Roman History 14 - Nero And The Three Emperors 54 - 69 AD

Hello, and welcome to the history of Hello, and welcome to the history of Rome. Rome. Rome. Episode 65, burn it to the ground. Episode 65, burn it to the ground. Episode 65, burn it to the ground. Last week, a 16-year-old Nero ascended Last week, a 16-year-old Nero ascended Last week, a 16-year-old Nero ascended to the throne and after spending a brief to the throne and after spending a brief to the throne and after spending a brief period dominated by his mother and other period dominated by his mother and other period dominated by his mother and other influential advisers, emerged as his own influential advisers, emerged as his own influential advisers, emerged as his own man. man. man. Maybe that's too strong a reading as it Maybe that's too strong a reading as it Maybe that's too strong a reading as it conjures up images of Augustus or conjures up images of Augustus or conjures up images of Augustus or Tiberius emerging as their own men, Tiberius emerging as their own men, Tiberius emerging as their own men, which implies a degree of independent which implies a degree of independent which implies a degree of independent competence that Nero never really competence that Nero never really competence that Nero never really attained. attained. attained. But he had definitely passed a point But he had definitely passed a point But he had definitely passed a point where it became dangerous to exert too where it became dangerous to exert too where it became dangerous to exert too much overt control over the emperor. much overt control over the emperor. much overt control over the emperor. If nothing else, Nero had to think he If nothing else, Nero had to think he If nothing else, Nero had to think he was the man in charge, even if his was the man in charge, even if his was the man in charge, even if his policies were usually influenced on the policies were usually influenced on the policies were usually influenced on the front end and executed on the back end front end and executed on the back end front end and executed on the back end by men with their own agendas. by men with their own agendas. by men with their own agendas. Not that these separate agendas were Not that these separate agendas were Not that these separate agendas were nefarious, mind you. A lot of that nefarious, mind you. A lot of that nefarious, mind you. A lot of that backroom influencing resulted in the backroom influencing resulted in the backroom influencing resulted in the reigning end of Nero's impulsiveness and reigning end of Nero's impulsiveness and reigning end of Nero's impulsiveness and making sure his grandiose declarations making sure his grandiose declarations making sure his grandiose declarations were always interpreted in as sound and were always interpreted in as sound and were always interpreted in as sound and practical a manner as possible. practical a manner as possible. practical a manner as possible. It would be a few years yet before the It would be a few years yet before the It would be a few years yet before the men who were a positive influence on the men who were a positive influence on the men who were a positive influence on the young emperor were replaced by men who young emperor were replaced by men who young emperor were replaced by men who encouraged Nero to embrace the darker encouraged Nero to embrace the darker encouraged Nero to embrace the darker side of his character for their own side of his character for their own side of his character for their own ends.

This week though, I want to move away This week though, I want to move away from the cutthroat politics of the from the cutthroat politics of the from the cutthroat politics of the Imperial Court and focus instead on the Imperial Court and focus instead on the Imperial Court and focus instead on the foreign pressures the empire faced foreign pressures the empire faced foreign pressures the empire faced during the first half of Nero's reign. during the first half of Nero's reign. during the first half of Nero's reign. Because right off the bat, Rome's Because right off the bat, Rome's Because right off the bat, Rome's enemies took one look at the untested enemies took one look at the untested enemies took one look at the untested 16-year-old emperor and decided that now 16-year-old emperor and decided that now 16-year-old emperor and decided that now was the perfect time to push Rome was the perfect time to push Rome was the perfect time to push Rome around. around. around. In the East, the Parthians took In the East, the Parthians took In the East, the Parthians took advantage of the situation to strengthen advantage of the situation to strengthen advantage of the situation to strengthen their position in Armenia, the their position in Armenia, the their position in Armenia, the semi-independent buffer state that had semi-independent buffer state that had semi-independent buffer state that had been the source of so much conflict over been the source of so much conflict over been the source of so much conflict over the years. the years. the years. While the Romans dealt with rising While the Romans dealt with rising While the Romans dealt with rising tensions and then eventually all-out war tensions and then eventually all-out war tensions and then eventually all-out war with the Parthians, a revolt in the with the Parthians, a revolt in the with the Parthians, a revolt in the newly acquired province of Britannia newly acquired province of Britannia newly acquired province of Britannia would break out, led by the warrior would break out, led by the warrior would break out, led by the warrior queen Boudica, that would erupt with queen Boudica, that would erupt with queen Boudica, that would erupt with such ferocious energy that for a while such ferocious energy that for a while such ferocious energy that for a while Nero considered just abandoning the Nero considered just abandoning the Nero considered just abandoning the island altogether. island altogether. island altogether. Eventually though, the uprising in Eventually though, the uprising in Eventually though, the uprising in Britannia would be put down and a Britannia would be put down and a Britannia would be put down and a settlement reached with the Parthians. settlement reached with the Parthians. settlement reached with the Parthians. Both conflicts left a lot of lingering Both conflicts left a lot of lingering Both conflicts left a lot of lingering resentment and unanswered questions resentment and unanswered questions resentment and unanswered questions about the future, about the future, about the future, but all in all, Nero's response to these but all in all, Nero's response to these but all in all, Nero's response to these threats earned him a solid C, maybe even threats earned him a solid C, maybe even threats earned him a solid C, maybe even a C+ in foreign policy.

a C+ in foreign policy. a C+ in foreign policy. He didn't gain any territory, but he He didn't gain any territory, but he He didn't gain any territory, but he didn't lose any territory, either. didn't lose any territory, either. didn't lose any territory, either. Though his critics did accuse him of Though his critics did accuse him of Though his critics did accuse him of essentially giving up Rome's hegemony essentially giving up Rome's hegemony essentially giving up Rome's hegemony over Armenia when the final deal with over Armenia when the final deal with over Armenia when the final deal with Parthia was signed, but I would argue Parthia was signed, but I would argue Parthia was signed, but I would argue that the agreement, which averted that the agreement, which averted that the agreement, which averted continuous war with Parthia, actually continuous war with Parthia, actually continuous war with Parthia, actually goes down in the credit rather than the goes down in the credit rather than the goes down in the credit rather than the debit side of Nero's ledger. Trouble in the East began to bubble to Trouble in the East began to bubble to the surface at the end of Claudius's the surface at the end of Claudius's the surface at the end of Claudius's reign. reign. reign. Since the time of Augustus, a deal had Since the time of Augustus, a deal had Since the time of Augustus, a deal had been worked out between Rome and been worked out between Rome and been worked out between Rome and Parthia, whereby Rome retained the right Parthia, whereby Rome retained the right Parthia, whereby Rome retained the right to appoint the monarch of Armenia, this to appoint the monarch of Armenia, this to appoint the monarch of Armenia, this nominally independent buffer state. nominally independent buffer state. nominally independent buffer state. The arrangement worked out fine until The arrangement worked out fine until The arrangement worked out fine until the early 50s AD, when the Roman the early 50s AD, when the Roman the early 50s AD, when the Roman nominated king was overthrown by his own nominated king was overthrown by his own nominated king was overthrown by his own nephew. nephew. nephew. The nephew turned out to be a terrible The nephew turned out to be a terrible The nephew turned out to be a terrible ruler, and the people of Armenia soon ruler, and the people of Armenia soon ruler, and the people of Armenia soon grew to despise him. grew to despise him. grew to despise him. The new king of Parthia, Vologases the The new king of Parthia, Vologases the The new king of Parthia, Vologases the First, saw what was going on in Armenia First, saw what was going on in Armenia First, saw what was going on in Armenia and decided that he could make his mark and decided that he could make his mark and decided that he could make his mark on history by prying the country away on history by prying the country away on history by prying the country away from the Romans. So, skillfully from the Romans. So, skillfully from the Romans. So, skillfully parlaying disgust with the sitting king parlaying disgust with the sitting king parlaying disgust with the sitting king into support for a Parthian alternative, into support for a Parthian alternative, into support for a Parthian alternative, Vologases invaded Armenia and installed Vologases invaded Armenia and installed Vologases invaded Armenia and installed his own brother Tiridates on the throne.

his own brother Tiridates on the throne. his own brother Tiridates on the throne. After a few years of back and forth After a few years of back and forth After a few years of back and forth between the rival claimants, the people between the rival claimants, the people between the rival claimants, the people of Armenia backed Tiridates, and in 54 of Armenia backed Tiridates, and in 54 of Armenia backed Tiridates, and in 54 AD, the Parthians found themselves AD, the Parthians found themselves AD, the Parthians found themselves effectively ruling Armenia. effectively ruling Armenia. effectively ruling Armenia. 54 AD is also, of course, the year that 54 AD is also, of course, the year that 54 AD is also, of course, the year that Claudius died and Nero became emperor, Claudius died and Nero became emperor, Claudius died and Nero became emperor, making the eastern encroachment of the making the eastern encroachment of the making the eastern encroachment of the Parthians one of the first major tests Parthians one of the first major tests Parthians one of the first major tests of the new emperor's metal. of the new emperor's metal. of the new emperor's metal. Being young and wanting to make a mark Being young and wanting to make a mark Being young and wanting to make a mark himself, Nero was convinced to push back himself, Nero was convinced to push back himself, Nero was convinced to push back hard against the Parthians. hard against the Parthians. hard against the Parthians. To spearhead this pushback, Nero To spearhead this pushback, Nero To spearhead this pushback, Nero appointed a man named Gnaeus Domitius appointed a man named Gnaeus Domitius appointed a man named Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, a general who had made a name Corbulo, a general who had made a name Corbulo, a general who had made a name for himself battling the always active for himself battling the always active for himself battling the always active Germanic tribes during the reigns of Germanic tribes during the reigns of Germanic tribes during the reigns of Caligula and Claudius. Caligula and Claudius. Caligula and Claudius. Corbulo was made propraetor and later Corbulo was made propraetor and later Corbulo was made propraetor and later proconsul of the provinces of Cappadocia proconsul of the provinces of Cappadocia proconsul of the provinces of Cappadocia and Galatia and instructed to gather and and Galatia and instructed to gather and and Galatia and instructed to gather and train an army that could be put in the train an army that could be put in the train an army that could be put in the field against the Parthians should field against the Parthians should field against the Parthians should diplomatic overtures fail. diplomatic overtures fail. diplomatic overtures fail. As he gathered his forces though, it As he gathered his forces though, it As he gathered his forces though, it became apparent that the bulk of became apparent that the bulk of became apparent that the bulk of whatever force he led would be drawn whatever force he led would be drawn whatever force he led would be drawn from the legions stationed in Syria.

from the legions stationed in Syria. from the legions stationed in Syria. So for the next few years while Rome So for the next few years while Rome So for the next few years while Rome waited for Parthia to back down and waited for Parthia to back down and waited for Parthia to back down and Parthia waited for Rome to give up, Parthia waited for Rome to give up, Parthia waited for Rome to give up, Corbulo trained his men, going so far as Corbulo trained his men, going so far as Corbulo trained his men, going so far as to keep them encamped throughout the to keep them encamped throughout the to keep them encamped throughout the winter to get them ready for the harsh winter to get them ready for the harsh winter to get them ready for the harsh conditions they would find in conditions they would find in conditions they would find in mountainous Armenia. mountainous Armenia. mountainous Armenia. The basic demand of the Romans was The basic demand of the Romans was The basic demand of the Romans was simple. Uh Tiridates had to travel to simple. Uh Tiridates had to travel to simple. Uh Tiridates had to travel to Rome and receive an official endorsement Rome and receive an official endorsement Rome and receive an official endorsement from the emperor. from the emperor. from the emperor. Otherwise, his presence on the Armenian Otherwise, his presence on the Armenian Otherwise, his presence on the Armenian throne would be considered illegitimate throne would be considered illegitimate throne would be considered illegitimate and an act of war. and an act of war. and an act of war. The Parthians hemmed and hawed and so The Parthians hemmed and hawed and so The Parthians hemmed and hawed and so finally in 58 AD, Corbulo was given the finally in 58 AD, Corbulo was given the finally in 58 AD, Corbulo was given the green light to begin pressing the Roman green light to begin pressing the Roman green light to begin pressing the Roman case by other means. case by other means. case by other means. Tiridates had scattered his defense Tiridates had scattered his defense Tiridates had scattered his defense forces across Armenia to avoid the forces across Armenia to avoid the forces across Armenia to avoid the decisiveness that comes with a single decisiveness that comes with a single decisiveness that comes with a single large battle. large battle. large battle. So rather than invading the country with So rather than invading the country with So rather than invading the country with a single column, Corbulo sent in dozens a single column, Corbulo sent in dozens a single column, Corbulo sent in dozens of small detachments and simultaneously of small detachments and simultaneously of small detachments and simultaneously ordered the Roman allied kings along the ordered the Roman allied kings along the ordered the Roman allied kings along the Armenian border to begin stirring up Armenian border to begin stirring up Armenian border to begin stirring up trouble. trouble. trouble. If he couldn't knock Tiridates out with If he couldn't knock Tiridates out with If he couldn't knock Tiridates out with a single punch, Corbulo was content to a single punch, Corbulo was content to a single punch, Corbulo was content to do it with a thousand cuts.

do it with a thousand cuts. do it with a thousand cuts. At first, things went well for Rome and At first, things went well for Rome and At first, things went well for Rome and in short order, the swarming legions in short order, the swarming legions in short order, the swarming legions caused Tiridates to demand a meeting. caused Tiridates to demand a meeting. caused Tiridates to demand a meeting. The two sides agreed to come together, The two sides agreed to come together, The two sides agreed to come together, but when the Armenians showed up with a but when the Armenians showed up with a but when the Armenians showed up with a thousand men, and the Roman showed up thousand men, and the Roman showed up thousand men, and the Roman showed up with 3,000 men, Tiridates got spooked with 3,000 men, Tiridates got spooked with 3,000 men, Tiridates got spooked and took off in the middle of the night, and took off in the middle of the night, and took off in the middle of the night, convinced that he was about to be convinced that he was about to be convinced that he was about to be ambushed. ambushed. ambushed. The Armenians then tried to cut off the The Armenians then tried to cut off the The Armenians then tried to cut off the supply line of the legions, the tactic supply line of the legions, the tactic supply line of the legions, the tactic that had brought Mark Antony to his that had brought Mark Antony to his that had brought Mark Antony to his knees, but Corbulo had studied his knees, but Corbulo had studied his knees, but Corbulo had studied his military history and made sure that his military history and made sure that his military history and made sure that his supply chain, though long, was well supply chain, though long, was well supply chain, though long, was well defended. defended. defended. Unable to make a dent against the Roman Unable to make a dent against the Roman Unable to make a dent against the Roman invasion, Tiridates fell back into a invasion, Tiridates fell back into a invasion, Tiridates fell back into a defensive posture, leading Corbulo to defensive posture, leading Corbulo to defensive posture, leading Corbulo to recall his own scattered forces and recall his own scattered forces and recall his own scattered forces and prepare them for a series of traditional prepare them for a series of traditional prepare them for a series of traditional assaults on the main Armenian assaults on the main Armenian assaults on the main Armenian strongholds. strongholds. strongholds. Encountering little real resistance, the Encountering little real resistance, the Encountering little real resistance, the Romans captured city after city on their Romans captured city after city on their Romans captured city after city on their way to the northern capital of Artashat, way to the northern capital of Artashat, way to the northern capital of Artashat, where Tiridates had holed up. where Tiridates had holed up. where Tiridates had holed up. The Armenian king dispatched everything The Armenian king dispatched everything The Armenian king dispatched everything he had against the besieging Roman he had against the besieging Roman he had against the besieging Roman forces, but he was unable to break their forces, but he was unable to break their forces, but he was unable to break their line.

