabina, was Hrien's long estranged wife, Sabina, was Hrien's long estranged wife, Sabina, was herself caught up in the purge. because herself caught up in the purge. because herself caught up in the purge. because however it happened, she died in early however it happened, she died in early however it happened, she died in early 137 and was thus easily lumped into 137 and was thus easily lumped into 137 and was thus easily lumped into stories about the emperor's mad reign of stories about the emperor's mad reign of stories about the emperor's mad reign of terror. Rumor mongers breathlessly terror. Rumor mongers breathlessly terror. Rumor mongers breathlessly wondered, did he suspect that she would wondered, did he suspect that she would wondered, did he suspect that she would act as Pompia had when Trejan died and act as Pompia had when Trejan died and act as Pompia had when Trejan died and upset the apple cart of his carefully upset the apple cart of his carefully upset the apple cart of his carefully laid laid laid plans? Probably not. Though they had plans? Probably not. Though they had plans? Probably not. Though they had never gotten along personally, Hrien had never gotten along personally, Hrien had never gotten along personally, Hrien had always gone out of his way to treat her always gone out of his way to treat her always gone out of his way to treat her and make sure everyone else treated her and make sure everyone else treated her and make sure everyone else treated her with great respect. And in turn, she was with great respect. And in turn, she was with great respect. And in turn, she was as loyal to the regime as as loyal to the regime as as loyal to the regime as anyone. Like with Appalodoris, anyone. Like with Appalodoris, anyone. Like with Appalodoris, coincidence is likely leading to coincidence is likely leading to coincidence is likely leading to conspiracy conspiracy conspiracy theory. But if after the deaths of theory. But if after the deaths of theory. But if after the deaths of Fuscus, Servianis, and whoever else, Fuscus, Servianis, and whoever else, Fuscus, Servianis, and whoever else, Hrien thought his house of cards was Hrien thought his house of cards was Hrien thought his house of cards was well in order, he was in for a cruel well in order, he was in for a cruel well in order, he was in for a cruel shock. Just a month after the shock. Just a month after the shock. Just a month after the executions, let's call them what they executions, let's call them what they executions, let's call them what they really were, his heir, Lucius Caesar, really were, his heir, Lucius Caesar, really were, his heir, Lucius Caesar, returned from Pannonia, where he had returned from Pannonia, where he had returned from Pannonia, where he had been sent by the emperor to oversee the been sent by the emperor to oversee the been sent by the emperor to oversee the defense of the Danube frontier for the defense of the Danube frontier for the defense of the Danube frontier for the year. Though Lucius did an admirable job

year. Though Lucius did an admirable job year. Though Lucius did an admirable job in ministering the region throughout in ministering the region throughout in ministering the region throughout 137, the climate had taken its toll on 137, the climate had taken its toll on 137, the climate had taken its toll on the perpetually bedridden new the perpetually bedridden new the perpetually bedridden new Caesar. Back in Rome, Lucius was Caesar. Back in Rome, Lucius was Caesar. Back in Rome, Lucius was preparing to address the Senate on New preparing to address the Senate on New preparing to address the Senate on New Year's Day when he became seriously ill. Year's Day when he became seriously ill. Year's Day when he became seriously ill. Some report that he overdosed on the Some report that he overdosed on the Some report that he overdosed on the medicine he had been prescribed. But medicine he had been prescribed. But medicine he had been prescribed. But whatever the cause, on January the 1st, whatever the cause, on January the 1st, whatever the cause, on January the 1st, 138, Lucius Caesar died, sending 138, Lucius Caesar died, sending 138, Lucius Caesar died, sending Hadrien's perhaps too clever by half Hadrien's perhaps too clever by half Hadrien's perhaps too clever by half succession plans into succession plans into succession plans into disarray. The Senate breathed a sigh of disarray. The Senate breathed a sigh of disarray. The Senate breathed a sigh of relief that Lucius had not lived long relief that Lucius had not lived long relief that Lucius had not lived long enough to fall flat on his face as enough to fall flat on his face as enough to fall flat on his face as emperor, as they were all fairly sure he emperor, as they were all fairly sure he emperor, as they were all fairly sure he would, and hope rippled through the would, and hope rippled through the would, and hope rippled through the aristocracy that Hadrien would come to aristocracy that Hadrien would come to aristocracy that Hadrien would come to his senses and choose a deserving his senses and choose a deserving his senses and choose a deserving candidate. candidate. candidate. But dipping once again into the well of But dipping once again into the well of But dipping once again into the well of the handsome yet undistinguished on the handsome yet undistinguished on the handsome yet undistinguished on January 22 138 AD Hrien pulled out January 22 138 AD Hrien pulled out January 22 138 AD Hrien pulled out another random name to confound another random name to confound another random name to confound professional professional professional prognosticators. Titus Aurelius Fulvous prognosticators. Titus Aurelius Fulvous prognosticators. Titus Aurelius Fulvous Bionius Aras and Taninus was a Bionius Aras and Taninus was a Bionius Aras and Taninus was a well-liked senator who had traveled up well-liked senator who had traveled up well-liked senator who had traveled up the curses honorum with a sort of stable the curses honorum with a sort of stable the curses honorum with a sort of stable plotting but he was just about the last plotting but he was just about the last plotting but he was just about the last man anyone would have guessed Hadrien man anyone would have guessed Hadrien man anyone would have guessed Hadrien would adopt as his heir.

would adopt as his heir. would adopt as his heir. But the fates work in random ways and But the fates work in random ways and But the fates work in random ways and Antonyinus suddenly found himself next Antonyinus suddenly found himself next Antonyinus suddenly found himself next in line for the throne. This time the in line for the throne. This time the in line for the throne. This time the choice would stick and the man we all choice would stick and the man we all choice would stick and the man we all now know as Antonyinus pious will soon now know as Antonyinus pious will soon now know as Antonyinus pious will soon find himself ruling Rome for the better find himself ruling Rome for the better find himself ruling Rome for the better part of 23 blessedly benol part of 23 blessedly benol part of 23 blessedly benol years. Antonyinus had been born in years. Antonyinus had been born in years. Antonyinus had been born in September of 86 AD. The son of Titus September of 86 AD. The son of Titus September of 86 AD. The son of Titus Aurelius Fulvis who would serve as Aurelius Fulvis who would serve as Aurelius Fulvis who would serve as consil under Domission in ' 89. consil under Domission in ' 89. consil under Domission in ' 89. The folvi branch of the Urelians had The folvi branch of the Urelians had The folvi branch of the Urelians had emerged during the early imperial period emerged during the early imperial period emerged during the early imperial period as one of the leading families of as one of the leading families of as one of the leading families of non-Italian non-Italian non-Italian origin. But though they called southern origin. But though they called southern origin. But though they called southern Gaul their homeland, by Antonyinus' Gaul their homeland, by Antonyinus' Gaul their homeland, by Antonyinus' time, the family had immigrated to Italy time, the family had immigrated to Italy time, the family had immigrated to Italy and Antonyinus himself was born in and Antonyinus himself was born in and Antonyinus himself was born in Levvenia about 20 mi from Rome. His Levvenia about 20 mi from Rome. His Levvenia about 20 mi from Rome. His grandfather had taken the family to the grandfather had taken the family to the grandfather had taken the family to the height of imperial favor during the height of imperial favor during the height of imperial favor during the crisis of 69 AD throughout which he crisis of 69 AD throughout which he crisis of 69 AD throughout which he commanded the third legion stationed commanded the third legion stationed commanded the third legion stationed along the along the along the Danube. After initially fighting for Oo, Danube. After initially fighting for Oo, Danube. After initially fighting for Oo, he switched along with the rest of his he switched along with the rest of his he switched along with the rest of his defeated comrades to Vespacians banner defeated comrades to Vespacians banner defeated comrades to Vespacians banner and so found himself seated alongside and so found himself seated alongside and so found himself seated alongside the Flavians when they finally won that the Flavians when they finally won that the Flavians when they finally won that brutal game of musical chairs.

brutal game of musical chairs. brutal game of musical chairs. Rewarded for his service with a SuffK Rewarded for his service with a SuffK Rewarded for his service with a SuffK console ship at some point in the 70s console ship at some point in the 70s console ship at some point in the 70s AD, the mission rewarded him further AD, the mission rewarded him further AD, the mission rewarded him further with an ordinary console ship in 85. with an ordinary console ship in 85. with an ordinary console ship in 85. Just four years later, his son, Just four years later, his son, Just four years later, his son, Antonyinus's father, was similarly Antonyinus's father, was similarly Antonyinus's father, was similarly rewarded. rewarded. rewarded. But both Antonyinus' father and But both Antonyinus' father and But both Antonyinus' father and grandfather died sometime in the early grandfather died sometime in the early grandfather died sometime in the early '90s AD. And young Antonyinus, then '90s AD. And young Antonyinus, then '90s AD. And young Antonyinus, then still known by his birth name, Titus still known by his birth name, Titus still known by his birth name, Titus Aurelius Fulvous, was taken under the Aurelius Fulvous, was taken under the Aurelius Fulvous, was taken under the wing of his maternal grandfather, Nas wing of his maternal grandfather, Nas wing of his maternal grandfather, Nas Aras Antoninus, hence the addition of Aras Antoninus, hence the addition of Aras Antoninus, hence the addition of Aras and Antonyinus to the boy's name. Aras and Antonyinus to the boy's name. Aras and Antonyinus to the boy's name. The elder Antonyinus was a wellrespected The elder Antonyinus was a wellrespected The elder Antonyinus was a wellrespected senator who counted amongst his friends senator who counted amongst his friends senator who counted amongst his friends plenty the younger and he brought up his plenty the younger and he brought up his plenty the younger and he brought up his grandson with the stable if boring grandson with the stable if boring grandson with the stable if boring values of a cultured Roman aristocrat. While in his early 20s, aristocrat. While in his early 20s, Antonyinus married Ania Galleria Antonyinus married Ania Galleria Antonyinus married Ania Galleria Fostina, granddaughter of Hadrien's Fostina, granddaughter of Hadrien's Fostina, granddaughter of Hadrien's aforementioned friend Marcus Anus Varys. aforementioned friend Marcus Anus Varys. aforementioned friend Marcus Anus Varys. The pairing was obviously fertuitous for The pairing was obviously fertuitous for The pairing was obviously fertuitous for Antonyinus and when Hadrien became Antonyinus and when Hadrien became Antonyinus and when Hadrien became emperor in 117, the young man found emperor in 117, the young man found emperor in 117, the young man found himself on the fringes of the imperial himself on the fringes of the imperial himself on the fringes of the imperial court by virtue of his relation to court by virtue of his relation to court by virtue of his relation to Varys. In 120, Antonyinus was given a Varys. In 120, Antonyinus was given a Varys. In 120, Antonyinus was given a console ship and having obviously console ship and having obviously console ship and having obviously impressed Hadrien, he was later chosen impressed Hadrien, he was later chosen impressed Hadrien, he was later chosen to be one of the four procurators who to be one of the four procurators who to be one of the four procurators who would govern Italy after Hadrien would govern Italy after Hadrien would govern Italy after Hadrien reformed the administration of the reformed the administration of the reformed the administration of the peninsula in 127.