line. line. Tiridates was forced to flee and abandon Tiridates was forced to flee and abandon Tiridates was forced to flee and abandon his capital. his capital. his capital. Unable to garrison the city properly, Unable to garrison the city properly, Unable to garrison the city properly, Corbulo burned it to the ground. Corbulo burned it to the ground. Corbulo burned it to the ground. The next year, the legions headed The next year, the legions headed The next year, the legions headed towards Tigranocerta, the capital of towards Tigranocerta, the capital of towards Tigranocerta, the capital of southern Armenia. southern Armenia. southern Armenia. It was a difficult road, and along the It was a difficult road, and along the It was a difficult road, and along the way, at least one plot to assassinate way, at least one plot to assassinate way, at least one plot to assassinate the hard-driving Corbulo was exposed. the hard-driving Corbulo was exposed. the hard-driving Corbulo was exposed. The conspirators, mostly allied The conspirators, mostly allied The conspirators, mostly allied Armenians who had grown tired of Armenians who had grown tired of Armenians who had grown tired of following the Romans, were all executed. following the Romans, were all executed. following the Romans, were all executed. The affair actually turned out pretty The affair actually turned out pretty The affair actually turned out pretty well for the targeted Roman general, not well for the targeted Roman general, not well for the targeted Roman general, not only because he survived, but also only because he survived, but also only because he survived, but also because when he arrived outside of because when he arrived outside of because when he arrived outside of Tigranocerta, it is reported that he Tigranocerta, it is reported that he Tigranocerta, it is reported that he launched one of the conspirators' heads launched one of the conspirators' heads launched one of the conspirators' heads into the city, reminding the leaders of into the city, reminding the leaders of into the city, reminding the leaders of the capital what happened to those who the capital what happened to those who the capital what happened to those who defied Rome. The ruling council voted to defied Rome. The ruling council voted to defied Rome. The ruling council voted to surrender without a fight. surrender without a fight. surrender without a fight. By the end of 59 AD, Tiridates was on By the end of 59 AD, Tiridates was on By the end of 59 AD, Tiridates was on the run, and Corbulo crowned Tigranes VI the run, and Corbulo crowned Tigranes VI the run, and Corbulo crowned Tigranes VI as the new king of Armenia. as the new king of Armenia. as the new king of Armenia. Having successfully ejected the Having successfully ejected the Having successfully ejected the Parthians from this key territory with Parthians from this key territory with Parthians from this key territory with only minimal losses, Corbulo was hailed only minimal losses, Corbulo was hailed only minimal losses, Corbulo was hailed as a hero back in Rome and became the as a hero back in Rome and became the as a hero back in Rome and became the most celebrated general of his most celebrated general of his most celebrated general of his generation.

generation. generation. As a reward for his achievement, the As a reward for his achievement, the As a reward for his achievement, the victorious Corbulo was given the victorious Corbulo was given the victorious Corbulo was given the governorship of Syria, the most governorship of Syria, the most governorship of Syria, the most important province in the Eastern important province in the Eastern important province in the Eastern Empire, aside from Egypt, of course. Empire, aside from Egypt, of course. Empire, aside from Egypt, of course. He left a legion garrisoned in Armenia He left a legion garrisoned in Armenia He left a legion garrisoned in Armenia to support the new king and headed south to support the new king and headed south to support the new king and headed south to his new assignment, believing the to his new assignment, believing the to his new assignment, believing the Armenian question had now been answered. Armenian question had now been answered. Armenian question had now been answered. But it was not to be so. But it was not to be so. But it was not to be so. As it would turn out, Corbulo's As it would turn out, Corbulo's As it would turn out, Corbulo's victories came so easily because, while victories came so easily because, while victories came so easily because, while the Romans were intensely focused on the the Romans were intensely focused on the the Romans were intensely focused on the conflict in Armenia, Vologases and the conflict in Armenia, Vologases and the conflict in Armenia, Vologases and the Parthians were being pulled in a dozen Parthians were being pulled in a dozen Parthians were being pulled in a dozen different directions, dealing with nasty different directions, dealing with nasty different directions, dealing with nasty revolts both out on their frontiers and revolts both out on their frontiers and revolts both out on their frontiers and within their royal family itself. within their royal family itself. within their royal family itself. Stretched so thin, Parthia was unable to Stretched so thin, Parthia was unable to Stretched so thin, Parthia was unable to supply Tiridates with the resources he supply Tiridates with the resources he supply Tiridates with the resources he needed to successfully ward off the needed to successfully ward off the needed to successfully ward off the Roman assault. Roman assault. Roman assault. But in 61 AD, following probably But in 61 AD, following probably But in 61 AD, following probably ill-advised raids into Parthia by ill-advised raids into Parthia by ill-advised raids into Parthia by Tigranes the 6th, things changed. Tigranes the 6th, things changed. Tigranes the 6th, things changed. There was no way Vologases could ignore There was no way Vologases could ignore There was no way Vologases could ignore such an insult. such an insult. such an insult. Settling his other internal problems so Settling his other internal problems so Settling his other internal problems so as not to be distracted, the Romans soon as not to be distracted, the Romans soon as not to be distracted, the Romans soon discovered that they had earned discovered that they had earned discovered that they had earned Parthia's full attention.

Parthia's full attention. Parthia's full attention. From here on out, things would not be so From here on out, things would not be so From here on out, things would not be so easy. Just as things were about to get dicey Just as things were about to get dicey in the East, a revolt in Britannia in the East, a revolt in Britannia in the East, a revolt in Britannia exploded with such force that Nero and exploded with such force that Nero and exploded with such force that Nero and his advisers seriously considered just his advisers seriously considered just his advisers seriously considered just giving up the island completely. giving up the island completely. giving up the island completely. At what point, they wondered, will it At what point, they wondered, will it At what point, they wondered, will it simply no longer be worth it to hold simply no longer be worth it to hold simply no longer be worth it to hold this cold and foggy island on the edge this cold and foggy island on the edge this cold and foggy island on the edge of the world? of the world? of the world? But as quickly as it started, the revolt But as quickly as it started, the revolt But as quickly as it started, the revolt flamed out. flamed out. flamed out. However, had Gaius Suetonius Paulinus However, had Gaius Suetonius Paulinus However, had Gaius Suetonius Paulinus lost the Battle of Watling Street, lost the Battle of Watling Street, lost the Battle of Watling Street, which, given how outnumbered he was, was which, given how outnumbered he was, was which, given how outnumbered he was, was not entirely out of the question, there not entirely out of the question, there not entirely out of the question, there is a very real possibility that the is a very real possibility that the is a very real possibility that the Romans would have withdrawn from Britain Romans would have withdrawn from Britain Romans would have withdrawn from Britain completely, altering the course of completely, altering the course of completely, altering the course of Western European history in the process. The trouble began in either 60 or 61 AD, The trouble began in either 60 or 61 AD, no one seems sure of the actual date, no one seems sure of the actual date, no one seems sure of the actual date, when Prasutagus, the king of the Iceni, when Prasutagus, the king of the Iceni, when Prasutagus, the king of the Iceni, died. died. died. During the initial Roman invasion of During the initial Roman invasion of During the initial Roman invasion of Britain in 43, the Iceni, who hailed Britain in 43, the Iceni, who hailed Britain in 43, the Iceni, who hailed from modern-day Norfolk on the east from modern-day Norfolk on the east from modern-day Norfolk on the east coast of Britain, had either been one of coast of Britain, had either been one of coast of Britain, had either been one of the 11 tribes who surrendered to the 11 tribes who surrendered to the 11 tribes who surrendered to Claudius or they had worked out an Claudius or they had worked out an Claudius or they had worked out an independent peace with the Romans not independent peace with the Romans not independent peace with the Romans not long after.

long after. long after. However it happened, the Iceni had been However it happened, the Iceni had been However it happened, the Iceni had been able to maintain their independence and able to maintain their independence and able to maintain their independence and Prasutagus was set up as an official Prasutagus was set up as an official Prasutagus was set up as an official client king of the Roman Empire. client king of the Roman Empire. client king of the Roman Empire. In an attempt to keep control of his In an attempt to keep control of his In an attempt to keep control of his tribe within the family, Prasutagus tribe within the family, Prasutagus tribe within the family, Prasutagus filled out a will that left Iceni filled out a will that left Iceni filled out a will that left Iceni territory jointly to the Romans on the territory jointly to the Romans on the territory jointly to the Romans on the one hand and his wife and daughters on one hand and his wife and daughters on one hand and his wife and daughters on the other. the other. the other. But when the king died, the Roman But when the king died, the Roman But when the king died, the Roman procurator of the province, a procurator of the province, a procurator of the province, a particularly rapacious character named particularly rapacious character named particularly rapacious character named Catus Decianus, announced that Catus Decianus, announced that Catus Decianus, announced that patriarchal Rome did not recognize the patriarchal Rome did not recognize the patriarchal Rome did not recognize the rights of women when it came to rights of women when it came to rights of women when it came to inheritance. inheritance. inheritance. The claims of the Iceni were denied and The claims of the Iceni were denied and The claims of the Iceni were denied and their territory was annexed by Rome. To the Britons, who had no problem with To the Britons, who had no problem with women inheriting property or holding women inheriting property or holding women inheriting property or holding positions of authority, this was positions of authority, this was positions of authority, this was incomprehensible. incomprehensible. incomprehensible. It was right and good that the king's It was right and good that the king's It was right and good that the king's wife should rule upon his death and his wife should rule upon his death and his wife should rule upon his death and his daughters grow up to be queens. So when daughters grow up to be queens. So when daughters grow up to be queens. So when Boudica, the widow of the dead king, Boudica, the widow of the dead king, Boudica, the widow of the dead king, went about her business as usual and went about her business as usual and went about her business as usual and paid no more or less tribute to the paid no more or less tribute to the paid no more or less tribute to the Romans than before, she was shocked at Romans than before, she was shocked at Romans than before, she was shocked at the Roman reaction.

the Roman reaction. the Roman reaction. Soldiers were sent to her village. Soldiers were sent to her village. Soldiers were sent to her village. Boudica was tied up and flogged while Boudica was tied up and flogged while Boudica was tied up and flogged while her daughters were carted off and raped. her daughters were carted off and raped. her daughters were carted off and raped. These ghastly acts committed, the Romans These ghastly acts committed, the Romans These ghastly acts committed, the Romans believed that they had put the upstart believed that they had put the upstart believed that they had put the upstart women in their place and thought no more women in their place and thought no more women in their place and thought no more of it. Little realizing that they had of it. Little realizing that they had of it. Little realizing that they had just lit a fuse that was burning quickly just lit a fuse that was burning quickly just lit a fuse that was burning quickly down towards the powder keg that was down towards the powder keg that was down towards the powder keg that was Queen Boudica. Queen Boudica. Queen Boudica. With the Roman governor of Britain, With the Roman governor of Britain, With the Roman governor of Britain, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, leading the Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, leading the Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, leading the majority of the British legions on a majority of the British legions on a majority of the British legions on a campaign on the Isle of Anglesey in campaign on the Isle of Anglesey in campaign on the Isle of Anglesey in Wales, Boudica took the opportunity to Wales, Boudica took the opportunity to Wales, Boudica took the opportunity to translate her fury into action. translate her fury into action. translate her fury into action. After convincing a neighboring tribe to After convincing a neighboring tribe to After convincing a neighboring tribe to join in the fun, Boudica gathered join in the fun, Boudica gathered join in the fun, Boudica gathered everyone up and declared war on Rome. everyone up and declared war on Rome. everyone up and declared war on Rome. The first stop was Camulodunum, the The first stop was Camulodunum, the The first stop was Camulodunum, the original headquarters of the Roman original headquarters of the Roman original headquarters of the Roman occupying force and site of a great occupying force and site of a great occupying force and site of a great temple built to the now divine Claudius. temple built to the now divine Claudius. temple built to the now divine Claudius. When Roman scouts brought back word that When Roman scouts brought back word that When Roman scouts brought back word that a huge force of Britons was headed a huge force of Britons was headed a huge force of Britons was headed straight for the city, the call for straight for the city, the call for straight for the city, the call for reinforcements went out. reinforcements went out. reinforcements went out. But with the bulk of the British legions But with the bulk of the British legions But with the bulk of the British legions occupied in Wales, the procurator occupied in Wales, the procurator occupied in Wales, the procurator Decianus decided that Boudica's revolt Decianus decided that Boudica's revolt Decianus decided that Boudica's revolt wasn't worth rearranging the remaining wasn't worth rearranging the remaining wasn't worth rearranging the remaining garrisons for and only sent an garrisons for and only sent an garrisons for and only sent an additional 200 troops to Camulodunum.

additional 200 troops to Camulodunum. additional 200 troops to Camulodunum. Not surprisingly, 200 more troops didn't Not surprisingly, 200 more troops didn't Not surprisingly, 200 more troops didn't do the Romans in the city much good as do the Romans in the city much good as do the Romans in the city much good as Boudica's force had to be in the tens of Boudica's force had to be in the tens of Boudica's force had to be in the tens of thousands. I'm having trouble tracking thousands. I'm having trouble tracking thousands. I'm having trouble tracking down an accurate headcount for them. down an accurate headcount for them. down an accurate headcount for them. The Britain rebels easily crashed the The Britain rebels easily crashed the The Britain rebels easily crashed the gates, forcing the surviving Romans to gates, forcing the surviving Romans to gates, forcing the surviving Romans to make a last stand in the barricaded make a last stand in the barricaded make a last stand in the barricaded temple of Claudius where, after two days temple of Claudius where, after two days temple of Claudius where, after two days of fighting, they were annihilated. of fighting, they were annihilated. of fighting, they were annihilated. Camulodunum was then burned to the Camulodunum was then burned to the Camulodunum was then burned to the ground. After the scale of the danger posed to After the scale of the danger posed to the residents of Camulodunum became the residents of Camulodunum became the residents of Camulodunum became apparent, a detachment of 2,500 men from apparent, a detachment of 2,500 men from apparent, a detachment of 2,500 men from a nearby legion were sent to reinforce a nearby legion were sent to reinforce a nearby legion were sent to reinforce the city. But by the time they arrived, the city. But by the time they arrived, the city. But by the time they arrived, it was too late. They showed up just in it was too late. They showed up just in it was too late. They showed up just in time to find the smoldering remains of time to find the smoldering remains of time to find the smoldering remains of Camulodunum and a horde of British Camulodunum and a horde of British Camulodunum and a horde of British warriors with their hackles raised and warriors with their hackles raised and warriors with their hackles raised and nothing else to do. nothing else to do. nothing else to do. The subsequent encounter, known as the The subsequent encounter, known as the The subsequent encounter, known as the massacre of the Ninth Legion, did not, massacre of the Ninth Legion, did not, massacre of the Ninth Legion, did not, as you can imagine, end well for the as you can imagine, end well for the as you can imagine, end well for the Romans. Romans. Romans. When news of the destruction of When news of the destruction of When news of the destruction of Camulodunum reached Suetonius in Wales, Camulodunum reached Suetonius in Wales, Camulodunum reached Suetonius in Wales, he immediately abandoned his campaign he immediately abandoned his campaign he immediately abandoned his campaign and marched straight for the new and marched straight for the new and marched straight for the new commercial center of Londinium, founded commercial center of Londinium, founded commercial center of Londinium, founded 20 years before and thriving nicely.

20 years before and thriving nicely. 20 years before and thriving nicely. But upon arrival, he assessed the But upon arrival, he assessed the But upon arrival, he assessed the situation and decided the new city was situation and decided the new city was situation and decided the new city was indefensible. With Boudica marching indefensible. With Boudica marching indefensible. With Boudica marching straight for them, he abandoned the town straight for them, he abandoned the town straight for them, he abandoned the town and looked for a better position from and looked for a better position from and looked for a better position from which to direct his counterattack. which to direct his counterattack. which to direct his counterattack. Boudica had no trouble overrunning Boudica had no trouble overrunning Boudica had no trouble overrunning undefended Londinium. She burned it to undefended Londinium. She burned it to undefended Londinium. She burned it to the ground and slaughtered anyone crazy the ground and slaughtered anyone crazy the ground and slaughtered anyone crazy enough to stay in the city after enough to stay in the city after enough to stay in the city after Suetonius left with his legions. Suetonius left with his legions. Suetonius left with his legions. Boudica then marched on Verulamium, the Boudica then marched on Verulamium, the Boudica then marched on Verulamium, the site of modern St. Albans, and put it site of modern St. Albans, and put it site of modern St. Albans, and put it too to the torch. too to the torch. too to the torch. This string of victories was gaining This string of victories was gaining This string of victories was gaining Boudica quite a reputation, and Boudica quite a reputation, and Boudica quite a reputation, and disaffected Britons from across the disaffected Britons from across the disaffected Britons from across the country flocked to her banner. country flocked to her banner. country flocked to her banner. The Romans were on the run, and with a The Romans were on the run, and with a The Romans were on the run, and with a little luck, they might just be run off little luck, they might just be run off little luck, they might just be run off the island altogether. the island altogether. the island altogether. But Suetonius was not ready to give up But Suetonius was not ready to give up But Suetonius was not ready to give up just yet. He managed to gather about just yet. He managed to gather about just yet. He managed to gather about 10,000 troops composed of portions of a 10,000 troops composed of portions of a 10,000 troops composed of portions of a few legions and irregular auxiliary few legions and irregular auxiliary few legions and irregular auxiliary forces, and stationed them at a forces, and stationed them at a forces, and stationed them at a defensible position in the West Midlands defensible position in the West Midlands defensible position in the West Midlands along a trade road known later as along a trade road known later as along a trade road known later as Watling Street. Watling Street. Watling Street. Though reports that Boudica led 230,000 Though reports that Boudica led 230,000 Though reports that Boudica led 230,000 warriors is certainly an exaggeration, warriors is certainly an exaggeration, warriors is certainly an exaggeration, there is no doubt that the Romans were there is no doubt that the Romans were there is no doubt that the Romans were massively outnumbered.

massively outnumbered. massively outnumbered. Tacitus reports that though Suetonius Tacitus reports that though Suetonius Tacitus reports that though Suetonius arrayed his men in a single line, it was arrayed his men in a single line, it was arrayed his men in a single line, it was not enough to match the length of the not enough to match the length of the not enough to match the length of the far deeper British army. far deeper British army. far deeper British army. But Suetonius knew what he was doing and But Suetonius knew what he was doing and But Suetonius knew what he was doing and had placed himself at a spot where only had placed himself at a spot where only had placed himself at a spot where only so many Britons could attack at any one so many Britons could attack at any one so many Britons could attack at any one time, partially negating the huge time, partially negating the huge time, partially negating the huge numerical disadvantage he faced. numerical disadvantage he faced. numerical disadvantage he faced. Boudica roused her army with a speech Boudica roused her army with a speech Boudica roused her army with a speech imploring them to make this moment the imploring them to make this moment the imploring them to make this moment the last moment for the Romans in Britain, last moment for the Romans in Britain, last moment for the Romans in Britain, and reminding them that she stood before and reminding them that she stood before and reminding them that she stood before them not as an aristocrat whose power them not as an aristocrat whose power them not as an aristocrat whose power had been usurped, but as a free woman had been usurped, but as a free woman had been usurped, but as a free woman whose liberty had been denied. whose liberty had been denied. whose liberty had been denied. Victory would mean freedom. Defeat would Victory would mean freedom. Defeat would Victory would mean freedom. Defeat would mean slavery. mean slavery. mean slavery. Unfortunately for the British, as we Unfortunately for the British, as we Unfortunately for the British, as we have seen so many times before, when it have seen so many times before, when it have seen so many times before, when it came to set piece battles out in the came to set piece battles out in the came to set piece battles out in the open, the The were second to none, even open, the The were second to none, even open, the The were second to none, even when they were outnumbered 10 to 1. when they were outnumbered 10 to 1. when they were outnumbered 10 to 1. When the British charged, the Roman line When the British charged, the Roman line When the British charged, the Roman line formed into a wedge and drove into the formed into a wedge and drove into the formed into a wedge and drove into the oncoming mass of warriors. oncoming mass of warriors. oncoming mass of warriors. Before too long, the British discovered Before too long, the British discovered Before too long, the British discovered the difficulty of breaking a disciplined the difficulty of breaking a disciplined the difficulty of breaking a disciplined Roman line and began to retreat.

Roman line and began to retreat. Roman line and began to retreat. But Boudica's army was not just an army. But Boudica's army was not just an army. But Boudica's army was not just an army. It was also a rolling caravan of her It was also a rolling caravan of her It was also a rolling caravan of her entire tribe, and before the battle, she entire tribe, and before the battle, she entire tribe, and before the battle, she had stationed the wagons and dependents had stationed the wagons and dependents had stationed the wagons and dependents who made up the rest of the troop behind who made up the rest of the troop behind who made up the rest of the troop behind the actual warriors. the actual warriors. the actual warriors. Now that the army was in full retreat, Now that the army was in full retreat, Now that the army was in full retreat, they ran headlong into the stationary they ran headlong into the stationary they ran headlong into the stationary wagons, and chaos ensued. wagons, and chaos ensued. wagons, and chaos ensued. Utterly snarled, the Romans were able to Utterly snarled, the Romans were able to Utterly snarled, the Romans were able to descend and go into slaughter mode. descend and go into slaughter mode. descend and go into slaughter mode. Of the 230,000 Of the 230,000 Of the 230,000 Boudica led into the Battle of Watling Boudica led into the Battle of Watling Boudica led into the Battle of Watling Street, 80,000 now lay dead on the Street, 80,000 now lay dead on the Street, 80,000 now lay dead on the plain. plain. plain. Roman losses were put at 400. Roman losses were put at 400. Roman losses were put at 400. Her revolt shattered, Boudica drank Her revolt shattered, Boudica drank Her revolt shattered, Boudica drank poison to avoid capture. Boudica's rebellion very nearly caused Boudica's rebellion very nearly caused Nero to abandon Britain altogether. Nero to abandon Britain altogether. Nero to abandon Britain altogether. Had she been able to lure Suetonius onto Had she been able to lure Suetonius onto Had she been able to lure Suetonius onto less favorable ground, it is likely that less favorable ground, it is likely that less favorable ground, it is likely that her far superior numbers would have been her far superior numbers would have been her far superior numbers would have been able to overwhelm him. But in the end, able to overwhelm him. But in the end, able to overwhelm him. But in the end, if there was one thing the Romans did if there was one thing the Romans did if there was one thing the Romans did really well, it was running a savvy really well, it was running a savvy really well, it was running a savvy military operation. So, the military operation. So, the military operation. So, the counterfactual just doesn't hold up.

counterfactual just doesn't hold up. counterfactual just doesn't hold up. Having abandoned Londinium, it was clear Having abandoned Londinium, it was clear Having abandoned Londinium, it was clear that the one thing Suetonius was not that the one thing Suetonius was not that the one thing Suetonius was not going to do was be lured onto going to do was be lured onto going to do was be lured onto unfavorable ground. unfavorable ground. unfavorable ground. Inevitably, Boudica's furious revolt was Inevitably, Boudica's furious revolt was Inevitably, Boudica's furious revolt was going to run into the cold, careful going to run into the cold, careful going to run into the cold, careful planning of the Roman legions. planning of the Roman legions. planning of the Roman legions. And, like so many before her, she would And, like so many before her, she would And, like so many before her, she would be destroyed by it. Rome was pleased to hear the good news Rome was pleased to hear the good news arriving from Britain that the uprising arriving from Britain that the uprising arriving from Britain that the uprising had been quelled, but they were had been quelled, but they were had been quelled, but they were simultaneously nonplussed by the news simultaneously nonplussed by the news simultaneously nonplussed by the news coming in from the East. coming in from the East. coming in from the East. Having set a Roman client back on the Having set a Roman client back on the Having set a Roman client back on the throne of Armenia, Corbulo had settled throne of Armenia, Corbulo had settled throne of Armenia, Corbulo had settled conditions in the East back into their conditions in the East back into their conditions in the East back into their natural state. natural state. natural state. But Tigranes VI, the new king of But Tigranes VI, the new king of But Tigranes VI, the new king of Armenia, immediately tried to upend the Armenia, immediately tried to upend the Armenia, immediately tried to upend the apple cart by raiding into Parthian apple cart by raiding into Parthian apple cart by raiding into Parthian territory. territory. territory. Where before the Parthian king Vologases Where before the Parthian king Vologases Where before the Parthian king Vologases had regretfully deemed the Armenian had regretfully deemed the Armenian had regretfully deemed the Armenian situation a low priority, invasions into situation a low priority, invasions into situation a low priority, invasions into Parthia itself were another matter. Parthia itself were another matter. Parthia itself were another matter. Reacting to the enraged pleas from his Reacting to the enraged pleas from his Reacting to the enraged pleas from his loyal subjects, the Parthian king loyal subjects, the Parthian king loyal subjects, the Parthian king settled his other business and turned settled his other business and turned settled his other business and turned back to the Mediterranean.

back to the Mediterranean. back to the Mediterranean. He formally announced that his brother He formally announced that his brother He formally announced that his brother Tiridates was still the rightful king of Tiridates was still the rightful king of Tiridates was still the rightful king of Armenia and recrowned him as such. Armenia and recrowned him as such. Armenia and recrowned him as such. A Parthian force then invaded Armenia A Parthian force then invaded Armenia A Parthian force then invaded Armenia and attempted to dislodge the Roman and attempted to dislodge the Roman and attempted to dislodge the Roman garrisons, but they were unsuccessful. garrisons, but they were unsuccessful. garrisons, but they were unsuccessful. Hoping to keep things civil, Corbulo met Hoping to keep things civil, Corbulo met Hoping to keep things civil, Corbulo met with Vologases and it was agreed that with Vologases and it was agreed that with Vologases and it was agreed that both empires would leave the disputed both empires would leave the disputed both empires would leave the disputed country while envoys from Parthia country while envoys from Parthia country while envoys from Parthia traveled to Rome and attempted to work traveled to Rome and attempted to work traveled to Rome and attempted to work out a deal. But by the spring of '62, no deal had But by the spring of '62, no deal had been struck and hostilities were been struck and hostilities were been struck and hostilities were renewed. renewed. renewed. This time, with Corbulo focused on This time, with Corbulo focused on This time, with Corbulo focused on protecting the key province of Syria protecting the key province of Syria protecting the key province of Syria from possible attack, Nero appointed a from possible attack, Nero appointed a from possible attack, Nero appointed a legate named Lucius Caesennius Paetus to legate named Lucius Caesennius Paetus to legate named Lucius Caesennius Paetus to spearhead operations in Armenia. spearhead operations in Armenia. spearhead operations in Armenia. The new commander took two legions and The new commander took two legions and The new commander took two legions and marched them straight toward marched them straight toward marched them straight toward Tigranocerta, which had been seized by Tigranocerta, which had been seized by Tigranocerta, which had been seized by the Parthians. the Parthians. the Parthians. But after a few easy but minor But after a few easy but minor But after a few easy but minor victories, he was forced to withdraw victories, he was forced to withdraw victories, he was forced to withdraw when winter came due to an unsteady when winter came due to an unsteady when winter came due to an unsteady supply line before reaching the southern supply line before reaching the southern supply line before reaching the southern capital. capital. capital. The ease of the first year's campaign The ease of the first year's campaign The ease of the first year's campaign had lulled Paetus into a false sense of had lulled Paetus into a false sense of had lulled Paetus into a false sense of security.