peninsula in 127. peninsula in 127. Long-term, of course, his association Long-term, of course, his association Long-term, of course, his association with this wildly unpopular reform was with this wildly unpopular reform was with this wildly unpopular reform was something of a black mark on his something of a black mark on his something of a black mark on his reputation, but for the time being, it reputation, but for the time being, it reputation, but for the time being, it was a signal of imperial was a signal of imperial was a signal of imperial favor. Antoninus was likely looking favor. Antoninus was likely looking favor. Antoninus was likely looking forward to a career of distinction and forward to a career of distinction and forward to a career of distinction and responsibility, though it is unlikely he responsibility, though it is unlikely he responsibility, though it is unlikely he ever considered that he himself would be ever considered that he himself would be ever considered that he himself would be emperor one day. But there he was in emperor one day. But there he was in emperor one day. But there he was in January of 138, suddenly called to the January of 138, suddenly called to the January of 138, suddenly called to the imperial villa and informed that he imperial villa and informed that he imperial villa and informed that he could now add Caesar to his long list of could now add Caesar to his long list of could now add Caesar to his long list of names because the emperor out of the names because the emperor out of the names because the emperor out of the blue was adopting blue was adopting blue was adopting him. Once again, we must ask the him. Once again, we must ask the him. Once again, we must ask the question, why? Why Antonyinus? He was question, why? Why Antonyinus? He was question, why? Why Antonyinus? He was capable and trustworthy, sure, but like capable and trustworthy, sure, but like capable and trustworthy, sure, but like Lucius before him, there was nothing Lucius before him, there was nothing Lucius before him, there was nothing really special to point to that said, oh really special to point to that said, oh really special to point to that said, oh yeah, you have to pick this guy, yeah, you have to pick this guy, yeah, you have to pick this guy, Antonyinus. He's perfect for the job. It Antonyinus. He's perfect for the job. It Antonyinus. He's perfect for the job. It is at this point though that we can is at this point though that we can is at this point though that we can really get into the guts of Hrien's really get into the guts of Hrien's really get into the guts of Hrien's thinking where it becomes apparent that thinking where it becomes apparent that thinking where it becomes apparent that it was Marcus Aurelius Hrien wanted all it was Marcus Aurelius Hrien wanted all it was Marcus Aurelius Hrien wanted all along. Because when he offered Antonyus along. Because when he offered Antonyus along. Because when he offered Antonyus the job of emperor, a job the dying the job of emperor, a job the dying the job of emperor, a job the dying Hadrien assured Antonyinus would be his Hadrien assured Antonyinus would be his Hadrien assured Antonyinus would be his sooner rather than later. He stipulated sooner rather than later. He stipulated sooner rather than later. He stipulated that Antonyinus had to adopt both Marcus that Antonyinus had to adopt both Marcus that Antonyinus had to adopt both Marcus and the dead Lucius Caesar's son, Lucius and the dead Lucius Caesar's son, Lucius and the dead Lucius Caesar's son, Lucius Cometus, as his heirs, otherwise the Cometus, as his heirs, otherwise the Cometus, as his heirs, otherwise the deal was off.

deal was off. deal was off. Clearly, Hadrien was thinking a Clearly, Hadrien was thinking a Clearly, Hadrien was thinking a generation ahead of everyone else. generation ahead of everyone else. generation ahead of everyone else. Antonyinus then was merely a dependable Antonyinus then was merely a dependable Antonyinus then was merely a dependable way to get from here to way to get from here to way to get from here to Marcus. Already well into his 50s, Marcus. Already well into his 50s, Marcus. Already well into his 50s, Antoninus could be expected to die off Antoninus could be expected to die off Antoninus could be expected to die off sometime in the next decade or so, sometime in the next decade or so, sometime in the next decade or so, giving Marcus time for a proper imperial giving Marcus time for a proper imperial giving Marcus time for a proper imperial apprenticehip before he dawned the apprenticehip before he dawned the apprenticehip before he dawned the purple for himself. Antoninus begged a few days to himself. Antoninus begged a few days to consider the emperor's offer. consider the emperor's offer. consider the emperor's offer. Though this humble podcast has been Though this humble podcast has been Though this humble podcast has been dealing primarily with the most dealing primarily with the most dealing primarily with the most ambitious Romans of every generation, ambitious Romans of every generation, ambitious Romans of every generation, which may leave you all with the which may leave you all with the which may leave you all with the impression that lust for power was the impression that lust for power was the impression that lust for power was the defining character trait of every man, defining character trait of every man, defining character trait of every man, woman, and child in the empire. Not woman, and child in the empire. Not woman, and child in the empire. Not every Roman dreamed imperial dreams. The every Roman dreamed imperial dreams. The every Roman dreamed imperial dreams. The job was hard, dangerous, and job was hard, dangerous, and job was hard, dangerous, and all-consuming. Antoninus was genuinely all-consuming. Antoninus was genuinely all-consuming. Antoninus was genuinely unsure whether he wanted the gig. He had unsure whether he wanted the gig. He had unsure whether he wanted the gig. He had a pretty good life, a happy marriage, a a pretty good life, a happy marriage, a a pretty good life, a happy marriage, a nice network of friends, and a healthy nice network of friends, and a healthy nice network of friends, and a healthy amount of cash in the bank. Was it amount of cash in the bank. Was it amount of cash in the bank. Was it really worth giving up the comfortable really worth giving up the comfortable really worth giving up the comfortable life of a cultured senator for the life of a cultured senator for the life of a cultured senator for the infinite burdens of infinite burdens of infinite burdens of empire? But the lure of power, or empire? But the lure of power, or empire? But the lure of power, or perhaps more likely, the pressure from perhaps more likely, the pressure from perhaps more likely, the pressure from Hadrien induced Antonyinus to accept the Hadrien induced Antonyinus to accept the Hadrien induced Antonyinus to accept the deal. And on February 25, 138 AD, he deal. And on February 25, 138 AD, he deal. And on February 25, 138 AD, he became Titus, Alias, Caesar Anton, and became Titus, Alias, Caesar Anton, and became Titus, Alias, Caesar Anton, and Taninus, heir to the imperial throne, an Taninus, heir to the imperial throne, an Taninus, heir to the imperial throne, an adoptive father of a solemn teenager adoptive father of a solemn teenager adoptive father of a solemn teenager named Marcus, and a precocious named Marcus, and a precocious named Marcus, and a precocious adolescent boy named adolescent boy named adolescent boy named Lucius. In recognition of the adoption,

Lucius. In recognition of the adoption, Lucius. In recognition of the adoption, the Senate invested Antonyinus with the Senate invested Antonyinus with the Senate invested Antonyinus with tribunition power and granted him full tribunition power and granted him full tribunition power and granted him full imperium, that is, power of life and imperium, that is, power of life and imperium, that is, power of life and death over the subjects of the empire. death over the subjects of the empire. death over the subjects of the empire. He did not have long to get up to speed He did not have long to get up to speed He did not have long to get up to speed on the full gamut of responsibilities on the full gamut of responsibilities on the full gamut of responsibilities weighing down Hrien's clearly slumping weighing down Hrien's clearly slumping weighing down Hrien's clearly slumping shoulders, and by the look of the shoulders, and by the look of the shoulders, and by the look of the emperor, the transfer of power could emperor, the transfer of power could emperor, the transfer of power could come at any come at any come at any time. Hadrien was suffering from what time. Hadrien was suffering from what time. Hadrien was suffering from what modern doctors have diagnosed as modern doctors have diagnosed as modern doctors have diagnosed as congestive heart disease, and his body congestive heart disease, and his body congestive heart disease, and his body filled painfully with fluid, forcing him filled painfully with fluid, forcing him filled painfully with fluid, forcing him to spend most of his final days in bed. to spend most of his final days in bed. to spend most of his final days in bed. In the end, Servianis' prayer came true. In the end, Servianis' prayer came true. In the end, Servianis' prayer came true. As the suffering emperor tried and As the suffering emperor tried and As the suffering emperor tried and failed multiple times to kill himself, failed multiple times to kill himself, failed multiple times to kill himself, he had daggers and poison smuggled into he had daggers and poison smuggled into he had daggers and poison smuggled into his room on no fewer than three his room on no fewer than three his room on no fewer than three occasions, only to be thwarted at the occasions, only to be thwarted at the occasions, only to be thwarted at the last moment, and one attendant at least last moment, and one attendant at least last moment, and one attendant at least committed suicide rather than disobey committed suicide rather than disobey committed suicide rather than disobey Hrien's orders to kill Hrien's orders to kill Hrien's orders to kill him. Antoninus himself finally him. Antoninus himself finally him. Antoninus himself finally intervened and begged Hrien to bear his intervened and begged Hrien to bear his intervened and begged Hrien to bear his pain and let nature take its course.

pain and let nature take its course. pain and let nature take its course. Hrien's mood seems to have improved at Hrien's mood seems to have improved at Hrien's mood seems to have improved at least some following the intervention. least some following the intervention. least some following the intervention. And in letters exchanged with his new And in letters exchanged with his new And in letters exchanged with his new adopted son, he apologizes for letting adopted son, he apologizes for letting adopted son, he apologizes for letting his grief take his grief take his grief take over. A correspondence commenced that over. A correspondence commenced that over. A correspondence commenced that eventually resulted in Hrien writing a eventually resulted in Hrien writing a eventually resulted in Hrien writing a full autobiography so that the record full autobiography so that the record full autobiography so that the record would be straight and Antonyinus would would be straight and Antonyinus would would be straight and Antonyinus would have the full story of the past 20 years have the full story of the past 20 years have the full story of the past 20 years laid out in full. laid out in full. laid out in full. Unfortunately, no record of the Unfortunately, no record of the Unfortunately, no record of the autobiography exists, though modern autobiography exists, though modern autobiography exists, though modern scholars suppose that much of Hadrien's scholars suppose that much of Hadrien's scholars suppose that much of Hadrien's entry in the Histori Augusta was sourced entry in the Histori Augusta was sourced entry in the Histori Augusta was sourced to this autobiography. Finally, though, the autobiography. Finally, though, the black magic of Servianis' prayer wore black magic of Servianis' prayer wore black magic of Servianis' prayer wore off, and on July 10, 138 AD, attended off, and on July 10, 138 AD, attended off, and on July 10, 138 AD, attended only by two slaves and Antonyinus, only by two slaves and Antonyinus, only by two slaves and Antonyinus, Hadrien died at one of the imperial Hadrien died at one of the imperial Hadrien died at one of the imperial palaces in Kana along the Bay of Naples. palaces in Kana along the Bay of Naples. palaces in Kana along the Bay of Naples. He was 62 years old and had ruled Rome He was 62 years old and had ruled Rome He was 62 years old and had ruled Rome for 21 years. Hadrien is one of the most years. Hadrien is one of the most fascinating men in the history of Rome. fascinating men in the history of Rome. fascinating men in the history of Rome. But I will admit that after a month of But I will admit that after a month of But I will admit that after a month of obsessing over him and trying to fit all obsessing over him and trying to fit all obsessing over him and trying to fit all of his contradictions and nuances and of his contradictions and nuances and of his contradictions and nuances and accomplishments into my head, I'm accomplishments into my head, I'm accomplishments into my head, I'm suffering from a bit of Hadrien suffering from a bit of Hadrien suffering from a bit of Hadrien fatigue. But in this, I kind of feel fatigue. But in this, I kind of feel fatigue. But in this, I kind of feel like I know the emperor as his like I know the emperor as his like I know the emperor as his contemporaries did. He was, simply put, contemporaries did. He was, simply put, contemporaries did. He was, simply put, an exhausting man to deal with.

an exhausting man to deal with. an exhausting man to deal with. Eternally energetic, he was always Eternally energetic, he was always Eternally energetic, he was always traveling to some new city or starting traveling to some new city or starting traveling to some new city or starting some new project. But the wisdom of his some new project. But the wisdom of his some new project. But the wisdom of his rule, which bordered on visionary, was rule, which bordered on visionary, was rule, which bordered on visionary, was accompanied by a know-it-all pomposity accompanied by a know-it-all pomposity accompanied by a know-it-all pomposity that had to have driven everyone at that had to have driven everyone at that had to have driven everyone at least a little bit least a little bit least a little bit nuts. No one likes a man who knows nuts. No one likes a man who knows nuts. No one likes a man who knows everything, especially when he shows up everything, especially when he shows up everything, especially when he shows up at your doorstep and starts lecturing at your doorstep and starts lecturing at your doorstep and starts lecturing you on subjects you yourself are an you on subjects you yourself are an you on subjects you yourself are an expert in. expert in. expert in. There is a funny story where the emperor There is a funny story where the emperor There is a funny story where the emperor and a celebrated philosopher engaged in and a celebrated philosopher engaged in and a celebrated philosopher engaged in a debate where it was apparent to a debate where it was apparent to a debate where it was apparent to everyone that Hadrien's argument was far everyone that Hadrien's argument was far everyone that Hadrien's argument was far weaker. To the surprise of the audience, weaker. To the surprise of the audience, weaker. To the surprise of the audience, though, the philosopher eventually gave though, the philosopher eventually gave though, the philosopher eventually gave in and acknowledged the emperor had in and acknowledged the emperor had in and acknowledged the emperor had bested him. After the event, the bested him. After the event, the bested him. After the event, the philosopher was pressed by his friends philosopher was pressed by his friends philosopher was pressed by his friends who demanded to know why he had given up who demanded to know why he had given up who demanded to know why he had given up so easily. The philosopher simply so easily. The philosopher simply so easily. The philosopher simply reminded his friends that the emperor reminded his friends that the emperor reminded his friends that the emperor was the most learned man of all. Taken was the most learned man of all. Taken was the most learned man of all. Taken aback, the friends laughed at this aback, the friends laughed at this aback, the friends laughed at this obviously untrue statement. But the obviously untrue statement. But the obviously untrue statement. But the philosopher insisted that it was true.

philosopher insisted that it was true. philosopher insisted that it was true. You should always remember, he said to You should always remember, he said to You should always remember, he said to them, the most learned man of all is the them, the most learned man of all is the them, the most learned man of all is the man who commands 30 man who commands 30 man who commands 30 legions. Hadrien was undeniably a great legions. Hadrien was undeniably a great legions. Hadrien was undeniably a great emperor and very often a good man. But emperor and very often a good man. But emperor and very often a good man. But he was also a flawed human being who he was also a flawed human being who he was also a flawed human being who could be an insufferably smug bully. But could be an insufferably smug bully. But could be an insufferably smug bully. But he did bring the beard back into fashion he did bring the beard back into fashion he did bring the beard back into fashion and for that alone he deserves all the and for that alone he deserves all the and for that alone he deserves all the praise he praise he praise he gets. There will be no episode next gets. There will be no episode next gets. There will be no episode next week. Mr. and Mrs. the history of Rome week. Mr. and Mrs. the history of Rome week. Mr. and Mrs. the history of Rome are both celebrating birthdays and we're are both celebrating birthdays and we're are both celebrating birthdays and we're going to take some time for ourselves. going to take some time for ourselves. going to take some time for ourselves. But we'll be back on February 28th to But we'll be back on February 28th to But we'll be back on February 28th to introduce the Antonine, the last introduce the Antonine, the last introduce the Antonine, the last enlightened emperors of the princip. enlightened emperors of the princip. enlightened emperors of the princip. After their departure from the stage, After their departure from the stage, After their departure from the stage, Rome will not see rulers with half as Rome will not see rulers with half as Rome will not see rulers with half as much vision until the rise of Diolesian. much vision until the rise of Diolesian. much vision until the rise of Diolesian. And by that point, Augustus' princip And by that point, Augustus' princip And by that point, Augustus' princip will be dead, and a whole new political will be dead, and a whole new political will be dead, and a whole new political order will need to be created to sustain order will need to be created to sustain order will need to be created to sustain the battered empire. the battered empire. the battered empire. [Music] Hello and welcome to the history of

Hello and welcome to the history of realm. Episode 85, Antonyinus the realm. Episode 85, Antonyinus the realm. Episode 85, Antonyinus the beautiful. When Hadrien died in 138, beautiful. When Hadrien died in 138, beautiful. When Hadrien died in 138, there was no succession issue there was no succession issue there was no succession issue whatsoever. Unlike Trajan's neo whatsoever. Unlike Trajan's neo whatsoever. Unlike Trajan's neo Alexandrian silence on the subject and Alexandrian silence on the subject and Alexandrian silence on the subject and the subsequent doubt and violence that the subsequent doubt and violence that the subsequent doubt and violence that surrounded Hadrien's rise to power, when surrounded Hadrien's rise to power, when surrounded Hadrien's rise to power, when Antonyinus alias Caesar returned to Rome Antonyinus alias Caesar returned to Rome Antonyinus alias Caesar returned to Rome with the body of the now dead emperor, with the body of the now dead emperor, with the body of the now dead emperor, he was welcomed with open arms by the he was welcomed with open arms by the he was welcomed with open arms by the Senate, the people, and the army, Senate, the people, and the army, Senate, the people, and the army, especially the Senate. They never had especially the Senate. They never had especially the Senate. They never had been happy with Hrien, and from the very been happy with Hrien, and from the very been happy with Hrien, and from the very beginning, he had been a boogeyman in beginning, he had been a boogeyman in beginning, he had been a boogeyman in their collective consciousness, with his their collective consciousness, with his their collective consciousness, with his every act, statement, or decree twisted every act, statement, or decree twisted every act, statement, or decree twisted up in their minds to prove that he was up in their minds to prove that he was up in their minds to prove that he was actually a dangerous actually a dangerous actually a dangerous psychopath. So his death was greeted psychopath. So his death was greeted psychopath. So his death was greeted with barely contained glee. Glee with barely contained glee. Glee with barely contained glee. Glee enhanced exponentially by the fact that enhanced exponentially by the fact that enhanced exponentially by the fact that one of their own was taking over. one of their own was taking over. one of their own was taking over. Antonyinus had, after all, been an Antonyinus had, after all, been an Antonyinus had, after all, been an amiable senator in good standing for amiable senator in good standing for amiable senator in good standing for more than 20 years before being tapped more than 20 years before being tapped more than 20 years before being tapped by Hadrien to become his by Hadrien to become his by Hadrien to become his heir. At least from the aristocratic heir. At least from the aristocratic heir. At least from the aristocratic point of view, then 138 was a banner point of view, then 138 was a banner point of view, then 138 was a banner year. The monster was dead, and a year. The monster was dead, and a year. The monster was dead, and a senator senator now sat on the senator senator now sat on the senator senator now sat on the throne. Every previous emperor had made throne. Every previous emperor had made throne. Every previous emperor had made their name in the legions, or because their name in the legions, or because their name in the legions, or because they were the blood relative of one of they were the blood relative of one of they were the blood relative of one of those men who had made their name in the those men who had made their name in the those men who had made their name in the legions. The only real exception was legions. The only real exception was legions. The only real exception was Nurva and he had been an executive agent Nurva and he had been an executive agent Nurva and he had been an executive agent all the way. Antonyinus was unique then all the way. Antonyinus was unique then all the way. Antonyinus was unique then as having made his career as a senator as having made his career as a senator as having made his career as a senator first and foremost and the years he