security. security. When in early '63, this false sense of When in early '63, this false sense of When in early '63, this false sense of security was shattered, he quickly security was shattered, he quickly security was shattered, he quickly showed himself to be a pretty awful showed himself to be a pretty awful showed himself to be a pretty awful commander. commander. commander. Unable to make any headway against Unable to make any headway against Unable to make any headway against Corbulo's fortifications in Syria, which Corbulo's fortifications in Syria, which Corbulo's fortifications in Syria, which Vologases had been planning to invade, Vologases had been planning to invade, Vologases had been planning to invade, the Parthian king decided to abandon the the Parthian king decided to abandon the the Parthian king decided to abandon the attempt and just go for broke in attempt and just go for broke in attempt and just go for broke in Armenia. Armenia. Armenia. So, when the second Parthian army, which So, when the second Parthian army, which So, when the second Parthian army, which Paetus had not accounted for, suddenly Paetus had not accounted for, suddenly Paetus had not accounted for, suddenly appeared along the Roman-Armenian border appeared along the Roman-Armenian border appeared along the Roman-Armenian border where he was camped for the winter, where he was camped for the winter, where he was camped for the winter, Paetus panicked. Paetus panicked. Paetus panicked. Having sent his officers away on leave Having sent his officers away on leave Having sent his officers away on leave and having dispersed the rest of his and having dispersed the rest of his and having dispersed the rest of his troops across the countryside, Paetus troops across the countryside, Paetus troops across the countryside, Paetus was in no position to fight the was in no position to fight the was in no position to fight the Parthians. Parthians. Parthians. He hastily ordered the troops he had on He hastily ordered the troops he had on He hastily ordered the troops he had on hand to blockade the various passes in hand to blockade the various passes in hand to blockade the various passes in the mountains to prevent the Parthians the mountains to prevent the Parthians the mountains to prevent the Parthians from entering Roman territory, from entering Roman territory, from entering Roman territory, but this had the effect of only but this had the effect of only but this had the effect of only dispersing his already dispersed troops dispersing his already dispersed troops dispersing his already dispersed troops even more. even more. even more. The Parthians were able to easily The Parthians were able to easily The Parthians were able to easily overrun these small detachments, forcing overrun these small detachments, forcing overrun these small detachments, forcing Paetus to fall back into his fortified Paetus to fall back into his fortified Paetus to fall back into his fortified camps outside of Rhandeia. camps outside of Rhandeia. camps outside of Rhandeia. Facing imminent doom, Paetus was Facing imminent doom, Paetus was Facing imminent doom, Paetus was paralyzed.

paralyzed. paralyzed. The most proactive thing he could think The most proactive thing he could think The most proactive thing he could think of to do was to call Corbulo for help. of to do was to call Corbulo for help. of to do was to call Corbulo for help. Having never liked Paetus to begin with, Having never liked Paetus to begin with, Having never liked Paetus to begin with, Corbulo took his sweet time gathering a Corbulo took his sweet time gathering a Corbulo took his sweet time gathering a relief force, but when the reports relief force, but when the reports relief force, but when the reports became sufficiently dire, he marched out became sufficiently dire, he marched out became sufficiently dire, he marched out half the men at his disposal and half the men at his disposal and half the men at his disposal and attempted to reach the besieged legions attempted to reach the besieged legions attempted to reach the besieged legions in time. in time. in time. But, he would arrive too late. But, he would arrive too late. But, he would arrive too late. While en route, Paetus had given up and While en route, Paetus had given up and While en route, Paetus had given up and surrendered to Vologases. surrendered to Vologases. surrendered to Vologases. The terms of the surrender were The terms of the surrender were The terms of the surrender were humiliating for Rome. humiliating for Rome. humiliating for Rome. The Parthian king demanded that the The Parthian king demanded that the The Parthian king demanded that the defeated army build him a bridge across defeated army build him a bridge across defeated army build him a bridge across a nearby river so his entourage could a nearby river so his entourage could a nearby river so his entourage could march over it victoriously. march over it victoriously. march over it victoriously. Then, according to some sources, he Then, according to some sources, he Then, according to some sources, he allowed the Romans to leave only after allowed the Romans to leave only after allowed the Romans to leave only after marching them under the yoke, which, as marching them under the yoke, which, as marching them under the yoke, which, as you recall from the Battle of the you recall from the Battle of the you recall from the Battle of the Claudine Gate during the Samnite Wars, Claudine Gate during the Samnite Wars, Claudine Gate during the Samnite Wars, was about as humiliating as it gets. The remnants of Paetus' army met up with The remnants of Paetus' army met up with the approaching legions led by Corbulo, the approaching legions led by Corbulo, the approaching legions led by Corbulo, and despite Paetus' pleas to keep and despite Paetus' pleas to keep and despite Paetus' pleas to keep fighting, Corbulo refused and led the fighting, Corbulo refused and led the fighting, Corbulo refused and led the whole force back to Syria, unwilling to whole force back to Syria, unwilling to whole force back to Syria, unwilling to risk getting entangled with the risk getting entangled with the risk getting entangled with the Parthians at a time and place of their Parthians at a time and place of their Parthians at a time and place of their choosing.

choosing. choosing. Having driven the Romans out of Armenia, Having driven the Romans out of Armenia, Having driven the Romans out of Armenia, Vologases sent envoys to Rome to work Vologases sent envoys to Rome to work Vologases sent envoys to Rome to work out a new peace accord. out a new peace accord. out a new peace accord. When the envoys arrived, though, Nero When the envoys arrived, though, Nero When the envoys arrived, though, Nero and the Senate were shocked to discover and the Senate were shocked to discover and the Senate were shocked to discover the magnitude of Paetus' defeat. the magnitude of Paetus' defeat. the magnitude of Paetus' defeat. Though he had been communicating his Though he had been communicating his Though he had been communicating his ever-worsening position to Corbulo, ever-worsening position to Corbulo, ever-worsening position to Corbulo, Paetus had continued to send cheerful Paetus had continued to send cheerful Paetus had continued to send cheerful letters back to Rome, acting as if letters back to Rome, acting as if letters back to Rome, acting as if nothing was amiss. nothing was amiss. nothing was amiss. So, when Parthian envoys showed up with So, when Parthian envoys showed up with So, when Parthian envoys showed up with news of Roman legions marching out under news of Roman legions marching out under news of Roman legions marching out under the yoke, the leaders of Rome had the yoke, the leaders of Rome had the yoke, the leaders of Rome had trouble fitting this revelation into trouble fitting this revelation into trouble fitting this revelation into their heads. their heads. their heads. For God's sake, the triumphal arch For God's sake, the triumphal arch For God's sake, the triumphal arch marking the defeat of the Parthians in marking the defeat of the Parthians in marking the defeat of the Parthians in Armenia was already halfway constructed. Armenia was already halfway constructed. Armenia was already halfway constructed. What are we supposed to do with a What are we supposed to do with a What are we supposed to do with a halfway built triumphal arch? Turn it halfway built triumphal arch? Turn it halfway built triumphal arch? Turn it into a giant swing set? Paetus was immediately recalled to Rome, Paetus was immediately recalled to Rome, and Corbulo was given emergency imperium and Corbulo was given emergency imperium and Corbulo was given emergency imperium over the entire Eastern Empire. over the entire Eastern Empire. over the entire Eastern Empire. His job was to whip the Parthians and His job was to whip the Parthians and His job was to whip the Parthians and make sure that it stuck this time. make sure that it stuck this time. make sure that it stuck this time. Corbulo led a large force out of Syria Corbulo led a large force out of Syria Corbulo led a large force out of Syria and into Armenia to do just that, but and into Armenia to do just that, but and into Armenia to do just that, but before a battle could be fought, before a battle could be fought, before a battle could be fought, Vologases sent word that he wanted to Vologases sent word that he wanted to Vologases sent word that he wanted to deal.

deal. deal. He knew full well that Corbulo was not He knew full well that Corbulo was not He knew full well that Corbulo was not Paetus, and that the Romans would not be Paetus, and that the Romans would not be Paetus, and that the Romans would not be taken so easily again. taken so easily again. taken so easily again. So, the two sides met and struck a deal. So, the two sides met and struck a deal. So, the two sides met and struck a deal. Henceforth, Parthia would be able to Henceforth, Parthia would be able to Henceforth, Parthia would be able to appoint the monarch of Armenia, but appoint the monarch of Armenia, but appoint the monarch of Armenia, but their choice had to be ratified by the their choice had to be ratified by the their choice had to be ratified by the Roman emperor. Roman emperor. Roman emperor. Tiridates then laid his diadem down in Tiridates then laid his diadem down in Tiridates then laid his diadem down in front of a statue of Nero that Romans front of a statue of Nero that Romans front of a statue of Nero that Romans had brought, and swore not to put it had brought, and swore not to put it had brought, and swore not to put it back upon his head until Nero had placed back upon his head until Nero had placed back upon his head until Nero had placed it there. it there. it there. In 66 AD, Tiridates then did travel to In 66 AD, Tiridates then did travel to In 66 AD, Tiridates then did travel to Rome to meet with the emperor and accept Rome to meet with the emperor and accept Rome to meet with the emperor and accept his crown. his crown. his crown. Nero threw a huge party and made a big Nero threw a huge party and made a big Nero threw a huge party and made a big to-do about his right to crown the king to-do about his right to crown the king to-do about his right to crown the king of Armenia, of Armenia, of Armenia, but critics within the Senate and beyond but critics within the Senate and beyond but critics within the Senate and beyond believed the emperor had done nothing believed the emperor had done nothing believed the emperor had done nothing less than hand Armenia over to the less than hand Armenia over to the less than hand Armenia over to the Parthians. Parthians. Parthians. Ratify the candidate that they nominate? Ratify the candidate that they nominate? Ratify the candidate that they nominate? What great power is that? What great power is that? What great power is that? But defenders of Nero saw it as a But defenders of Nero saw it as a But defenders of Nero saw it as a practical move that averted all-out war practical move that averted all-out war practical move that averted all-out war with the one power big enough to really with the one power big enough to really with the one power big enough to really challenge Rome. challenge Rome. challenge Rome. In closing out the ceremony, Nero even In closing out the ceremony, Nero even In closing out the ceremony, Nero even went so far as to close the rarely went so far as to close the rarely went so far as to close the rarely closed gates of the Temple of Janus, closed gates of the Temple of Janus, closed gates of the Temple of Janus, which signaled the arrival of universal which signaled the arrival of universal which signaled the arrival of universal peace.

Universal peace, though, never lasts Universal peace, though, never lasts long. long. long. Next week, just months after the gates Next week, just months after the gates Next week, just months after the gates swing shut, they will be opened again. swing shut, they will be opened again. swing shut, they will be opened again. The always simmering province of Judaea The always simmering province of Judaea The always simmering province of Judaea will finally boil over, leading to what will finally boil over, leading to what will finally boil over, leading to what is now known as the Great Jewish Revolt. is now known as the Great Jewish Revolt. is now known as the Great Jewish Revolt. The historical implications of this The historical implications of this The historical implications of this brief conflict were vast, as the Romans brief conflict were vast, as the Romans brief conflict were vast, as the Romans both the Temple of Jerusalem and both the Temple of Jerusalem and both the Temple of Jerusalem and triggered a diaspora of Jews out of the triggered a diaspora of Jews out of the triggered a diaspora of Jews out of the East, with the survivors of the revolt East, with the survivors of the revolt East, with the survivors of the revolt fleeing to communities across the fleeing to communities across the fleeing to communities across the empire, which sowed the seeds for so empire, which sowed the seeds for so empire, which sowed the seeds for so much medieval and modern tension between much medieval and modern tension between much medieval and modern tension between Jew and Gentile. Hello, and welcome to the History of Hello, and welcome to the History of Rome. Rome. Rome. Episode 66, 666. Episode 66, 666. Episode 66, 666. At the end of last week's episode, I At the end of last week's episode, I At the end of last week's episode, I hinted that today we would be getting hinted that today we would be getting hinted that today we would be getting into the Great Jewish Revolt, which into the Great Jewish Revolt, which into the Great Jewish Revolt, which erupted in Judaea in 66 AD, and led to erupted in Judaea in 66 AD, and led to erupted in Judaea in 66 AD, and led to the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD.

the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD. the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD. However, as I began to unpack my outline However, as I began to unpack my outline However, as I began to unpack my outline for this week, I quickly realized that for this week, I quickly realized that for this week, I quickly realized that this hinting was premature. this hinting was premature. this hinting was premature. So, to those of you out there who got So, to those of you out there who got So, to those of you out there who got really psyched for that story, sorry, really psyched for that story, sorry, really psyched for that story, sorry, you're going to have to wait until next you're going to have to wait until next you're going to have to wait until next week. There is too much I want to get week. There is too much I want to get week. There is too much I want to get into about Nero, the Great Fire of Rome, into about Nero, the Great Fire of Rome, into about Nero, the Great Fire of Rome, the emperor's relationship with the the emperor's relationship with the the emperor's relationship with the early Christians, and his relationship early Christians, and his relationship early Christians, and his relationship with the Senate to cram the Great Revolt with the Senate to cram the Great Revolt with the Senate to cram the Great Revolt in there, too. in there, too. in there, too. So, the Great Revolt will be next week. So, the Great Revolt will be next week. So, the Great Revolt will be next week. This week was Nero actually the This week was Nero actually the This week was Nero actually the Antichrist? Antichrist? Antichrist? You'll remember from 2 weeks ago that in You'll remember from 2 weeks ago that in You'll remember from 2 weeks ago that in 59 AD, Nero had grown so tired of his 59 AD, Nero had grown so tired of his 59 AD, Nero had grown so tired of his mother Agrippina that he conspired to mother Agrippina that he conspired to mother Agrippina that he conspired to have her killed. have her killed. have her killed. Though this act of matricide could not Though this act of matricide could not Though this act of matricide could not be said to mark a clear line between be said to mark a clear line between be said to mark a clear line between Nero the self-indulgent and Nero the Nero the self-indulgent and Nero the Nero the self-indulgent and Nero the sadist, since on the one hand killing sadist, since on the one hand killing sadist, since on the one hand killing your own mother goes way beyond your own mother goes way beyond your own mother goes way beyond self-indulgent, and on the other Nero self-indulgent, and on the other Nero self-indulgent, and on the other Nero the sadist didn't really get going until the sadist didn't really get going until the sadist didn't really get going until after the death of the Praetorian after the death of the Praetorian after the death of the Praetorian prefect Burrus in 62 AD, the death of prefect Burrus in 62 AD, the death of prefect Burrus in 62 AD, the death of Agrippina pretty clearly foreshadowed Agrippina pretty clearly foreshadowed Agrippina pretty clearly foreshadowed what Nero was capable of and what he was what Nero was capable of and what he was what Nero was capable of and what he was becoming.