first and foremost and the years he first and foremost and the years he would spend on the throne would prove to would spend on the throne would prove to would spend on the throne would prove to be the most internally harmonious in the be the most internally harmonious in the be the most internally harmonious in the history of the empire. For the first history of the empire. For the first history of the empire. For the first time in a long time, the aristocracy was time in a long time, the aristocracy was time in a long time, the aristocracy was fused and of one mind. The emperor and fused and of one mind. The emperor and fused and of one mind. The emperor and the senate thinking and acting almost as the senate thinking and acting almost as the senate thinking and acting almost as one. And unlike previous periods of one. And unlike previous periods of one. And unlike previous periods of senatorial ascendancy, which usually led senatorial ascendancy, which usually led senatorial ascendancy, which usually led to unrest among the general population to unrest among the general population to unrest among the general population due to the arrogance of the oligarchs, due to the arrogance of the oligarchs, due to the arrogance of the oligarchs, Antoninus never forgot that he was Antoninus never forgot that he was Antoninus never forgot that he was everyone's emperor and made sure his everyone's emperor and made sure his everyone's emperor and made sure his subjects, all of them, were well taken subjects, all of them, were well taken subjects, all of them, were well taken care of. There is a reason traditional care of. There is a reason traditional care of. There is a reason traditional Roman historioggraphy has the middle of Roman historioggraphy has the middle of Roman historioggraphy has the middle of the second century marked down as the the second century marked down as the the second century marked down as the golden age of the Antonine. The zenith golden age of the Antonine. The zenith golden age of the Antonine. The zenith of an empire at the height of its power of an empire at the height of its power of an empire at the height of its power at peace at home and abroad happy, at peace at home and abroad happy, at peace at home and abroad happy, productive, and productive, and productive, and safe. But is this vivid image of a safe. But is this vivid image of a safe. But is this vivid image of a golden age and overblown myth? As with golden age and overblown myth? As with golden age and overblown myth? As with most golden age fantasies, probably a most golden age fantasies, probably a most golden age fantasies, probably a bit. One of the major problems we have bit. One of the major problems we have bit. One of the major problems we have in dealing with the age of Antonyinus is in dealing with the age of Antonyinus is in dealing with the age of Antonyinus is the complete lack of primary sources the complete lack of primary sources the complete lack of primary sources that deal with the period. We have some that deal with the period. We have some that deal with the period. We have some fragments from Casius Dio who was born fragments from Casius Dio who was born fragments from Casius Dio who was born right around the time of Antonyinus's right around the time of Antonyinus's right around the time of Antonyinus's death and a complete but somewhat death and a complete but somewhat death and a complete but somewhat suspect biography in the Histori suspect biography in the Histori suspect biography in the Histori Augusta. The same was basically true for Augusta. The same was basically true for Augusta. The same was basically true for Trajan and Hadrien's reigns but with one Trajan and Hadrien's reigns but with one Trajan and Hadrien's reigns but with one major difference. Those guys actually, major difference. Those guys actually, major difference. Those guys actually, you know, did things. The architectural you know, did things. The architectural you know, did things. The architectural monuments they built, the wars they monuments they built, the wars they monuments they built, the wars they waged, the cities they founded, all now waged, the cities they founded, all now waged, the cities they founded, all now serve as a record of their lives set in serve as a record of their lives set in serve as a record of their lives set in stone. And historians can piece together

stone. And historians can piece together stone. And historians can piece together a much richer accounting of their reigns a much richer accounting of their reigns a much richer accounting of their reigns than they can of Antonyinus, who assued than they can of Antonyinus, who assued than they can of Antonyinus, who assued practically all of those practically all of those practically all of those things. But in choosing not to partake things. But in choosing not to partake things. But in choosing not to partake in the glory hunting and monument in the glory hunting and monument in the glory hunting and monument building that defined his predecessors, building that defined his predecessors, building that defined his predecessors, Antonyinus may have ironically done more Antonyinus may have ironically done more Antonyinus may have ironically done more for his reputation than had he emulated for his reputation than had he emulated for his reputation than had he emulated them. Because the relative lack of a them. Because the relative lack of a them. Because the relative lack of a record means that when we think about record means that when we think about record means that when we think about the man, we couple a few glowing the man, we couple a few glowing the man, we couple a few glowing summaries of his reign with the fact summaries of his reign with the fact summaries of his reign with the fact that there were no major wars or revolts that there were no major wars or revolts that there were no major wars or revolts or scandals or really anything that or scandals or really anything that or scandals or really anything that makes historical headlines and emerge makes historical headlines and emerge makes historical headlines and emerge with a portrait of an emperor who ruled with a portrait of an emperor who ruled with a portrait of an emperor who ruled over well a golden age. over well a golden age. over well a golden age. In addition to some medium-sized crises In addition to some medium-sized crises In addition to some medium-sized crises obscured over the years, which we'll get obscured over the years, which we'll get obscured over the years, which we'll get to in a bit, the shine on Antonyinus' to in a bit, the shine on Antonyinus' to in a bit, the shine on Antonyinus' golden age is dulled somewhat by what golden age is dulled somewhat by what golden age is dulled somewhat by what Rome endured following his Rome endured following his Rome endured following his death. That is to say that the one major death. That is to say that the one major death. That is to say that the one major sustained criticism of his time in sustained criticism of his time in sustained criticism of his time in office is that Antoninus kicked a lot of office is that Antoninus kicked a lot of office is that Antoninus kicked a lot of cans down the road and left it to his cans down the road and left it to his cans down the road and left it to his successors to use nine stitches or a successors to use nine stitches or a successors to use nine stitches or a single stitch sewed years earlier would single stitch sewed years earlier would single stitch sewed years earlier would have sufficed.

have sufficed. have sufficed. That is not to say that he was a bad That is not to say that he was a bad That is not to say that he was a bad ruler, just that the warm glowing glow ruler, just that the warm glowing glow ruler, just that the warm glowing glow that surrounds his reputation needs to that surrounds his reputation needs to that surrounds his reputation needs to be turned down just a bit. His be turned down just a bit. His be turned down just a bit. His conservative resistance to change wins conservative resistance to change wins conservative resistance to change wins him justifiable plots for ensuring a him justifiable plots for ensuring a him justifiable plots for ensuring a stable and peaceful empire while he stable and peaceful empire while he stable and peaceful empire while he reigned. But at the same time, it left reigned. But at the same time, it left reigned. But at the same time, it left Rome unprepared to deal with a Rome unprepared to deal with a Rome unprepared to deal with a fastchanging world after he fastchanging world after he fastchanging world after he died. Rome's great genius had always died. Rome's great genius had always died. Rome's great genius had always been founded on an ability to adapt been founded on an ability to adapt been founded on an ability to adapt quickly to circumstance. And under quickly to circumstance. And under quickly to circumstance. And under Antonyinus, that genius atrophied. One of the first things we atrophied. One of the first things we should note about Antonyinus' reign is should note about Antonyinus' reign is should note about Antonyinus' reign is that it was definitely not supposed to that it was definitely not supposed to that it was definitely not supposed to last as long as it did. 51 years old at last as long as it did. 51 years old at last as long as it did. 51 years old at the time of his ascension, 10 years the time of his ascension, 10 years the time of his ascension, 10 years older than Hadrien had been at the time older than Hadrien had been at the time older than Hadrien had been at the time of his ascension. A reign of around a of his ascension. A reign of around a of his ascension. A reign of around a decade would have been right in line decade would have been right in line decade would have been right in line with average life expecties, and with average life expecties, and with average life expecties, and probably what Hadrien had in mind when probably what Hadrien had in mind when probably what Hadrien had in mind when he plucked Antonyinus's name out of the he plucked Antonyinus's name out of the he plucked Antonyinus's name out of the hat. hat. hat. As I said last time, the plan was As I said last time, the plan was As I said last time, the plan was probably to season Marcus Aurelius probably to season Marcus Aurelius probably to season Marcus Aurelius enough so that he would not dawn the enough so that he would not dawn the enough so that he would not dawn the purple too young, which would have left purple too young, which would have left purple too young, which would have left him easy prey for manipulative advisers, him easy prey for manipulative advisers, him easy prey for manipulative advisers, while simultaneously not denying the while simultaneously not denying the while simultaneously not denying the obviously talented boy's ascension for obviously talented boy's ascension for obviously talented boy's ascension for too long. But Antonyinus lived and lived too long. But Antonyinus lived and lived too long. But Antonyinus lived and lived and lived well into his 70s.

and lived well into his 70s. and lived well into his 70s. Young Prince Marcus, who was supposed to Young Prince Marcus, who was supposed to Young Prince Marcus, who was supposed to become young emperor Marcus, was forced become young emperor Marcus, was forced become young emperor Marcus, was forced to wait in the wings for 23 years, to wait in the wings for 23 years, to wait in the wings for 23 years, becoming instead just another becoming instead just another becoming instead just another middle-aged emperor. Not that there was middle-aged emperor. Not that there was middle-aged emperor. Not that there was anything wrong with that, just that if anything wrong with that, just that if anything wrong with that, just that if Hrien was planning to leave Rome in the Hrien was planning to leave Rome in the Hrien was planning to leave Rome in the hands of some splendid youth, hands of some splendid youth, hands of some splendid youth, Antonyinus's simple taste and prudent Antonyinus's simple taste and prudent Antonyinus's simple taste and prudent aversion to risk killed that plan dead. aversion to risk killed that plan dead. aversion to risk killed that plan dead. The second thing we should note about The second thing we should note about The second thing we should note about the beginning of Antonyinus' reign is the beginning of Antonyinus' reign is the beginning of Antonyinus' reign is just how quickly he gained the title pas just how quickly he gained the title pas just how quickly he gained the title pas which would come to be his defining which would come to be his defining which would come to be his defining cognaman. There are two competing cognaman. There are two competing cognaman. There are two competing theories about where the name comes from theories about where the name comes from theories about where the name comes from but both have to do with his actions but both have to do with his actions but both have to do with his actions immediately following the death of immediately following the death of immediately following the death of Hadrien. The most common version is that Hadrien. The most common version is that Hadrien. The most common version is that when his adoptive father died, when his adoptive father died, when his adoptive father died, Antonyinus personally escorted the body Antonyinus personally escorted the body Antonyinus personally escorted the body back to Rome and then asked the Senate back to Rome and then asked the Senate back to Rome and then asked the Senate to deify the dead to deify the dead to deify the dead emperor. While they certainly did not emperor. While they certainly did not emperor. While they certainly did not hate Hadrien as much as they had hate Hadrien as much as they had hate Hadrien as much as they had dimmission, and so there was no clamor dimmission, and so there was no clamor dimmission, and so there was no clamor to damn his memory, the Senate had no to damn his memory, the Senate had no to damn his memory, the Senate had no intention of declaring the nonetheless intention of declaring the nonetheless intention of declaring the nonetheless despised Hadrien a despised Hadrien a despised Hadrien a god. The Senate was incredulous at the god. The Senate was incredulous at the god. The Senate was incredulous at the request, and doubly so, because it was request, and doubly so, because it was request, and doubly so, because it was coming from Antonyinus, who they coming from Antonyinus, who they coming from Antonyinus, who they considered one of their own. Surely he considered one of their own. Surely he considered one of their own. Surely he of all people would understand why they of all people would understand why they of all people would understand why they were refusing the request. But were refusing the request. But were refusing the request. But Antonyinus surprisingly persisted. He Antonyinus surprisingly persisted. He Antonyinus surprisingly persisted. He told him that to refuse to deify Hadrien told him that to refuse to deify Hadrien told him that to refuse to deify Hadrien would stand as a repudiation of his would stand as a repudiation of his would stand as a repudiation of his entire reign and thus every decision he entire reign and thus every decision he entire reign and thus every decision he had made along the way up to and had made along the way up to and had made along the way up to and including his choice of heir. To