becoming. becoming. But like I say, it wasn't a clear But like I say, it wasn't a clear But like I say, it wasn't a clear breaking point. For a few years, Nero breaking point. For a few years, Nero breaking point. For a few years, Nero continued on as he always had, continued on as he always had, continued on as he always had, moderately interested in the affairs of moderately interested in the affairs of moderately interested in the affairs of state and excessively interested in state and excessively interested in state and excessively interested in affairs of, well, excess. affairs of, well, excess. affairs of, well, excess. He served as consul four times from 55 He served as consul four times from 55 He served as consul four times from 55 to 60 AD, an office which, while not as to 60 AD, an office which, while not as to 60 AD, an office which, while not as important as it had once been, was still important as it had once been, was still important as it had once been, was still a key administrative cog in the empire, a key administrative cog in the empire, a key administrative cog in the empire, signaling that Nero enjoyed at least signaling that Nero enjoyed at least signaling that Nero enjoyed at least some aspects of practical governance. some aspects of practical governance. some aspects of practical governance. But at the same time, he began to take But at the same time, he began to take But at the same time, he began to take his leisure pursuits even more seriously his leisure pursuits even more seriously his leisure pursuits even more seriously than he had in the past. than he had in the past. than he had in the past. Nero was essentially a bohemian emperor. Nero was essentially a bohemian emperor. Nero was essentially a bohemian emperor. He liked drinking, poetry, and music. He He liked drinking, poetry, and music. He He liked drinking, poetry, and music. He liked lazing around during the day and liked lazing around during the day and liked lazing around during the day and partying his way through the night. partying his way through the night. partying his way through the night. He and his friends would go on drunken He and his friends would go on drunken He and his friends would go on drunken romps through the city, stirring up romps through the city, stirring up romps through the city, stirring up trouble at brothels and bathhouses, and trouble at brothels and bathhouses, and trouble at brothels and bathhouses, and generally making the LA nightclub scene generally making the LA nightclub scene generally making the LA nightclub scene look like a meeting of the Woman's look like a meeting of the Woman's look like a meeting of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union. Christian Temperance Union. Christian Temperance Union. But even with the emperor whirling But even with the emperor whirling But even with the emperor whirling around Rome in a debauched frenzy every around Rome in a debauched frenzy every around Rome in a debauched frenzy every night, the day-to-day operations of night, the day-to-day operations of night, the day-to-day operations of empire were still in relatively good empire were still in relatively good empire were still in relatively good hands.

hands. hands. The prefect Burrus and Seneca the The prefect Burrus and Seneca the The prefect Burrus and Seneca the Younger continued to act as moderating Younger continued to act as moderating Younger continued to act as moderating hands, steering the no doubt perpetually hands, steering the no doubt perpetually hands, steering the no doubt perpetually hungover Nero away from this terrible hungover Nero away from this terrible hungover Nero away from this terrible idea and toward that sound policy. idea and toward that sound policy. idea and toward that sound policy. But in the early 60s AD, things began to But in the early 60s AD, things began to But in the early 60s AD, things began to change, and the sort of embarrassing but change, and the sort of embarrassing but change, and the sort of embarrassing but harmless bohemian emperor began to turn harmless bohemian emperor began to turn harmless bohemian emperor began to turn into something much darker. And in into something much darker. And in into something much darker. And in response, the people of Rome began to response, the people of Rome began to response, the people of Rome began to turn on him. In 58 AD, Nero met the wife of his In 58 AD, Nero met the wife of his friend Otho, who was a stunning and friend Otho, who was a stunning and friend Otho, who was a stunning and ambitious woman named Poppaea Sabina, ambitious woman named Poppaea Sabina, ambitious woman named Poppaea Sabina, and was immediately smitten with her. and was immediately smitten with her. and was immediately smitten with her. Poppaea was more than happy to return Poppaea was more than happy to return Poppaea was more than happy to return the emperor's affections, as it was the emperor's affections, as it was the emperor's affections, as it was widely rumored that she had initially widely rumored that she had initially widely rumored that she had initially targeted Otho for marriage specifically targeted Otho for marriage specifically targeted Otho for marriage specifically to get closer to Nero. to get closer to Nero. to get closer to Nero. The two began to have an affair shortly The two began to have an affair shortly The two began to have an affair shortly thereafter, that some pointed to as the thereafter, that some pointed to as the thereafter, that some pointed to as the key factor in Nero's decision to off his key factor in Nero's decision to off his key factor in Nero's decision to off his disapproving mother. And though that disapproving mother. And though that disapproving mother. And though that explanation has been pretty well explanation has been pretty well explanation has been pretty well debunked, it is worth noting again that debunked, it is worth noting again that debunked, it is worth noting again that the accusation was thrown around at the the accusation was thrown around at the the accusation was thrown around at the time.

time. time. The reason Agrippina disapproved is that The reason Agrippina disapproved is that The reason Agrippina disapproved is that Nero was still married to Claudia Nero was still married to Claudia Nero was still married to Claudia Octavia, the daughter of Claudius. Octavia, the daughter of Claudius. Octavia, the daughter of Claudius. The union between Nero and Claudia kept The union between Nero and Claudia kept The union between Nero and Claudia kept the two wings of the Julio-Claudian the two wings of the Julio-Claudian the two wings of the Julio-Claudian dynasty tied together, and Agrippina dynasty tied together, and Agrippina dynasty tied together, and Agrippina didn't want Nero to throw that away in a didn't want Nero to throw that away in a didn't want Nero to throw that away in a fit of young lust. fit of young lust. fit of young lust. Mistresses were fine, as long as they Mistresses were fine, as long as they Mistresses were fine, as long as they remained mistresses. remained mistresses. remained mistresses. But Nero was never happy in his arranged But Nero was never happy in his arranged But Nero was never happy in his arranged marriage, and was always looking to turn marriage, and was always looking to turn marriage, and was always looking to turn his mistresses into wives, something his mistresses into wives, something his mistresses into wives, something that would shatter the only recently that would shatter the only recently that would shatter the only recently reunited bonds of the Julians and the reunited bonds of the Julians and the reunited bonds of the Julians and the Claudians. Claudians. Claudians. Poppaea, for her part, had no interest Poppaea, for her part, had no interest Poppaea, for her part, had no interest in remaining Nero's mistress, and was in remaining Nero's mistress, and was in remaining Nero's mistress, and was forever whispering in the emperor's ear forever whispering in the emperor's ear forever whispering in the emperor's ear that he ought to ditch his prudish wife that he ought to ditch his prudish wife that he ought to ditch his prudish wife and marry her instead. and marry her instead. and marry her instead. In 62 AD, things came to a head when In 62 AD, things came to a head when In 62 AD, things came to a head when Poppaea announced that she was pregnant Poppaea announced that she was pregnant Poppaea announced that she was pregnant with Nero's child. with Nero's child. with Nero's child. The emperor finally decided that it was The emperor finally decided that it was The emperor finally decided that it was time to give up all the pretenses, and time to give up all the pretenses, and time to give up all the pretenses, and announced to the people that on grounds announced to the people that on grounds announced to the people that on grounds of infertility, he was divorcing Octavia of infertility, he was divorcing Octavia of infertility, he was divorcing Octavia and marrying Poppaea instead.

and marrying Poppaea instead. and marrying Poppaea instead. He then banished Octavia to the same He then banished Octavia to the same He then banished Octavia to the same small island that had previously been small island that had previously been small island that had previously been the de facto prison of her aunt, the de facto prison of her aunt, the de facto prison of her aunt, Agrippina the Elder. Agrippina the Elder. Agrippina the Elder. 18 days later, Nero married Poppaea in a 18 days later, Nero married Poppaea in a 18 days later, Nero married Poppaea in a lavish ceremony. lavish ceremony. lavish ceremony. The divorce and remarriage of Nero marks The divorce and remarriage of Nero marks The divorce and remarriage of Nero marks the first time the public really turned the first time the public really turned the first time the public really turned on the young emperor. on the young emperor. on the young emperor. Up until now, he had been riding his Up until now, he had been riding his Up until now, he had been riding his Julian blood and generous social Julian blood and generous social Julian blood and generous social programs right into the hearts of the programs right into the hearts of the programs right into the hearts of the masses. masses. masses. But the people seemed to take the But the people seemed to take the But the people seemed to take the betrayal of Octavia personally. betrayal of Octavia personally. betrayal of Octavia personally. Well-liked for her noble demeanor, they Well-liked for her noble demeanor, they Well-liked for her noble demeanor, they couldn't understand why Nero was couldn't understand why Nero was couldn't understand why Nero was suddenly dumping this fine Roman woman suddenly dumping this fine Roman woman suddenly dumping this fine Roman woman who they were all proud to call their who they were all proud to call their who they were all proud to call their empress. empress. empress. And who was taking her place? Some And who was taking her place? Some And who was taking her place? Some harlot adulterer? harlot adulterer? harlot adulterer? No, they weren't happy about this at No, they weren't happy about this at No, they weren't happy about this at all. all. all. It got so bad that people began carrying It got so bad that people began carrying It got so bad that people began carrying statues of Octavia through the streets statues of Octavia through the streets statues of Octavia through the streets demanding that she be recalled from demanding that she be recalled from demanding that she be recalled from exile. exile. exile. Nero, spooked by the sudden Nero, spooked by the sudden Nero, spooked by the sudden demonstrations, nearly caved in. But demonstrations, nearly caved in. But demonstrations, nearly caved in. But Poppaea convinced him to do the other Poppaea convinced him to do the other Poppaea convinced him to do the other thing. The thing where, "Sorry, Octavia thing. The thing where, "Sorry, Octavia thing. The thing where, "Sorry, Octavia is dead. So, as much as I'd like to, is dead. So, as much as I'd like to, is dead. So, as much as I'd like to, there's no one really left to recall."

there's no one really left to recall." there's no one really left to recall." Imperial agents staged the murder of Imperial agents staged the murder of Imperial agents staged the murder of Octavia to make it look like a suicide, Octavia to make it look like a suicide, Octavia to make it look like a suicide, but no one was buying it. but no one was buying it. but no one was buying it. Whatever benefit of the doubt Nero had Whatever benefit of the doubt Nero had Whatever benefit of the doubt Nero had been receiving was now gone. And 2 years been receiving was now gone. And 2 years been receiving was now gone. And 2 years later, when Rome went up in flames, no later, when Rome went up in flames, no later, when Rome went up in flames, no one hesitated to accuse the emperor of one hesitated to accuse the emperor of one hesitated to accuse the emperor of setting the blaze himself for his own setting the blaze himself for his own setting the blaze himself for his own insane purposes. insane purposes. insane purposes. But it wasn't just the incident with But it wasn't just the incident with But it wasn't just the incident with Octavia that turned the people against Octavia that turned the people against Octavia that turned the people against Nero. Nero. Nero. In general, his policies were trending In general, his policies were trending In general, his policies were trending towards unsustainable extravagance. towards unsustainable extravagance. towards unsustainable extravagance. Not typical rich boy extravagance, mind Not typical rich boy extravagance, mind Not typical rich boy extravagance, mind you, but a budget-busting megalomaniacal you, but a budget-busting megalomaniacal you, but a budget-busting megalomaniacal extravagance that was beginning to weigh extravagance that was beginning to weigh extravagance that was beginning to weigh the whole empire down. the whole empire down. the whole empire down. The key shift in his attitude came later The key shift in his attitude came later The key shift in his attitude came later in 62 AD when the Praetorian Prefect in 62 AD when the Praetorian Prefect in 62 AD when the Praetorian Prefect Burrus died of an illness. Burrus died of an illness. Burrus died of an illness. Though he had been gradually losing Though he had been gradually losing Though he had been gradually losing favor with the emperor, especially since favor with the emperor, especially since favor with the emperor, especially since the arrival of Poppaea, the arrival of Poppaea, the arrival of Poppaea, Burrus was still a positive influence on Burrus was still a positive influence on Burrus was still a positive influence on Nero, and his death left a giant hole Nero, and his death left a giant hole Nero, and his death left a giant hole where moderation used to be. where moderation used to be. where moderation used to be. His death also left the key office of His death also left the key office of His death also left the key office of Praetorian Prefect open, and Nero filled Praetorian Prefect open, and Nero filled Praetorian Prefect open, and Nero filled the vacancy not with a man who would the vacancy not with a man who would the vacancy not with a man who would moderate his vices, but who would openly moderate his vices, but who would openly moderate his vices, but who would openly encourage them.

encourage them. encourage them. Further, with Burrus dead, Seneca the Further, with Burrus dead, Seneca the Further, with Burrus dead, Seneca the Younger found himself isolated in an Younger found himself isolated in an Younger found himself isolated in an imperial court that was now dominated by imperial court that was now dominated by imperial court that was now dominated by Poppaea and her friends. Poppaea and her friends. Poppaea and her friends. After they began passing around rumors After they began passing around rumors After they began passing around rumors that the old man was embezzling from the that the old man was embezzling from the that the old man was embezzling from the state treasury, Seneca knew that he was state treasury, Seneca knew that he was state treasury, Seneca knew that he was a marked man. a marked man. a marked man. Rather than run the risk of winding up Rather than run the risk of winding up Rather than run the risk of winding up in front of some treason trial on in front of some treason trial on in front of some treason trial on trumped-up charges, Seneca resigned from trumped-up charges, Seneca resigned from trumped-up charges, Seneca resigned from his post and retired to a quiet life of his post and retired to a quiet life of his post and retired to a quiet life of philosophical contemplation. philosophical contemplation. philosophical contemplation. Not that it would all do him much good. Not that it would all do him much good. Not that it would all do him much good. Recognizing that his young charge was Recognizing that his young charge was Recognizing that his young charge was becoming a massive liability for the becoming a massive liability for the becoming a massive liability for the empire, Seneca would get caught up in empire, Seneca would get caught up in empire, Seneca would get caught up in the Pisonian Conspiracy and then be the Pisonian Conspiracy and then be the Pisonian Conspiracy and then be exposed along with everyone else when exposed along with everyone else when exposed along with everyone else when the plot was betrayed in 65 AD. All of the plot was betrayed in 65 AD. All of the plot was betrayed in 65 AD. All of which I'll get to in a moment. which I'll get to in a moment. which I'll get to in a moment. The man who replaced Burrus as prefect The man who replaced Burrus as prefect The man who replaced Burrus as prefect was Gaius Ofonius Tigellinus and it can was Gaius Ofonius Tigellinus and it can was Gaius Ofonius Tigellinus and it can be justifiably said that the downfall of be justifiably said that the downfall of be justifiably said that the downfall of Nero coincides neatly with the rise of Nero coincides neatly with the rise of Nero coincides neatly with the rise of Tigellinus. Tigellinus. Tigellinus. The new prefect quickly gained a The new prefect quickly gained a The new prefect quickly gained a reputation for cruelty and spent the reputation for cruelty and spent the reputation for cruelty and spent the majority of his seven-odd years in majority of his seven-odd years in majority of his seven-odd years in office either persecuting the enemies of office either persecuting the enemies of office either persecuting the enemies of Nero or orchestrating his mass orgies.