including his choice of heir. To including his choice of heir. To repudiate Hrien, Antonyinus said, is to repudiate Hrien, Antonyinus said, is to repudiate Hrien, Antonyinus said, is to repudiate me. Which is fine. I will repudiate me. Which is fine. I will repudiate me. Which is fine. I will gladly lay aside the burden of empire gladly lay aside the burden of empire gladly lay aside the burden of empire and leave it to you or the army or and leave it to you or the army or and leave it to you or the army or whoever to decide who ought to whoever to decide who ought to whoever to decide who ought to rule. This calculated threat did the rule. This calculated threat did the rule. This calculated threat did the trick. Power vacuums were feared at trick. Power vacuums were feared at trick. Power vacuums were feared at least as much as tyrants were hated. And least as much as tyrants were hated. And least as much as tyrants were hated. And by forcing the Senate to face the by forcing the Senate to face the by forcing the Senate to face the former, they abandoned their former, they abandoned their former, they abandoned their condemnation of the condemnation of the condemnation of the latter. Hadrien was duly deified with latter. Hadrien was duly deified with latter. Hadrien was duly deified with all honors and Antonyinus' steadfast all honors and Antonyinus' steadfast all honors and Antonyinus' steadfast loyalty to his adoptive father in the loyalty to his adoptive father in the loyalty to his adoptive father in the face of perhaps even his own doubts, was face of perhaps even his own doubts, was face of perhaps even his own doubts, was lauded throughout the empire as a lauded throughout the empire as a lauded throughout the empire as a supreme example of a son's duty to his supreme example of a son's duty to his supreme example of a son's duty to his father. Hence the name pious, which in father. Hence the name pious, which in father. Hence the name pious, which in Latin translates as dutiful. Latin translates as dutiful. Latin translates as dutiful. He did not stop the deification process He did not stop the deification process He did not stop the deification process either. Antonyinus piously, dutifully either. Antonyinus piously, dutifully either. Antonyinus piously, dutifully completed Hrien's as of yet unfinished completed Hrien's as of yet unfinished completed Hrien's as of yet unfinished mausoleum and in 139 dedicated the new mausoleum and in 139 dedicated the new mausoleum and in 139 dedicated the new tomb and placed Hadrien's ashes within. The other version of the story within. The other version of the story is that when Antonyinus ascended to the is that when Antonyinus ascended to the is that when Antonyinus ascended to the throne, he canled death warrants and throne, he canled death warrants and throne, he canled death warrants and confiscation orders and prison sentences confiscation orders and prison sentences confiscation orders and prison sentences issued by Hadrien during his last issued by Hadrien during his last issued by Hadrien during his last heartless days.

heartless days. heartless days. The grateful senators, many of whom were The grateful senators, many of whom were The grateful senators, many of whom were caught up in this mini reign of terror, caught up in this mini reign of terror, caught up in this mini reign of terror, affixed their brother Antonyinus with affixed their brother Antonyinus with affixed their brother Antonyinus with the title pious to recognize the good the title pious to recognize the good the title pious to recognize the good work he had done sparing them from their work he had done sparing them from their work he had done sparing them from their unjust unjust unjust fates. Whichever version is true, fates. Whichever version is true, fates. Whichever version is true, Antonyinus alias Caesar quickly became Antonyinus alias Caesar quickly became Antonyinus alias Caesar quickly became Antonyinus Pious, the name by which we Antonyinus Pious, the name by which we Antonyinus Pious, the name by which we know him today. know him today. know him today. The two stories are of course not The two stories are of course not The two stories are of course not mutually exclusive and the whole package mutually exclusive and the whole package mutually exclusive and the whole package of Antonyinus's loyalty to Hadrien and of Antonyinus's loyalty to Hadrien and of Antonyinus's loyalty to Hadrien and the clemency he showed towards his the clemency he showed towards his the clemency he showed towards his adoptive father's enemies could have adoptive father's enemies could have adoptive father's enemies could have both worked to reinforce the image of both worked to reinforce the image of both worked to reinforce the image of Antonyinus as a just and moral ruler. Once he had done his duty to ruler. Once he had done his duty to Hadrien though he quietly stepped out of Hadrien though he quietly stepped out of Hadrien though he quietly stepped out of his adoptive father's shadow and became his adoptive father's shadow and became his adoptive father's shadow and became his own man. In many ways the polar his own man. In many ways the polar his own man. In many ways the polar opposite of the emperor he had honored. opposite of the emperor he had honored. opposite of the emperor he had honored. Where Hadrien attained distinction for Where Hadrien attained distinction for Where Hadrien attained distinction for his traveling, for his urgent need to be his traveling, for his urgent need to be his traveling, for his urgent need to be everywhere at once and see for himself everywhere at once and see for himself everywhere at once and see for himself the empire he ruled, Antonyinus is best the empire he ruled, Antonyinus is best the empire he ruled, Antonyinus is best known for not having gone anywhere. In known for not having gone anywhere. In known for not having gone anywhere. In his 23 years in power, he never once his 23 years in power, he never once his 23 years in power, he never once left Italy. A remarkable feat when you left Italy. A remarkable feat when you left Italy. A remarkable feat when you think about it. Even if they think about it. Even if they think about it. Even if they accomplished little with their presence, accomplished little with their presence, accomplished little with their presence, most emperors at least like to visit most emperors at least like to visit most emperors at least like to visit various hotspots for the photo various hotspots for the photo various hotspots for the photo opportunities they presented.

opportunities they presented. opportunities they presented. An exception was Vespacian who stayed An exception was Vespacian who stayed An exception was Vespacian who stayed put in Rome for the most part during his put in Rome for the most part during his put in Rome for the most part during his decade on the throne but he had already decade on the throne but he had already decade on the throne but he had already been all over and had earned as it were been all over and had earned as it were been all over and had earned as it were his retirement in the his retirement in the his retirement in the capital. Antonyinus, on the other hand, capital. Antonyinus, on the other hand, capital. Antonyinus, on the other hand, except for a brief stint as a procurator except for a brief stint as a procurator except for a brief stint as a procurator in Asia, had been an Italian homebody, in Asia, had been an Italian homebody, in Asia, had been an Italian homebody, and after dawning the purple, saw no and after dawning the purple, saw no and after dawning the purple, saw no reason to change his ways, and perhaps reason to change his ways, and perhaps reason to change his ways, and perhaps felt an even greater need to stay in the felt an even greater need to stay in the felt an even greater need to stay in the capital to reinforce Rome and Italy's capital to reinforce Rome and Italy's capital to reinforce Rome and Italy's preeminence after Hadrien's more preeminence after Hadrien's more preeminence after Hadrien's more equalian views on the distinction equalian views on the distinction equalian views on the distinction between province and home peninsula had between province and home peninsula had between province and home peninsula had battered Italy's prestige. battered Italy's prestige. battered Italy's prestige. The Italian ccentric approach to The Italian ccentric approach to The Italian ccentric approach to governance extended beyond the basic governance extended beyond the basic governance extended beyond the basic fact that the emperor lived and ruled fact that the emperor lived and ruled fact that the emperor lived and ruled from the from the from the capital. As I mentioned during the capital. As I mentioned during the capital. As I mentioned during the episodes on Hadrien and Trajan, the episodes on Hadrien and Trajan, the episodes on Hadrien and Trajan, the Roman Empire was fast losing its Roman Roman Empire was fast losing its Roman Roman Empire was fast losing its Roman character. Both of the previous two character. Both of the previous two character. Both of the previous two emperors were provincials and Hadrien emperors were provincials and Hadrien emperors were provincials and Hadrien especially had promoted elites from the especially had promoted elites from the especially had promoted elites from the provinces into the Senate and admitted provinces into the Senate and admitted provinces into the Senate and admitted them into his own circle of adviserss.

them into his own circle of adviserss. them into his own circle of adviserss. At first, one might think Antonyinus At first, one might think Antonyinus At first, one might think Antonyinus would continue this movement as his own would continue this movement as his own would continue this movement as his own family originated in Gaul. But the new family originated in Gaul. But the new family originated in Gaul. But the new emperor instead backed the old Roman emperor instead backed the old Roman emperor instead backed the old Roman elite. And when it came time to appoint elite. And when it came time to appoint elite. And when it came time to appoint proconsuls and generals and members of proconsuls and generals and members of proconsuls and generals and members of his governing council, he relied heavily his governing council, he relied heavily his governing council, he relied heavily on men of Italian origin. on men of Italian origin. on men of Italian origin. With the future of the empire clearly With the future of the empire clearly With the future of the empire clearly out in the provinces, the age of out in the provinces, the age of out in the provinces, the age of Antonyinus then stands as the last time Antonyinus then stands as the last time Antonyinus then stands as the last time the emperor that had been founded and the emperor that had been founded and the emperor that had been founded and won and held by Italians was really won and held by Italians was really won and held by Italians was really actively run by them as actively run by them as actively run by them as well. Antonyinus was also Hadrien's well. Antonyinus was also Hadrien's well. Antonyinus was also Hadrien's opposite in administrative outlook where opposite in administrative outlook where opposite in administrative outlook where Hadrien was driven by a compulsion to Hadrien was driven by a compulsion to Hadrien was driven by a compulsion to improve, to reform, to rejigger. improve, to reform, to rejigger. improve, to reform, to rejigger. Antonyinus was driven by a compulsion to Antonyinus was driven by a compulsion to Antonyinus was driven by a compulsion to protect, to entrench, and to protect, to entrench, and to protect, to entrench, and to maintain. In Antonyinus' opinion, the maintain. In Antonyinus' opinion, the maintain. In Antonyinus' opinion, the imperial governmental apparatus he imperial governmental apparatus he imperial governmental apparatus he inherited worked just fine. It needed to inherited worked just fine. It needed to inherited worked just fine. It needed to be maintained, sure, kept free of be maintained, sure, kept free of be maintained, sure, kept free of corruption and inefficiency and all corruption and inefficiency and all corruption and inefficiency and all that, but there was no reason to that, but there was no reason to that, but there was no reason to reinvent the wheel. The only real reinvent the wheel. The only real reinvent the wheel. The only real innovation introduced during Antinus' innovation introduced during Antinus' innovation introduced during Antinus' reign was in fact an extension of this reign was in fact an extension of this reign was in fact an extension of this conservatism.

conservatism. conservatism. When he took office, he kept on most of When he took office, he kept on most of When he took office, he kept on most of Hadrien's staff and extended Hadrien's staff and extended Hadrien's staff and extended bureaucracy. Itself something of a novel bureaucracy. Itself something of a novel bureaucracy. Itself something of a novel concept, one that sharply contrasted concept, one that sharply contrasted concept, one that sharply contrasted Hadrien's purge of so-called Traan men. Hadrien's purge of so-called Traan men. Hadrien's purge of so-called Traan men. But the real shift was the extension of But the real shift was the extension of But the real shift was the extension of proconsul ships, procuratorships, proconsul ships, procuratorships, proconsul ships, procuratorships, legionary commands, and all that to legionary commands, and all that to legionary commands, and all that to terms of 5 years or terms of 5 years or terms of 5 years or more. The Roman aversion to extended more. The Roman aversion to extended more. The Roman aversion to extended terms of office was a prejudice that terms of office was a prejudice that terms of office was a prejudice that traced back to the founding of the traced back to the founding of the traced back to the founding of the republic. And while extraordinary republic. And while extraordinary republic. And while extraordinary extensions did occur, Caesar and Gaul, extensions did occur, Caesar and Gaul, extensions did occur, Caesar and Gaul, for example, these were most definitely for example, these were most definitely for example, these were most definitely the exception rather than the the exception rather than the the exception rather than the rule. Antonyinus, though, was rule. Antonyinus, though, was rule. Antonyinus, though, was temperamentally partial to continuity temperamentally partial to continuity temperamentally partial to continuity and saw the constant office rotations as and saw the constant office rotations as and saw the constant office rotations as a bug rather than a feature of imperial a bug rather than a feature of imperial a bug rather than a feature of imperial administration. A procurator would spend administration. A procurator would spend administration. A procurator would spend a year in some province, and just as he a year in some province, and just as he a year in some province, and just as he was getting to know the particular was getting to know the particular was getting to know the particular challenges of the territory, he would be challenges of the territory, he would be challenges of the territory, he would be replaced by someone else who knew replaced by someone else who knew replaced by someone else who knew nothing about anything. It was silly and nothing about anything. It was silly and nothing about anything. It was silly and on the frontier provinces it was on the frontier provinces it was on the frontier provinces it was dangerous. So for example under dangerous. So for example under dangerous. So for example under Antoninus Quintis Lolius Erbicus served Antoninus Quintis Lolius Erbicus served Antoninus Quintis Lolius Erbicus served as governor of Britain for 5 years while as governor of Britain for 5 years while as governor of Britain for 5 years while Pilius Keris Pedo served as governor of Pilius Keris Pedo served as governor of Pilius Keris Pedo served as governor of Upper Germany for 9 years between 152 Upper Germany for 9 years between 152 Upper Germany for 9 years between 152 and and and 161. His Ptorian prefect Marcus Gabius 161. His Ptorian prefect Marcus Gabius 161. His Ptorian prefect Marcus Gabius Maximus served an unprecedented 20 years Maximus served an unprecedented 20 years Maximus served an unprecedented 20 years from 138 to 158 despite persistent calls from 138 to 158 despite persistent calls from 138 to 158 despite persistent calls for his removal for a laundry list of for his removal for a laundry list of for his removal for a laundry list of sins. This emphasis on continuity over

sins. This emphasis on continuity over sins. This emphasis on continuity over novelty was also evident in Antoninus' novelty was also evident in Antoninus' novelty was also evident in Antoninus' attitude towards public attitude towards public attitude towards public works dating back to the reign of works dating back to the reign of works dating back to the reign of dimmission and culminating with dimmission and culminating with dimmission and culminating with Hadrien's empirewide architectural Hadrien's empirewide architectural Hadrien's empirewide architectural origy. Antonyinus's predecessors had origy. Antonyinus's predecessors had origy. Antonyinus's predecessors had used extensive building projects to used extensive building projects to used extensive building projects to modernize the empire, create jobs, and modernize the empire, create jobs, and modernize the empire, create jobs, and leave everlasting monuments to their own leave everlasting monuments to their own leave everlasting monuments to their own greatness. Antonyinus, on the other greatness. Antonyinus, on the other greatness. Antonyinus, on the other hand, more or less abandoned new hand, more or less abandoned new hand, more or less abandoned new construction and focused instead on construction and focused instead on construction and focused instead on maintaining what was already existent. maintaining what was already existent. maintaining what was already existent. Because not only was he temperamentally Because not only was he temperamentally Because not only was he temperamentally disincined to initiate change, but he disincined to initiate change, but he disincined to initiate change, but he was also temperamentally disincined to was also temperamentally disincined to was also temperamentally disincined to drain the imperial treasury in a quest drain the imperial treasury in a quest drain the imperial treasury in a quest to build a better temple. to build a better temple. to build a better temple. It is a fitting monument to Antonyinus It is a fitting monument to Antonyinus It is a fitting monument to Antonyinus then that the one place we do see his then that the one place we do see his then that the one place we do see his name inscribed over and over again are name inscribed over and over again are name inscribed over and over again are on the mile markers of the Roman highway on the mile markers of the Roman highway on the mile markers of the Roman highway system. Good properly marked and system. Good properly marked and system. Good properly marked and maintained roads were the expenditures. maintained roads were the expenditures. maintained roads were the expenditures. A mighty column or a new amphitheater, A mighty column or a new amphitheater, A mighty column or a new amphitheater, not so not so not so much. This is not to say that building much. This is not to say that building much. This is not to say that building simply ceased across the empire. Only simply ceased across the empire. Only simply ceased across the empire. Only that the emperor was no longer footing that the emperor was no longer footing that the emperor was no longer footing the bill. Local elites were leaned on the bill. Local elites were leaned on the bill. Local elites were leaned on heavily to defay the cost of the heavily to defay the cost of the heavily to defay the cost of the projects they petitioned the emperor to projects they petitioned the emperor to projects they petitioned the emperor to pay for. If they wanted new bath so pay for. If they wanted new bath so pay for. If they wanted new bath so badly, surely they could find the badly, surely they could find the badly, surely they could find the necessary cash buried somewhere on the necessary cash buried somewhere on the necessary cash buried somewhere on the grounds of their extravagant grounds of their extravagant grounds of their extravagant estates. But if he was a bit of a miser estates. But if he was a bit of a miser estates. But if he was a bit of a miser with public funds, Antonyinus was with public funds, Antonyinus was with public funds, Antonyinus was generous with his own personal fortune.

generous with his own personal fortune. generous with his own personal fortune. An incredibly wealthy man when he An incredibly wealthy man when he An incredibly wealthy man when he ascended to the throne, Antoninus was ascended to the throne, Antoninus was ascended to the throne, Antoninus was careful to separate the imperial careful to separate the imperial careful to separate the imperial treasury he inherited from the personal treasury he inherited from the personal treasury he inherited from the personal fortune he had already fortune he had already fortune he had already acred. The former he watched over like a acred. The former he watched over like a acred. The former he watched over like a hawk and curtailed as much as he could hawk and curtailed as much as he could hawk and curtailed as much as he could lavish expenditures. But the latter he lavish expenditures. But the latter he lavish expenditures. But the latter he dispersed generously for a variety of dispersed generously for a variety of dispersed generously for a variety of worthy causes. worthy causes. worthy causes. So unlike say Tiberius whose reputation So unlike say Tiberius whose reputation So unlike say Tiberius whose reputation as a miser with the imperial accounts as a miser with the imperial accounts as a miser with the imperial accounts was not offset by personal generosity, was not offset by personal generosity, was not offset by personal generosity, Antonyinus' reputation never suffered Antonyinus' reputation never suffered Antonyinus' reputation never suffered for his public for his public for his public tightfistedness. During a particularly tightfistedness. During a particularly tightfistedness. During a particularly bad famine, he personally paid for and bad famine, he personally paid for and bad famine, he personally paid for and delivered the olive oil and grains that delivered the olive oil and grains that delivered the olive oil and grains that people could no longer afford due to people could no longer afford due to people could no longer afford due to shortages. When earthquakes struck or shortages. When earthquakes struck or shortages. When earthquakes struck or fires broke out, as they frequently did fires broke out, as they frequently did fires broke out, as they frequently did throughout the empire, Antonyinus would throughout the empire, Antonyinus would throughout the empire, Antonyinus would underwrite the emergency response and underwrite the emergency response and underwrite the emergency response and rebuilding efforts out of his own rebuilding efforts out of his own rebuilding efforts out of his own pocket. He understood that the coin of pocket. He understood that the coin of pocket. He understood that the coin of the princcepts had two sides. Heads, the princcepts had two sides. Heads, the princcepts had two sides. Heads, executive administrator of a executive administrator of a executive administrator of a transnational empire who must be careful transnational empire who must be careful transnational empire who must be careful to protect the fiscal integrity of the to protect the fiscal integrity of the to protect the fiscal integrity of the state, and tails, a private first state, and tails, a private first state, and tails, a private first citizen who must lead generously by citizen who must lead generously by citizen who must lead generously by example.

example. example. When it came to foreign policy though, When it came to foreign policy though, When it came to foreign policy though, Antonyinus was every bit Hadrien's Antonyinus was every bit Hadrien's Antonyinus was every bit Hadrien's disciple. Critics have described it disciple. Critics have described it disciple. Critics have described it dismissively as a policy of peace at any dismissively as a policy of peace at any dismissively as a policy of peace at any price. But Antonyinus definitely price. But Antonyinus definitely price. But Antonyinus definitely followed Hadrien in believing it to be followed Hadrien in believing it to be followed Hadrien in believing it to be more accurately characterized as peace more accurately characterized as peace more accurately characterized as peace at a lower price. at a lower price. at a lower price. Legionary activity did not cease during Legionary activity did not cease during Legionary activity did not cease during Antonyinus' reign, as we'll see in a Antonyinus' reign, as we'll see in a Antonyinus' reign, as we'll see in a moment, but it was only deployed in moment, but it was only deployed in moment, but it was only deployed in situations where it was literally situations where it was literally situations where it was literally unavoidable. War is an expensive unavoidable. War is an expensive unavoidable. War is an expensive undertaking in both money and manpower undertaking in both money and manpower undertaking in both money and manpower and usually cost 10 times as much as you and usually cost 10 times as much as you and usually cost 10 times as much as you thought it would going in. To say thought it would going in. To say thought it would going in. To say nothing of the fact that it usually took nothing of the fact that it usually took nothing of the fact that it usually took twice as long as you thought it would to twice as long as you thought it would to twice as long as you thought it would to win the damn thing. win the damn thing. win the damn thing. Keeping a potentially unruly tribe or Keeping a potentially unruly tribe or Keeping a potentially unruly tribe or neighboring kingdom as a client, on the neighboring kingdom as a client, on the neighboring kingdom as a client, on the other hand, was often not just a cheaper other hand, was often not just a cheaper other hand, was often not just a cheaper alternative to fighting, but also a more alternative to fighting, but also a more alternative to fighting, but also a more predictable accounting predictable accounting predictable accounting strategy. This is where Antonyinus takes strategy. This is where Antonyinus takes strategy. This is where Antonyinus takes the most lumps for kicking the can down the most lumps for kicking the can down the most lumps for kicking the can down the road, though, because though this the road, though, because though this the road, though, because though this policy of pseudo bribery worked, policy of pseudo bribery worked, policy of pseudo bribery worked, Antonyinus was loathed to extend it any Antonyinus was loathed to extend it any Antonyinus was loathed to extend it any further.