Nero or orchestrating his mass orgies. Nero or orchestrating his mass orgies. As I just said, where Burrus had acted As I just said, where Burrus had acted As I just said, where Burrus had acted to keep Nero in check, Tigellinus to keep Nero in check, Tigellinus to keep Nero in check, Tigellinus actively encouraged the emperor to actively encouraged the emperor to actively encouraged the emperor to indulge himself without reservation or indulge himself without reservation or indulge himself without reservation or hesitation. hesitation. hesitation. The combined influence of Poppaea and The combined influence of Poppaea and The combined influence of Poppaea and the new Praetorian prefect unhinged Nero the new Praetorian prefect unhinged Nero the new Praetorian prefect unhinged Nero completely from his super ego and sent completely from his super ego and sent completely from his super ego and sent him down a path that eventually led to him down a path that eventually led to him down a path that eventually led to him committing suicide after being him committing suicide after being him committing suicide after being declared an enemy of the state in 68 AD. declared an enemy of the state in 68 AD. declared an enemy of the state in 68 AD. So, remember kids, the super ego may be So, remember kids, the super ego may be So, remember kids, the super ego may be a joyless old stick-in-the-mud, but it's a joyless old stick-in-the-mud, but it's a joyless old stick-in-the-mud, but it's there for a reason. In 64 AD, the negative consequences of In 64 AD, the negative consequences of the emperor's excesses were finally put the emperor's excesses were finally put the emperor's excesses were finally put on full display following one of the on full display following one of the on full display following one of the seminal events of Nero's reign, seminal events of Nero's reign, seminal events of Nero's reign, the Great Fire of Rome. the Great Fire of Rome. the Great Fire of Rome. The accusations and counter-accusations The accusations and counter-accusations The accusations and counter-accusations about who was behind the disaster paint about who was behind the disaster paint about who was behind the disaster paint a picture of an emperor who had not only a picture of an emperor who had not only a picture of an emperor who had not only lost the faith of the aristocratic lost the faith of the aristocratic lost the faith of the aristocratic classes, but of the general public as classes, but of the general public as classes, but of the general public as well. well. well. Because the widely spread and widely Because the widely spread and widely Because the widely spread and widely believed rumor was that Nero had himself believed rumor was that Nero had himself believed rumor was that Nero had himself started the blaze.

started the blaze. started the blaze. A popular and well-regarded ruler does A popular and well-regarded ruler does A popular and well-regarded ruler does not usually have to answer questions not usually have to answer questions not usually have to answer questions about whether or not he has burned his about whether or not he has burned his about whether or not he has burned his own capital down. But, an increasingly own capital down. But, an increasingly own capital down. But, an increasingly disliked and despotic ruler, well, those disliked and despotic ruler, well, those disliked and despotic ruler, well, those are exactly the sorts of questions that are exactly the sorts of questions that are exactly the sorts of questions that everyone starts asking. everyone starts asking. everyone starts asking. As disconnected as he was becoming from As disconnected as he was becoming from As disconnected as he was becoming from reality though, Nero wasn't oblivious to reality though, Nero wasn't oblivious to reality though, Nero wasn't oblivious to this evidence of his sinking popularity, this evidence of his sinking popularity, this evidence of his sinking popularity, or the threat that that posed to his or the threat that that posed to his or the threat that that posed to his regime. regime. regime. His decision to scapegoat the early His decision to scapegoat the early His decision to scapegoat the early Christians and blame them for starting Christians and blame them for starting Christians and blame them for starting the fire is clear evidence that Nero the fire is clear evidence that Nero the fire is clear evidence that Nero decided he needed some kind of evil foil decided he needed some kind of evil foil decided he needed some kind of evil foil to point to to keep the public's to point to to keep the public's to point to to keep the public's attention off of his own failings. attention off of his own failings. attention off of his own failings. With the Romans already suspicious of With the Romans already suspicious of With the Romans already suspicious of those weirdo Christian cultists, Nero those weirdo Christian cultists, Nero those weirdo Christian cultists, Nero guessed that it would be easy to fan the guessed that it would be easy to fan the guessed that it would be easy to fan the flames of bigotry, and in the process flames of bigotry, and in the process flames of bigotry, and in the process maybe regain some of his lost maybe regain some of his lost maybe regain some of his lost popularity. Accounts of the breadth and depth of the Accounts of the breadth and depth of the Great Fire differ, but the classic Great Fire differ, but the classic Great Fire differ, but the classic accounting is that three of the 14 accounting is that three of the 14 accounting is that three of the 14 districts of Rome wound up utterly districts of Rome wound up utterly districts of Rome wound up utterly destroyed, and another seven were badly destroyed, and another seven were badly destroyed, and another seven were badly damaged.

damaged. damaged. The fire broke out near the Circus The fire broke out near the Circus The fire broke out near the Circus Maximus and quickly raged out of Maximus and quickly raged out of Maximus and quickly raged out of control, ultimately burning for control, ultimately burning for control, ultimately burning for somewhere between five and seven days somewhere between five and seven days somewhere between five and seven days before running out of fuel. before running out of fuel. before running out of fuel. In addition to the countless homes and In addition to the countless homes and In addition to the countless homes and businesses that were destroyed in the businesses that were destroyed in the businesses that were destroyed in the blaze, portions of the Imperial Palace blaze, portions of the Imperial Palace blaze, portions of the Imperial Palace were consumed along with the Hearth of were consumed along with the Hearth of were consumed along with the Hearth of the Vestal Virgins and the Temple of the the Vestal Virgins and the Temple of the the Vestal Virgins and the Temple of the Jupiter Stator, which legend had it had Jupiter Stator, which legend had it had Jupiter Stator, which legend had it had been founded by Romulus himself after been founded by Romulus himself after been founded by Romulus himself after the Romans' first successful battle with the Romans' first successful battle with the Romans' first successful battle with the Sabines. the Sabines. the Sabines. The fire was devastating, and in its The fire was devastating, and in its The fire was devastating, and in its aftermath the displaced victims, aftermath the displaced victims, aftermath the displaced victims, families who had lost everything, families who had lost everything, families who had lost everything, naturally wanted to know what had naturally wanted to know what had naturally wanted to know what had happened, why it had happened, and how happened, why it had happened, and how happened, why it had happened, and how it had happened. it had happened. it had happened. But, there was no clear cause, and in But, there was no clear cause, and in But, there was no clear cause, and in the absence of a plausible explanation, the absence of a plausible explanation, the absence of a plausible explanation, rumors began to fly that perhaps Nero rumors began to fly that perhaps Nero rumors began to fly that perhaps Nero was behind the whole thing. was behind the whole thing. was behind the whole thing. It had long been known that the emperor It had long been known that the emperor It had long been known that the emperor dreamed of building a massive palace dreamed of building a massive palace dreamed of building a massive palace complex in the heart of the city. So, complex in the heart of the city. So, complex in the heart of the city. So, wasn't it obvious that Nero had sent his wasn't it obvious that Nero had sent his wasn't it obvious that Nero had sent his agents, led by that damn Tigellinus, to agents, led by that damn Tigellinus, to agents, led by that damn Tigellinus, to start the fire in order to clear out the start the fire in order to clear out the start the fire in order to clear out the existing buildings that were in the way existing buildings that were in the way existing buildings that were in the way of his opulent vision?

of his opulent vision? of his opulent vision? Reports began to crop up that while the Reports began to crop up that while the Reports began to crop up that while the fire raged, a joyful Nero had plucked at fire raged, a joyful Nero had plucked at fire raged, a joyful Nero had plucked at his prized lyre while watching the city his prized lyre while watching the city his prized lyre while watching the city go down in flames. go down in flames. go down in flames. In fact, wasn't it true that setting the In fact, wasn't it true that setting the In fact, wasn't it true that setting the fire hadn't even been about building his fire hadn't even been about building his fire hadn't even been about building his golden palace? golden palace? golden palace? Wasn't it just that Nero desired a Wasn't it just that Nero desired a Wasn't it just that Nero desired a magnificent backdrop for some new magnificent backdrop for some new magnificent backdrop for some new performance, and that in the midst of performance, and that in the midst of performance, and that in the midst of the blaze, he had dressed in a costume the blaze, he had dressed in a costume the blaze, he had dressed in a costume and sung the sack of Ilium for him and and sung the sack of Ilium for him and and sung the sack of Ilium for him and his monstrous friends? his monstrous friends? his monstrous friends? Wasn't it true that Nero had fiddled Wasn't it true that Nero had fiddled Wasn't it true that Nero had fiddled while Rome burned? while Rome burned? while Rome burned? So, turned the rumor mill. So, turned the rumor mill. So, turned the rumor mill. But, were any of these rumors actually But, were any of these rumors actually But, were any of these rumors actually true? true? true? I tend to follow Tacitus on this I tend to follow Tacitus on this I tend to follow Tacitus on this because, as biased as he is against because, as biased as he is against because, as biased as he is against Nero, he's usually reliable with his Nero, he's usually reliable with his Nero, he's usually reliable with his facts, and he reports that Nero wasn't facts, and he reports that Nero wasn't facts, and he reports that Nero wasn't even in Rome at the time. And when news even in Rome at the time. And when news even in Rome at the time. And when news that the city was on fire reached him, that the city was on fire reached him, that the city was on fire reached him, that he rushed back and immediately that he rushed back and immediately that he rushed back and immediately spearheaded a relief effort. Housing spearheaded a relief effort. Housing spearheaded a relief effort. Housing refugees in the standing portions of the refugees in the standing portions of the refugees in the standing portions of the palace, and arranging for food and water palace, and arranging for food and water palace, and arranging for food and water to be dispersed to victims throughout to be dispersed to victims throughout to be dispersed to victims throughout the city.

Once the immediate emergency had passed, Once the immediate emergency had passed, Nero then began a reconstruction effort Nero then began a reconstruction effort Nero then began a reconstruction effort that led to some pretty major revisions that led to some pretty major revisions that led to some pretty major revisions to the fire code, and a rationalization to the fire code, and a rationalization to the fire code, and a rationalization of the organic mess that had been the of the organic mess that had been the of the organic mess that had been the urban plan of Rome. urban plan of Rome. urban plan of Rome. But, for all these good works, Nero But, for all these good works, Nero But, for all these good works, Nero still managed to come off as the leading still managed to come off as the leading still managed to come off as the leading candidate for having set the fire candidate for having set the fire candidate for having set the fire because, in the aftermath, he did indeed because, in the aftermath, he did indeed because, in the aftermath, he did indeed set to work on building his golden set to work on building his golden set to work on building his golden palace. A complex of opulent buildings palace. A complex of opulent buildings palace. A complex of opulent buildings that eventually covered somewhere that eventually covered somewhere that eventually covered somewhere between 100 and 300 acres of prime between 100 and 300 acres of prime between 100 and 300 acres of prime downtown real estate. downtown real estate. downtown real estate. It was this blatant land grab, as much It was this blatant land grab, as much It was this blatant land grab, as much as anything else that led many to as anything else that led many to as anything else that led many to believe that Nero had indeed set the believe that Nero had indeed set the believe that Nero had indeed set the fire. Conscious that his standing with the Conscious that his standing with the people was taking a hit, Nero decided he people was taking a hit, Nero decided he people was taking a hit, Nero decided he needed to find someone to take the fall needed to find someone to take the fall needed to find someone to take the fall for the fire. for the fire. for the fire. Someone he could point to and say, "It Someone he could point to and say, "It Someone he could point to and say, "It was them, not me. I didn't have anything was them, not me. I didn't have anything was them, not me. I didn't have anything to do with it." to do with it." to do with it." But he couldn't just grab someone off But he couldn't just grab someone off But he couldn't just grab someone off the street because with his popularity the street because with his popularity the street because with his popularity sinking like a stone, that would just sinking like a stone, that would just sinking like a stone, that would just engender the further charge that he was engender the further charge that he was engender the further charge that he was setting up some innocent to take all the setting up some innocent to take all the setting up some innocent to take all the blame.

blame. blame. What Nero needed was someone, some group What Nero needed was someone, some group What Nero needed was someone, some group that the people disliked even more than that the people disliked even more than that the people disliked even more than him. him. him. Someone that the people were ready, Someone that the people were ready, Someone that the people were ready, willing, and able to believe had done willing, and able to believe had done willing, and able to believe had done this horrible thing. this horrible thing. this horrible thing. If for no other reason than that the If for no other reason than that the If for no other reason than that the people were looking for an excuse to people were looking for an excuse to people were looking for an excuse to round up and punish them. round up and punish them. round up and punish them. Enter the Christians. Enter the Christians. Enter the Christians. In the 30-odd years since the death of In the 30-odd years since the death of In the 30-odd years since the death of Christ, nascent Christian communities Christ, nascent Christian communities Christ, nascent Christian communities had begun cropping up throughout the had begun cropping up throughout the had begun cropping up throughout the empire. empire. empire. At first, they were primarily Jewish in At first, they were primarily Jewish in At first, they were primarily Jewish in character, but through the missionary character, but through the missionary character, but through the missionary work of St. Paul, known later as the work of St. Paul, known later as the work of St. Paul, known later as the Apostle to the Gentiles, Apostle to the Gentiles, Apostle to the Gentiles, this new religion began to spread into this new religion began to spread into this new religion began to spread into the Greco-Roman world. the Greco-Roman world. the Greco-Roman world. By the reign of Nero, a tiny community By the reign of Nero, a tiny community By the reign of Nero, a tiny community of believers, led, according to of believers, led, according to of believers, led, according to tradition, by St. Peter, had established tradition, by St. Peter, had established tradition, by St. Peter, had established a religious beachhead in Rome itself. a religious beachhead in Rome itself. a religious beachhead in Rome itself. The problem the early Christians faced The problem the early Christians faced The problem the early Christians faced in Rome though, was not just that their in Rome though, was not just that their in Rome though, was not just that their religion, in comparison to the wider religion, in comparison to the wider religion, in comparison to the wider pagan world, struck the average Roman as pagan world, struck the average Roman as pagan world, struck the average Roman as downright weird, downright weird, downright weird, but also that at this point, most but also that at this point, most but also that at this point, most Christian adherents were non-citizen Christian adherents were non-citizen Christian adherents were non-citizen resident alien to the city, who spoke resident alien to the city, who spoke resident alien to the city, who spoke primarily Greek or Hebrew.

primarily Greek or Hebrew. primarily Greek or Hebrew. So, the Christians in Rome looked So, the Christians in Rome looked So, the Christians in Rome looked different, spoke a different language, different, spoke a different language, different, spoke a different language, usually came from the lower rungs of the usually came from the lower rungs of the usually came from the lower rungs of the social ladder, and belonged to a strange social ladder, and belonged to a strange social ladder, and belonged to a strange monotheistic cult that seemed to have monotheistic cult that seemed to have monotheistic cult that seemed to have cannibalistic overtones. cannibalistic overtones. cannibalistic overtones. All in all, they were capital O other in All in all, they were capital O other in All in all, they were capital O other in every sense of the word. And as has been every sense of the word. And as has been every sense of the word. And as has been proven over and over again by history, proven over and over again by history, proven over and over again by history, whenever terrible things happen to a whenever terrible things happen to a whenever terrible things happen to a community, economic problems, floods, community, economic problems, floods, community, economic problems, floods, plagues, fires, it is the capital O plagues, fires, it is the capital O plagues, fires, it is the capital O others who usually get blamed. others who usually get blamed. others who usually get blamed. So, desperate to shift responsibility So, desperate to shift responsibility So, desperate to shift responsibility for the Great Fire away from himself, for the Great Fire away from himself, for the Great Fire away from himself, Nero looked at these others and decided Nero looked at these others and decided Nero looked at these others and decided to lay it all on them. to lay it all on them. to lay it all on them. He sent out his agents into the city and He sent out his agents into the city and He sent out his agents into the city and had them round up as many identified had them round up as many identified had them round up as many identified Christians as they could find, drag them Christians as they could find, drag them Christians as they could find, drag them into dark rooms, and torture them until into dark rooms, and torture them until into dark rooms, and torture them until they admitted to starting the fire. they admitted to starting the fire. they admitted to starting the fire. These confessions in hand, Nero then These confessions in hand, Nero then These confessions in hand, Nero then decided to expand his persecution beyond decided to expand his persecution beyond decided to expand his persecution beyond some limited group of conspirators and some limited group of conspirators and some limited group of conspirators and target the Christian community as a target the Christian community as a target the Christian community as a whole.

whole. whole. According to Tacitus, Nero embarked on According to Tacitus, Nero embarked on According to Tacitus, Nero embarked on his persecution with a cruel zeal. his persecution with a cruel zeal. his persecution with a cruel zeal. Christians were thrown to the dogs for Christians were thrown to the dogs for Christians were thrown to the dogs for public amusement, crucified and left to public amusement, crucified and left to public amusement, crucified and left to die, or perhaps most gruesomely, die, or perhaps most gruesomely, die, or perhaps most gruesomely, crucified and then burnt alive to serve crucified and then burnt alive to serve crucified and then burnt alive to serve as torches for Nero's nightly parties. as torches for Nero's nightly parties. as torches for Nero's nightly parties. But if Nero was hoping that he could But if Nero was hoping that he could But if Nero was hoping that he could regain the public's favor by torturing regain the public's favor by torturing regain the public's favor by torturing Christians, he underestimated the Christians, he underestimated the Christians, he underestimated the humanity of the masses. humanity of the masses. humanity of the masses. Sure, the Christians are weird and Sure, the Christians are weird and Sure, the Christians are weird and nobody really wants them around, but at nobody really wants them around, but at nobody really wants them around, but at a certain point, burning them alive for a certain point, burning them alive for a certain point, burning them alive for sport while you and your friends watch sport while you and your friends watch sport while you and your friends watch and drink yourself stupid? Really? That and drink yourself stupid? Really? That and drink yourself stupid? Really? That seems a bit excessive, you know. seems a bit excessive, you know. seems a bit excessive, you know. Sympathy for the Christians grew while Sympathy for the Christians grew while Sympathy for the Christians grew while Nero wound up even more unpopular than Nero wound up even more unpopular than Nero wound up even more unpopular than he had been when he started. he had been when he started. he had been when he started. So, you could say that the plan So, you could say that the plan So, you could say that the plan backfired. backfired. backfired. I should also note that while it is not I should also note that while it is not I should also note that while it is not confirmed that St. Peter himself was confirmed that St. Peter himself was confirmed that St. Peter himself was caught up specifically in the Great Fire caught up specifically in the Great Fire caught up specifically in the Great Fire persecutions, tradition does have him persecutions, tradition does have him persecutions, tradition does have him being crucified by the Romans at some being crucified by the Romans at some being crucified by the Romans at some point in the mid-60s AD.

point in the mid-60s AD. point in the mid-60s AD. St. Peter's Basilica, the beating heart St. Peter's Basilica, the beating heart St. Peter's Basilica, the beating heart of the Catholic Church, is allegedly of the Catholic Church, is allegedly of the Catholic Church, is allegedly built upon the spot where he was buried. built upon the spot where he was buried. built upon the spot where he was buried. As unpopular as Nero was becoming with As unpopular as Nero was becoming with As unpopular as Nero was becoming with the people of Rome, their the people of Rome, their the people of Rome, their dissatisfaction paled in comparison to dissatisfaction paled in comparison to dissatisfaction paled in comparison to the feelings of the Christians the feelings of the Christians the feelings of the Christians themselves who now came to revile Nero themselves who now came to revile Nero themselves who now came to revile Nero with an understandable fury. with an understandable fury. with an understandable fury. It has been suggested, I think It has been suggested, I think It has been suggested, I think plausibly, that the reference in the plausibly, that the reference in the plausibly, that the reference in the Book of Revelations to 666 being the Book of Revelations to 666 being the Book of Revelations to 666 being the number of the beast is a coded reference number of the beast is a coded reference number of the beast is a coded reference to Nero. to Nero. to Nero. I'm not going to get into the specifics I'm not going to get into the specifics I'm not going to get into the specifics of Jewish numerology, but basically, if of Jewish numerology, but basically, if of Jewish numerology, but basically, if you take the Greek spelling of Nero's you take the Greek spelling of Nero's you take the Greek spelling of Nero's name and translate it into Hebrew, you name and translate it into Hebrew, you name and translate it into Hebrew, you are left with a name that has the are left with a name that has the are left with a name that has the numerological value of 666. numerological value of 666. numerological value of 666. After Nero's suicide, there was a great After Nero's suicide, there was a great After Nero's suicide, there was a great deal of speculation, especially in the deal of speculation, especially in the deal of speculation, especially in the East, that Nero had not really died and East, that Nero had not really died and East, that Nero had not really died and was poised to make a dramatic comeback was poised to make a dramatic comeback was poised to make a dramatic comeback at any time. at any time. at any time. Fearful of Roman reprisals for speaking Fearful of Roman reprisals for speaking Fearful of Roman reprisals for speaking against the Caesars, but still wishing against the Caesars, but still wishing against the Caesars, but still wishing to warn their brethren about the threat to warn their brethren about the threat to warn their brethren about the threat that Nero posed, the early Christians that Nero posed, the early Christians that Nero posed, the early Christians used numerology to code in a reference used numerology to code in a reference used numerology to code in a reference for those with the wisdom to see.

for those with the wisdom to see. for those with the wisdom to see. I think it's fair to say, too, that one I think it's fair to say, too, that one I think it's fair to say, too, that one of the primary reasons Nero has such a of the primary reasons Nero has such a of the primary reasons Nero has such a terrible historical reputation is that terrible historical reputation is that terrible historical reputation is that around about the 4th century, the church around about the 4th century, the church around about the 4th century, the church fathers got a hold of the history books fathers got a hold of the history books fathers got a hold of the history books and saw no reason to paint Nero as and saw no reason to paint Nero as and saw no reason to paint Nero as anything more than a demonic monster. anything more than a demonic monster. anything more than a demonic monster. While that perhaps went too far, even in While that perhaps went too far, even in While that perhaps went too far, even in his own time, Nero was fast running out his own time, Nero was fast running out his own time, Nero was fast running out of defenders. of defenders. of defenders. The people no longer trusted him, and The people no longer trusted him, and The people no longer trusted him, and the aristocracy, well, they hadn't liked the aristocracy, well, they hadn't liked the aristocracy, well, they hadn't liked him from the beginning. him from the beginning. him from the beginning. Like most autocrats, Nero had come to Like most autocrats, Nero had come to Like most autocrats, Nero had come to the throne promising greater power for the throne promising greater power for the throne promising greater power for the Senate and a lighter imperial hand. the Senate and a lighter imperial hand. the Senate and a lighter imperial hand. But before long, as usual, those But before long, as usual, those But before long, as usual, those promises were forgotten and the Senate promises were forgotten and the Senate promises were forgotten and the Senate returned to its natural state of returned to its natural state of returned to its natural state of irrelevancy. irrelevancy. irrelevancy. While this irrelevancy suited many men While this irrelevancy suited many men While this irrelevancy suited many men who were members primarily for the who were members primarily for the who were members primarily for the social status it conferred upon them, social status it conferred upon them, social status it conferred upon them, there was still a core group of senators there was still a core group of senators there was still a core group of senators who either had an interest in good who either had an interest in good who either had an interest in good governance for its own sake or had governance for its own sake or had governance for its own sake or had personal political ambitions that they personal political ambitions that they personal political ambitions that they thought membership in the Senate could thought membership in the Senate could thought membership in the Senate could advance.

advance. advance. In either case, Nero's actions in the In either case, Nero's actions in the In either case, Nero's actions in the early to mid-60s AD inflamed both. early to mid-60s AD inflamed both. early to mid-60s AD inflamed both. The emperor was slashing taxes while The emperor was slashing taxes while The emperor was slashing taxes while increasing public works projects and increasing public works projects and increasing public works projects and diverting funds into the construction of diverting funds into the construction of diverting funds into the construction of his palace, which now featured a his palace, which now featured a his palace, which now featured a 120-foot statue of himself looking down 120-foot statue of himself looking down 120-foot statue of himself looking down upon the city. upon the city. upon the city. All of which left the state teetering on All of which left the state teetering on All of which left the state teetering on the brink of insolvency. the brink of insolvency. the brink of insolvency. This, of course, offended the good This, of course, offended the good This, of course, offended the good government types. government types. government types. At the same time, if you weren't a part At the same time, if you weren't a part At the same time, if you weren't a part of Nero's inner circle of friends, good of Nero's inner circle of friends, good of Nero's inner circle of friends, good luck advancing your career. luck advancing your career. luck advancing your career. Nero played favorites early and often, Nero played favorites early and often, Nero played favorites early and often, and there were dozens of powerful men and there were dozens of powerful men and there were dozens of powerful men who didn't get on with the emperor who didn't get on with the emperor who didn't get on with the emperor personally, which left them out in the personally, which left them out in the personally, which left them out in the cold politically. cold politically. cold politically. This, of course, offended the ambitious This, of course, offended the ambitious This, of course, offended the ambitious types. types. types. These various offenses bubbled under the These various offenses bubbled under the These various offenses bubbled under the surface until a formal conspiracy to surface until a formal conspiracy to surface until a formal conspiracy to assassinate Nero coalesced around Gaius assassinate Nero coalesced around Gaius assassinate Nero coalesced around Gaius Calpurnius Piso. Calpurnius Piso. Calpurnius Piso. Piso was a distinguished statesman and Piso was a distinguished statesman and Piso was a distinguished statesman and orator who enjoyed a fine reputation at orator who enjoyed a fine reputation at orator who enjoyed a fine reputation at all levels of Roman society and who had all levels of Roman society and who had all levels of Roman society and who had been watching the devolution of Nero's been watching the devolution of Nero's been watching the devolution of Nero's reign with disgust.

reign with disgust. reign with disgust. If Rome could be ruled again by a man of If Rome could be ruled again by a man of If Rome could be ruled again by a man of talent like Augustus, rather than men talent like Augustus, rather than men talent like Augustus, rather than men like his incompetent and insane like his incompetent and insane like his incompetent and insane descendants, the empire might thrive descendants, the empire might thrive descendants, the empire might thrive again, rather than simply stagnate as it again, rather than simply stagnate as it again, rather than simply stagnate as it seemed to be doing. seemed to be doing. seemed to be doing. Piso, a man of modest ego, decided that Piso, a man of modest ego, decided that Piso, a man of modest ego, decided that the very best candidate to rule Rome, if the very best candidate to rule Rome, if the very best candidate to rule Rome, if the criteria was basic merit, was the criteria was basic merit, was the criteria was basic merit, was himself. himself. himself. Details of the plot remain sketchy, but Details of the plot remain sketchy, but Details of the plot remain sketchy, but it seems as though Piso had secured the it seems as though Piso had secured the it seems as though Piso had secured the support of Tigellinus's Praetorian support of Tigellinus's Praetorian support of Tigellinus's Praetorian Prefect colleague, Faenius Rufus, Prefect colleague, Faenius Rufus, Prefect colleague, Faenius Rufus, and the two men had agreed that upon the and the two men had agreed that upon the and the two men had agreed that upon the assassination of Nero, however that went assassination of Nero, however that went assassination of Nero, however that went down, Rufus would lead Piso to the down, Rufus would lead Piso to the down, Rufus would lead Piso to the Praetorian Camp, where Piso would be Praetorian Camp, where Piso would be Praetorian Camp, where Piso would be declared the new emperor. declared the new emperor. declared the new emperor. Dozens of men in the Senate, in the Dozens of men in the Senate, in the Dozens of men in the Senate, in the Imperial bureaucracy, and in the army Imperial bureaucracy, and in the army Imperial bureaucracy, and in the army eventually joined in the word-of-mouth eventually joined in the word-of-mouth eventually joined in the word-of-mouth conspiracy, including Seneca the conspiracy, including Seneca the conspiracy, including Seneca the Younger. Younger. Younger. But before the plan could be initiated, But before the plan could be initiated, But before the plan could be initiated, it was betrayed. it was betrayed. it was betrayed. When a young officer was heard When a young officer was heard When a young officer was heard complaining that his career had stalled complaining that his career had stalled complaining that his career had stalled because Nero didn't like him, he was because Nero didn't like him, he was because Nero didn't like him, he was approached about joining the growing approached about joining the growing approached about joining the growing plot.

plot. plot. But rather than join, he decided to use But rather than join, he decided to use But rather than join, he decided to use the information he obtained to betray the information he obtained to betray the information he obtained to betray the plot as a means of currying favor the plot as a means of currying favor the plot as a means of currying favor with the emperor. with the emperor. with the emperor. Though the young officer lacked details, Though the young officer lacked details, Though the young officer lacked details, he put the Imperial court on notice that he put the Imperial court on notice that he put the Imperial court on notice that a sizable chunk of the aristocracy was a sizable chunk of the aristocracy was a sizable chunk of the aristocracy was actively plotting the regime's downfall. actively plotting the regime's downfall. actively plotting the regime's downfall. In April of 65 AD, a freedman secretary In April of 65 AD, a freedman secretary In April of 65 AD, a freedman secretary confirmed the existence of the plot and confirmed the existence of the plot and confirmed the existence of the plot and provided the details that Nero's agents provided the details that Nero's agents provided the details that Nero's agents were looking for. were looking for. were looking for. Piso and everyone else were either Piso and everyone else were either Piso and everyone else were either ordered to commit suicide or were exiled ordered to commit suicide or were exiled ordered to commit suicide or were exiled to the provinces. to the provinces. to the provinces. Seneca committed suicide. The Pisonian conspiracy represented a The Pisonian conspiracy represented a very real threat to Nero. very real threat to Nero. very real threat to Nero. It was not some ham-fisted caper. It was It was not some ham-fisted caper. It was It was not some ham-fisted caper. It was a well-orchestrated plot that involved a well-orchestrated plot that involved a well-orchestrated plot that involved some of the most prominent men in Rome. some of the most prominent men in Rome. some of the most prominent men in Rome. Scared out of his wits that now everyone Scared out of his wits that now everyone Scared out of his wits that now everyone was out to get him, an increasingly was out to get him, an increasingly was out to get him, an increasingly paranoid Nero reinitiated indiscriminate paranoid Nero reinitiated indiscriminate paranoid Nero reinitiated indiscriminate treason trials, the bloody calling card treason trials, the bloody calling card treason trials, the bloody calling card of Imperial insecurity.