further. further. He inherited Hadrien's long list of He inherited Hadrien's long list of He inherited Hadrien's long list of client kings and auxiliary tribes and client kings and auxiliary tribes and client kings and auxiliary tribes and continued the financial exchanges that continued the financial exchanges that continued the financial exchanges that ensured their loyalty. But he was ensured their loyalty. But he was ensured their loyalty. But he was hesitant to add new members to the hesitant to add new members to the hesitant to add new members to the roles. He was approached often by roles. He was approached often by roles. He was approached often by emissaries from various foreign tribes emissaries from various foreign tribes emissaries from various foreign tribes or nations asking for admittance into or nations asking for admittance into or nations asking for admittance into the empire proper or status as clients the empire proper or status as clients the empire proper or status as clients or recognition as friends of Rome. or recognition as friends of Rome. or recognition as friends of Rome. But Antonyinus turned them all down on But Antonyinus turned them all down on But Antonyinus turned them all down on the grounds that the empire was at its the grounds that the empire was at its the grounds that the empire was at its maximum defensible extent. And besides, maximum defensible extent. And besides, maximum defensible extent. And besides, he simply couldn't afford to take on any he simply couldn't afford to take on any he simply couldn't afford to take on any new new new clients. This worked fine during his own clients. This worked fine during his own clients. This worked fine during his own reign, but eventually jealousy from reign, but eventually jealousy from reign, but eventually jealousy from those on the outs and suspicions from those on the outs and suspicions from those on the outs and suspicions from those on the ins that Rome had become an those on the ins that Rome had become an those on the ins that Rome had become an extortable paper tiger led to an extortable paper tiger led to an extortable paper tiger led to an explosion of violence in the north and explosion of violence in the north and explosion of violence in the north and war with Partha in the east during the war with Partha in the east during the war with Partha in the east during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. As I just mentioned though, it was not As I just mentioned though, it was not as if Rome was literally at peace in all as if Rome was literally at peace in all as if Rome was literally at peace in all places during the peace at any price age places during the peace at any price age places during the peace at any price age of Antonyinus.

of Antonyinus. of Antonyinus. In Britain, a significant uprising among In Britain, a significant uprising among In Britain, a significant uprising among the Burggantes, whose territory Hadrien the Burggantes, whose territory Hadrien the Burggantes, whose territory Hadrien had bisected with his famous wall, was had bisected with his famous wall, was had bisected with his famous wall, was put down by the aforementioned Lolius put down by the aforementioned Lolius put down by the aforementioned Lolius Orbicus after 2 years of intense Orbicus after 2 years of intense Orbicus after 2 years of intense fighting that led the Romans to push fighting that led the Romans to push fighting that led the Romans to push their frontier 100 miles north and their frontier 100 miles north and their frontier 100 miles north and establish a second wall known as the establish a second wall known as the establish a second wall known as the Antonine wall around the spot where Antonine wall around the spot where Antonine wall around the spot where Aricola had once defeated the Aricola had once defeated the Aricola had once defeated the Caledonians. Caledonians. Caledonians. There was also on-again off-again There was also on-again off-again There was also on-again off-again fighting in Africa where Moorish nomads fighting in Africa where Moorish nomads fighting in Africa where Moorish nomads became emboldened and began to descend became emboldened and began to descend became emboldened and began to descend out of the Atlas Mountains to harass the out of the Atlas Mountains to harass the out of the Atlas Mountains to harass the province of province of province of Moretania. The problem of the Morris Moretania. The problem of the Morris Moretania. The problem of the Morris would only get worse during the reign of would only get worse during the reign of would only get worse during the reign of Marcus Aurelius and Antonyinus' failure Marcus Aurelius and Antonyinus' failure Marcus Aurelius and Antonyinus' failure to nip the problem in the bud with more to nip the problem in the bud with more to nip the problem in the bud with more vigorous action was seen as one of the vigorous action was seen as one of the vigorous action was seen as one of the time bombs he unnecessarily handed off time bombs he unnecessarily handed off time bombs he unnecessarily handed off to his successors. to his successors. to his successors. In the east, there were uprisings in In the east, there were uprisings in In the east, there were uprisings in Egypt and the newly renamed province of Egypt and the newly renamed province of Egypt and the newly renamed province of Palestine that both required a military Palestine that both required a military Palestine that both required a military response. And along the Danube, a revolt response. And along the Danube, a revolt response. And along the Danube, a revolt in 158 necessitated the division of the in 158 necessitated the division of the in 158 necessitated the division of the province into two districts to province into two districts to province into two districts to effectively divide and conquer the effectively divide and conquer the effectively divide and conquer the unruly unruly unruly natives. However, despite the fact that natives. However, despite the fact that natives. However, despite the fact that Roman military activity never ceased, Roman military activity never ceased, Roman military activity never ceased, even during this golden age of peace, even during this golden age of peace, even during this golden age of peace, there were no great wars of any there were no great wars of any there were no great wars of any magnitude. and Antonyinus' diplomacy and magnitude. and Antonyinus' diplomacy and magnitude. and Antonyinus' diplomacy and bribery did the trick to keep Rome out bribery did the trick to keep Rome out bribery did the trick to keep Rome out of large-scale of large-scale of large-scale conflicts. In his most famous diplomatic conflicts. In his most famous diplomatic conflicts. In his most famous diplomatic coup, a single letter sent to the coup, a single letter sent to the coup, a single letter sent to the Parthion king advising that encroachment Parthion king advising that encroachment Parthion king advising that encroachment on Roman territory would not be taken

on Roman territory would not be taken on Roman territory would not be taken lightly was enough to dissuade lightly was enough to dissuade lightly was enough to dissuade Parththeian expansion plans. Probably the one major difference Probably the one major difference between Hadrien and Antonyinus, though, between Hadrien and Antonyinus, though, between Hadrien and Antonyinus, though, when it came to their peace policy, at when it came to their peace policy, at when it came to their peace policy, at least was that Hadrien was fanatical least was that Hadrien was fanatical least was that Hadrien was fanatical about drilling and keeping the legions about drilling and keeping the legions about drilling and keeping the legions constantly active and alert. This state constantly active and alert. This state constantly active and alert. This state of persistent readiness left them more of persistent readiness left them more of persistent readiness left them more than ready to deal with any unavoidable than ready to deal with any unavoidable than ready to deal with any unavoidable conflict that might arise. conflict that might arise. conflict that might arise. Antonyinus, on the other hand, who had Antonyinus, on the other hand, who had Antonyinus, on the other hand, who had no military experience and never once so no military experience and never once so no military experience and never once so much as ventured into a legionary camp, much as ventured into a legionary camp, much as ventured into a legionary camp, allowed a sense of complacency to set in allowed a sense of complacency to set in allowed a sense of complacency to set in that would leave Marcus Aurelius in a that would leave Marcus Aurelius in a that would leave Marcus Aurelius in a bit of a bind when both the Parthion bit of a bind when both the Parthion bit of a bind when both the Parthion Empire in the east and Germanic tribes Empire in the east and Germanic tribes Empire in the east and Germanic tribes in the north exploded into Roman in the north exploded into Roman in the north exploded into Roman territory shortly after Antonyinus's territory shortly after Antonyinus's territory shortly after Antonyinus's death. As I mentioned, for all of these crises, As I mentioned, for all of these crises, the frontier battles and the foreign the frontier battles and the foreign the frontier battles and the foreign diplomacy, Antonyinus himself never left diplomacy, Antonyinus himself never left diplomacy, Antonyinus himself never left Rome. He ruled entirely by way of Rome. He ruled entirely by way of Rome. He ruled entirely by way of correspondence. But if we begin to form correspondence. But if we begin to form correspondence. But if we begin to form a picture of Antonyinus as a sort of a picture of Antonyinus as a sort of a picture of Antonyinus as a sort of absentee emperor, we should correct that absentee emperor, we should correct that absentee emperor, we should correct that image immediately. He was active in all image immediately. He was active in all image immediately. He was active in all aspects of administration and was aspects of administration and was aspects of administration and was thoroughly engaged in the welfare of the thoroughly engaged in the welfare of the thoroughly engaged in the welfare of the empire he ruled.

empire he ruled. empire he ruled. cutting a middle road between Trajan's cutting a middle road between Trajan's cutting a middle road between Trajan's figure it out for yourself and Hadrien's figure it out for yourself and Hadrien's figure it out for yourself and Hadrien's I'll be there in a few days to tell you I'll be there in a few days to tell you I'll be there in a few days to tell you what to do. Antoninus and his aids what to do. Antoninus and his aids what to do. Antoninus and his aids poured through the incoming dispatches poured through the incoming dispatches poured through the incoming dispatches and did their best to advise, define, and did their best to advise, define, and did their best to advise, define, approve, and disapprove the myriad approve, and disapprove the myriad approve, and disapprove the myriad requests for instructions, aid, and requests for instructions, aid, and requests for instructions, aid, and funding that came in. funding that came in. funding that came in. But not content to passively react, But not content to passively react, But not content to passively react, Antonyinus, especially as it related to Antonyinus, especially as it related to Antonyinus, especially as it related to financial matters, constantly studied financial matters, constantly studied financial matters, constantly studied the books and demanded explanations from the books and demanded explanations from the books and demanded explanations from his various provincial officials to his various provincial officials to his various provincial officials to justify their decisions and their justify their decisions and their justify their decisions and their appropriation. Corrupt officials, when appropriation. Corrupt officials, when appropriation. Corrupt officials, when discovered, were dealt with swiftly and discovered, were dealt with swiftly and discovered, were dealt with swiftly and harshly. Antonyinus had no time for harshly. Antonyinus had no time for harshly. Antonyinus had no time for dishonesty or selfish dishonesty or selfish dishonesty or selfish misappropriation. Governance was a misappropriation. Governance was a misappropriation. Governance was a sacred trust that he took very sacred trust that he took very sacred trust that he took very seriously. Antonyinus' concern for the welfare of Antonyinus' concern for the welfare of his subjects, evidenced by his generous his subjects, evidenced by his generous his subjects, evidenced by his generous response to disasters, and his intense response to disasters, and his intense response to disasters, and his intense focus on maintaining just and honest focus on maintaining just and honest focus on maintaining just and honest governance, extended even to a usually governance, extended even to a usually governance, extended even to a usually invisible segment of the population, invisible segment of the population, invisible segment of the population, slaves. Antoninus continued the trend of slaves. Antoninus continued the trend of slaves. Antoninus continued the trend of allowing more rights to the living allowing more rights to the living allowing more rights to the living engines of the Roman economy.

engines of the Roman economy. engines of the Roman economy. I plan to deal more with slavery next I plan to deal more with slavery next I plan to deal more with slavery next week, but suffice it to say, following week, but suffice it to say, following week, but suffice it to say, following the slave revolt of the late republic the slave revolt of the late republic the slave revolt of the late republic that culminated with Spartacus' war, the that culminated with Spartacus' war, the that culminated with Spartacus' war, the Roman elite began to think differently Roman elite began to think differently Roman elite began to think differently about the servants who surrounded them. about the servants who surrounded them. about the servants who surrounded them. The belief that slaves were so much The belief that slaves were so much The belief that slaves were so much inanimate property that could be used inanimate property that could be used inanimate property that could be used and abused at will gave way to a more and abused at will gave way to a more and abused at will gave way to a more humane attitude. During Antonyinus's humane attitude. During Antonyinus's humane attitude. During Antonyinus's reign, this trend reached its logical reign, this trend reached its logical reign, this trend reached its logical conclusion with the emperor cottifying conclusion with the emperor cottifying conclusion with the emperor cottifying the idea that just as a slave had a duty the idea that just as a slave had a duty the idea that just as a slave had a duty to his master, a master had a duty to to his master, a master had a duty to to his master, a master had a duty to his slave. In some cases, a cruel master his slave. In some cases, a cruel master his slave. In some cases, a cruel master could be ordered to sell his slaves. And could be ordered to sell his slaves. And could be ordered to sell his slaves. And in all cases, the murder of a slave was in all cases, the murder of a slave was in all cases, the murder of a slave was now considered now considered now considered homicide. But again, this was the homicide. But again, this was the homicide. But again, this was the logical extension of a hundred-year long logical extension of a hundred-year long logical extension of a hundred-year long trend. And Antonyinus should not be trend. And Antonyinus should not be trend. And Antonyinus should not be considered some human rights radical. considered some human rights radical. considered some human rights radical. If slavery was going to survive as an If slavery was going to survive as an If slavery was going to survive as an institution, as the emperor felt that it institution, as the emperor felt that it institution, as the emperor felt that it justly should, these rights needed to be justly should, these rights needed to be justly should, these rights needed to be extended to prevent mass extended to prevent mass extended to prevent mass uprisings. Cruel masters were a national uprisings. Cruel masters were a national uprisings. Cruel masters were a national security threat more than they were a security threat more than they were a security threat more than they were a moral affront. Taken as a whole, the picture affront. Taken as a whole, the picture we get of Antonyinus is a man who wants we get of Antonyinus is a man who wants we get of Antonyinus is a man who wants tomorrow to be like today and today to tomorrow to be like today and today to tomorrow to be like today and today to be like yesterday. He was conservative be like yesterday. He was conservative be like yesterday. He was conservative in his approach to practically every in his approach to practically every in his approach to practically every aspect of his public and personal life, aspect of his public and personal life, aspect of his public and personal life, believing his primary function to be the believing his primary function to be the believing his primary function to be the maintenance of what was already good maintenance of what was already good maintenance of what was already good rather than the invention of something

rather than the invention of something rather than the invention of something better. I'm going to stop there for this better. I'm going to stop there for this better. I'm going to stop there for this week because while there are a few more week because while there are a few more week because while there are a few more things to say about Antonyinus, things to say about Antonyinus, things to say about Antonyinus, specifically about his relationship with specifically about his relationship with specifically about his relationship with Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Varys, the Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Varys, the Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Varys, the men who would succeed him, there is not men who would succeed him, there is not men who would succeed him, there is not a ton more material to cover this. a ton more material to cover this. a ton more material to cover this. however, does present us with a nice however, does present us with a nice however, does present us with a nice opportunity to briefly pause our story opportunity to briefly pause our story opportunity to briefly pause our story and focus a bit on everyday life in the and focus a bit on everyday life in the and focus a bit on everyday life in the age of the age of the age of the antines. It's been a while since I've antines. It's been a while since I've antines. It's been a while since I've docked the SS narrative, but with 2nd docked the SS narrative, but with 2nd docked the SS narrative, but with 2nd century Rome existing politically, century Rome existing politically, century Rome existing politically, culturally, and economically at the culturally, and economically at the culturally, and economically at the height of its power, it seems like a height of its power, it seems like a height of its power, it seems like a perfect time to put into port for a week perfect time to put into port for a week perfect time to put into port for a week or two and take a look around. Plus, or two and take a look around. Plus, or two and take a look around. Plus, Jerome Carpapino's classic, Daily Life Jerome Carpapino's classic, Daily Life Jerome Carpapino's classic, Daily Life in Ancient Rome, focuses specifically on in Ancient Rome, focuses specifically on in Ancient Rome, focuses specifically on this period of the empire. So, it seems this period of the empire. So, it seems this period of the empire. So, it seems only natural that we should pause during only natural that we should pause during only natural that we should pause during Antonyinus' reign to think about the Antonyinus' reign to think about the Antonyinus' reign to think about the bigger picture. So, next week, we'll bigger picture. So, next week, we'll bigger picture. So, next week, we'll start digging into social issues and start digging into social issues and start digging into social issues and religious trends and economic activities religious trends and economic activities religious trends and economic activities and all the little things that define and all the little things that define and all the little things that define the lives and livelihoods of the the lives and livelihoods of the the lives and livelihoods of the millions and millions of people who millions and millions of people who millions and millions of people who lived under the Pax Romana of the five lived under the Pax Romana of the five lived under the Pax Romana of the five good emperors.

good emperors. good emperors. The last thing I'll mention is that as a The last thing I'll mention is that as a The last thing I'll mention is that as a few of you have noticed, we are fast few of you have noticed, we are fast few of you have noticed, we are fast approaching the 100th episode of the approaching the 100th episode of the approaching the 100th episode of the history of Rome. I know we are only on history of Rome. I know we are only on history of Rome. I know we are only on episode 85, but with the two-part and episode 85, but with the two-part and episode 85, but with the two-part and five-part shows, this is actually the five-part shows, this is actually the five-part shows, this is actually the 95th posted episode, and I can assure 95th posted episode, and I can assure 95th posted episode, and I can assure you that this is the metric I use when you that this is the metric I use when you that this is the metric I use when defining which will be the quote 100th defining which will be the quote 100th defining which will be the quote 100th episode. To celebrate, I thought it episode. To celebrate, I thought it episode. To celebrate, I thought it would be fun to throw the show open to would be fun to throw the show open to would be fun to throw the show open to questions from the floor. So, if you're questions from the floor. So, if you're questions from the floor. So, if you're interested, go to either the history of interested, go to either the history of interested, go to either the history of realm.typad.com or the show's official realm.typad.com or the show's official realm.typad.com or the show's official unofficial discussion group, unofficial discussion group, unofficial discussion group, Forumgalorum, at forumgalorum.freeforums.org. And submit forumgalorum.freeforums.org. And submit your questions to the 100th episode your questions to the 100th episode your questions to the 100th episode threads we've got set up. The questions threads we've got set up. The questions threads we've got set up. The questions can be about anything, Roman things, can be about anything, Roman things, can be about anything, Roman things, podcast things, baseball things, podcast things, baseball things, podcast things, baseball things, personal things to a point, anything personal things to a point, anything personal things to a point, anything really. So, don't feel too constrained. really. So, don't feel too constrained. really. So, don't feel too constrained. Basically, if you've ever wondered about Basically, if you've ever wondered about Basically, if you've ever wondered about something, just go ahead and throw it something, just go ahead and throw it something, just go ahead and throw it out there. I probably won't be able to out there. I probably won't be able to out there. I probably won't be able to answer everyone, but I'll do my best to answer everyone, but I'll do my best to answer everyone, but I'll do my best to pick out representative questions that pick out representative questions that pick out representative questions that mostly cover what most people are mostly mostly cover what most people are mostly mostly cover what most people are mostly wondering about. The only question you wondering about. The only question you wondering about. The only question you can't ask is where are the early can't ask is where are the early can't ask is where are the early episodes? Because, as I'm pleased to episodes? Because, as I'm pleased to episodes? Because, as I'm pleased to point out, they are now all available on point out, they are now all available on point out, they are now all available on iTunes. I'm still ironing out the bugs, iTunes. I'm still ironing out the bugs, iTunes. I'm still ironing out the bugs, so the ordering is a bit off. And it so the ordering is a bit off. And it so the ordering is a bit off. And it looks like iTunes is doubling up looks like iTunes is doubling up looks like iTunes is doubling up downloading episodes that you already downloading episodes that you already downloading episodes that you already have, which is really annoying. But have, which is really annoying. But have, which is really annoying. But going forward, all should be well, and

going forward, all should be well, and going forward, all should be well, and everything should stay put. For those of everything should stay put. For those of everything should stay put. For those of you who are newcomers, those early you who are newcomers, those early you who are newcomers, those early episodes can be a bit rough, both in episodes can be a bit rough, both in episodes can be a bit rough, both in terms of production and style. So, terms of production and style. So, terms of production and style. So, please don't judge them too harshly. I please don't judge them too harshly. I please don't judge them too harshly. I was, after all, making it up as I went was, after all, making it up as I went was, after all, making it up as I went along. along. along. The really really last thing I'll The really really last thing I'll The really really last thing I'll mention is that the forum galore is also mention is that the forum galore is also mention is that the forum galore is also now hosting a weekly history of Rome now hosting a weekly history of Rome now hosting a weekly history of Rome chat that launched last week and will chat that launched last week and will chat that launched last week and will occur regularly at noon US central time occur regularly at noon US central time occur regularly at noon US central time on Saturdays. I should be there next on Saturdays. I should be there next on Saturdays. I should be there next weekend and periodically after that weekend and periodically after that weekend and periodically after that schedule permitting. So see you there. schedule permitting. So see you there. schedule permitting. So see you there. [Music]