of Imperial insecurity. of Imperial insecurity. The trials, of course, only entrenched The trials, of course, only entrenched The trials, of course, only entrenched the aristocratic hatred of Nero, and in the aristocratic hatred of Nero, and in the aristocratic hatred of Nero, and in a few short years he would find himself a few short years he would find himself a few short years he would find himself fleeing his golden palace, friendless, fleeing his golden palace, friendless, fleeing his golden palace, friendless, and officially an enemy of the state. I'm going to leave it there for this I'm going to leave it there for this week. week. week. Next time, we'll hop back and forth Next time, we'll hop back and forth Next time, we'll hop back and forth between the final stages of Nero's reign between the final stages of Nero's reign between the final stages of Nero's reign and the great revolt that erupts in and the great revolt that erupts in and the great revolt that erupts in Judea in 66 AD. Judea in 66 AD. Judea in 66 AD. And after that, I'll lay the groundwork And after that, I'll lay the groundwork And after that, I'll lay the groundwork for the year of the four emperors, the for the year of the four emperors, the for the year of the four emperors, the death of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and death of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and death of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and the rise of the new Flavian dynasty that the rise of the new Flavian dynasty that the rise of the new Flavian dynasty that took its place once all the dust had took its place once all the dust had took its place once all the dust had settled. settled. settled. But before we take off into that next But before we take off into that next But before we take off into that next phase of Roman history, as some of you phase of Roman history, as some of you phase of Roman history, as some of you have already noticed, the history of have already noticed, the history of have already noticed, the history of Rome will be going off the air for about Rome will be going off the air for about Rome will be going off the air for about 4 weeks following the September 13th 4 weeks following the September 13th 4 weeks following the September 13th episode. episode. episode. I am getting married on September the I am getting married on September the I am getting married on September the 23rd and then immediately moving from 23rd and then immediately moving from 23rd and then immediately moving from Portland, Oregon to Austin, Texas. So, Portland, Oregon to Austin, Texas. So, Portland, Oregon to Austin, Texas. So, long story short, I'm going to be a very long story short, I'm going to be a very long story short, I'm going to be a very busy man and will not be able to pay my busy man and will not be able to pay my busy man and will not be able to pay my little podcast the attention it little podcast the attention it little podcast the attention it deserves.

deserves. deserves. I want to direct all of you back to the I want to direct all of you back to the I want to direct all of you back to the historyofrome.typepad.com historyofrome.typepad.com historyofrome.typepad.com where I have posted a brief message on where I have posted a brief message on where I have posted a brief message on all of this and also address the growing all of this and also address the growing all of this and also address the growing movement to have me keep going with this movement to have me keep going with this movement to have me keep going with this thing until the fall of Constantinople thing until the fall of Constantinople thing until the fall of Constantinople in 1453, in 1453, in 1453, which as I explained is most likely not which as I explained is most likely not which as I explained is most likely not going to happen. going to happen. going to happen. So, after this we'll have three more So, after this we'll have three more So, after this we'll have three more episodes, the last of which will episodes, the last of which will episodes, the last of which will probably be a fun episode dedicated to probably be a fun episode dedicated to probably be a fun episode dedicated to Roman wedding customs because, hey, Roman wedding customs because, hey, Roman wedding customs because, hey, right now it's basically wedding stuff right now it's basically wedding stuff right now it's basically wedding stuff all the time for me, so why should the all the time for me, so why should the all the time for me, so why should the history of Rome be any different? Hello and welcome to The History of Hello and welcome to The History of Rome. Rome. Rome. Episode 67 What an artist the world is Episode 67 What an artist the world is Episode 67 What an artist the world is losing. Nero had dodged a bullet in 65 AD when Nero had dodged a bullet in 65 AD when the far-reaching Pisonian conspiracy was the far-reaching Pisonian conspiracy was the far-reaching Pisonian conspiracy was exposed before it had a chance to act.

exposed before it had a chance to act. exposed before it had a chance to act. Thus far, Nero had been living his life Thus far, Nero had been living his life Thus far, Nero had been living his life with a sort of flippant disregard for with a sort of flippant disregard for with a sort of flippant disregard for the aristocracy, obsessed about his the aristocracy, obsessed about his the aristocracy, obsessed about his standing with the masses sure, but not standing with the masses sure, but not standing with the masses sure, but not really giving a hoot what a bunch of really giving a hoot what a bunch of really giving a hoot what a bunch of crusty old senators thought about him. crusty old senators thought about him. crusty old senators thought about him. But after the plot was discovered, Nero But after the plot was discovered, Nero But after the plot was discovered, Nero was exposed to a reality that he had was exposed to a reality that he had was exposed to a reality that he had never really considered before. never really considered before. never really considered before. Not only were powerful men unhappy with Not only were powerful men unhappy with Not only were powerful men unhappy with him, but they were willing to go go him, but they were willing to go go him, but they were willing to go go extreme lengths to express their extreme lengths to express their extreme lengths to express their unhappiness. unhappiness. unhappiness. And not only were they willing to go to And not only were they willing to go to And not only were they willing to go to extreme lengths to express their extreme lengths to express their extreme lengths to express their unhappiness, but except for one lucky unhappiness, but except for one lucky unhappiness, but except for one lucky break, they had almost gone to them. break, they had almost gone to them. break, they had almost gone to them. Nero suddenly realized that his reign Nero suddenly realized that his reign Nero suddenly realized that his reign and his life existed in a far more and his life existed in a far more and his life existed in a far more precarious place than he had previously precarious place than he had previously precarious place than he had previously thought. thought. thought. Now, this is the point where a more Now, this is the point where a more Now, this is the point where a more introspective man, aided by wise introspective man, aided by wise introspective man, aided by wise counsel, might examine the roots of the counsel, might examine the roots of the counsel, might examine the roots of the aristocracy's displeasure and wonder aristocracy's displeasure and wonder aristocracy's displeasure and wonder what he, Nero, might be able to do to what he, Nero, might be able to do to what he, Nero, might be able to do to mute their anger. mute their anger. mute their anger. Were there things he did that were Were there things he did that were Were there things he did that were unnecessarily off the more extreme stuff, maybe he off the more extreme stuff, maybe he could avoid perpetually dealing with could avoid perpetually dealing with could avoid perpetually dealing with plots against his life.

plots against his life. plots against his life. But Nero was not an introspective man But Nero was not an introspective man But Nero was not an introspective man and his counsel was not wise. and his counsel was not wise. and his counsel was not wise. So, rather than repent his extravagances So, rather than repent his extravagances So, rather than repent his extravagances and grow up a little, he decided to dig and grow up a little, he decided to dig and grow up a little, he decided to dig in his heels. in his heels. in his heels. And if anyone didn't like it, well, And if anyone didn't like it, well, And if anyone didn't like it, well, there were always treason trials for the there were always treason trials for the there were always treason trials for the incorrigible. incorrigible. incorrigible. But as is so often the case, show trials But as is so often the case, show trials But as is so often the case, show trials and indiscriminate persecutions create and indiscriminate persecutions create and indiscriminate persecutions create far more enemies than they destroy. And far more enemies than they destroy. And far more enemies than they destroy. And in a few short years, Nero will reap the in a few short years, Nero will reap the in a few short years, Nero will reap the full blowback for his actions. 65 was not just a bad year for Nero 65 was not just a bad year for Nero because it was very nearly his last, but because it was very nearly his last, but because it was very nearly his last, but also because his wife, Poppaea, mother also because his wife, Poppaea, mother also because his wife, Poppaea, mother of his daughter and pregnant with his of his daughter and pregnant with his of his daughter and pregnant with his second, died during the summer. second, died during the summer. second, died during the summer. There are conflicting reports about her There are conflicting reports about her There are conflicting reports about her death with some surmising that Poppaea death with some surmising that Poppaea death with some surmising that Poppaea died naturally during childbirth, as died naturally during childbirth, as died naturally during childbirth, as often occurred in the ancient world. often occurred in the ancient world. often occurred in the ancient world. But of course, the more famous and But of course, the more famous and But of course, the more famous and salacious version offered by Suetonius salacious version offered by Suetonius salacious version offered by Suetonius and Tacitus is that over the course of and Tacitus is that over the course of and Tacitus is that over the course of an argument, Nero became enraged and an argument, Nero became enraged and an argument, Nero became enraged and repeatedly kicked her in the stomach repeatedly kicked her in the stomach repeatedly kicked her in the stomach until she and the unborn child were until she and the unborn child were until she and the unborn child were dead.

dead. dead. Whichever way it occurred, Nero became Whichever way it occurred, Nero became Whichever way it occurred, Nero became almost insane with grief or remorse, almost insane with grief or remorse, almost insane with grief or remorse, depending on the version of the story depending on the version of the story depending on the version of the story you believe. you believe. you believe. And rather than cremating Poppaea, he And rather than cremating Poppaea, he And rather than cremating Poppaea, he had her stuffed and embalmed so that he had her stuffed and embalmed so that he had her stuffed and embalmed so that he could visit her in the Imperial could visit her in the Imperial could visit her in the Imperial Mausoleum. Mausoleum. Mausoleum. In the years after her death, Nero would In the years after her death, Nero would In the years after her death, Nero would delve even deeper into his singing, delve even deeper into his singing, delve even deeper into his singing, acting, and chariot racing um career, acting, and chariot racing um career, acting, and chariot racing um career, culminating in '67 with his culminating in '67 with his culminating in '67 with his participation in the Olympic Games. participation in the Olympic Games. participation in the Olympic Games. Despite being thrown and nearly dying Despite being thrown and nearly dying Despite being thrown and nearly dying from a 10-horse chariot and delivering from a 10-horse chariot and delivering from a 10-horse chariot and delivering amateurish singing and acting amateurish singing and acting amateurish singing and acting performances, Nero won the victory performances, Nero won the victory performances, Nero won the victory crowns for every competition he entered. crowns for every competition he entered. crowns for every competition he entered. It was still good to be the king. It was still good to be the king. It was still good to be the king. While Nero was off pretending to be some While Nero was off pretending to be some While Nero was off pretending to be some great entertainer, in the Far East, the great entertainer, in the Far East, the great entertainer, in the Far East, the Romans became embroiled in what would Romans became embroiled in what would Romans became embroiled in what would prove to be the first of several major prove to be the first of several major prove to be the first of several major revolts in the combustible province of revolts in the combustible province of revolts in the combustible province of Judea. Judea. Judea. That the first of these is known simply That the first of these is known simply That the first of these is known simply as the Great Revolt is all you need to as the Great Revolt is all you need to as the Great Revolt is all you need to know about the impact the conflict will know about the impact the conflict will know about the impact the conflict will have on the history of the world. have on the history of the world. have on the history of the world. We won't be able to finish the whole We won't be able to finish the whole We won't be able to finish the whole thing today as in between the beginning thing today as in between the beginning thing today as in between the beginning and the end of it, the whole Year of the and the end of it, the whole Year of the and the end of it, the whole Year of the Four Emperors things happened, but we Four Emperors things happened, but we Four Emperors things happened, but we can at least get it started on its way.

Trouble had been brewing in Judea from Trouble had been brewing in Judea from the moment the Romans first showed up in the moment the Romans first showed up in the moment the Romans first showed up in the region. the region. the region. Pompey the Great had famously entered Pompey the Great had famously entered Pompey the Great had famously entered the Holy of Holies in the Temple of the Holy of Holies in the Temple of the Holy of Holies in the Temple of Jerusalem over the vehement protests of Jerusalem over the vehement protests of Jerusalem over the vehement protests of the high priest, which pretty much got the high priest, which pretty much got the high priest, which pretty much got the Romans and Jews off on the wrong the Romans and Jews off on the wrong the Romans and Jews off on the wrong foot. foot. foot. A short-lived revolt had broken out in A short-lived revolt had broken out in A short-lived revolt had broken out in the middle of Augustus' reign, and of the middle of Augustus' reign, and of the middle of Augustus' reign, and of course, Caligula had nearly sparked a course, Caligula had nearly sparked a course, Caligula had nearly sparked a revolution when he insisted on having a revolution when he insisted on having a revolution when he insisted on having a statue of himself placed in the temple. statue of himself placed in the temple. statue of himself placed in the temple. But Judea remained relatively calm But Judea remained relatively calm But Judea remained relatively calm following the death of Caligula as following the death of Caligula as following the death of Caligula as Claudius had done his best to walk the Claudius had done his best to walk the Claudius had done his best to walk the fine line between Roman administration fine line between Roman administration fine line between Roman administration and Jewish autonomy. and Jewish autonomy. and Jewish autonomy. But when Nero arrived on the scene, he But when Nero arrived on the scene, he But when Nero arrived on the scene, he was far less attentive to that line, and was far less attentive to that line, and was far less attentive to that line, and Jewish complaints about Roman rule began Jewish complaints about Roman rule began Jewish complaints about Roman rule began to grow, culminating finally in what is to grow, culminating finally in what is to grow, culminating finally in what is known as the Great Revolt or the First known as the Great Revolt or the First known as the Great Revolt or the First Roman-Jewish War. Roman-Jewish War. Roman-Jewish War. The list of grievances ticked off by the The list of grievances ticked off by the The list of grievances ticked off by the Jews usually included a host of Jews usually included a host of Jews usually included a host of religious issues, but as much as religious issues, but as much as religious issues, but as much as conflicts between the monotheistic Jews conflicts between the monotheistic Jews conflicts between the monotheistic Jews and polytheistic Romans antagonized both and polytheistic Romans antagonized both and polytheistic Romans antagonized both parties. parties. parties. At the heart of the Great Revolt was At the heart of the Great Revolt was At the heart of the Great Revolt was something far more basic, something far more basic, something far more basic, tax policy.

tax policy. tax policy. Despite their persistent attempts to Despite their persistent attempts to Despite their persistent attempts to move away from the system, the Romans move away from the system, the Romans move away from the system, the Romans continued to rely on tax farming in continued to rely on tax farming in continued to rely on tax farming in Judea, and so dealt with the inherent Judea, and so dealt with the inherent Judea, and so dealt with the inherent problems that the system introduced. problems that the system introduced. problems that the system introduced. And just to recap, remember that a And just to recap, remember that a And just to recap, remember that a private collector would bid for the private collector would bid for the private collector would bid for the amount of tax Rome required, and then amount of tax Rome required, and then amount of tax Rome required, and then anything they brought in above that anything they brought in above that anything they brought in above that quota was the collector's profit. quota was the collector's profit. quota was the collector's profit. Local upper and middle-class urban Jews Local upper and middle-class urban Jews Local upper and middle-class urban Jews began to work these tax farming began to work these tax farming began to work these tax farming contracts, and in the eyes of the rural contracts, and in the eyes of the rural contracts, and in the eyes of the rural population and the lower-class laborers, population and the lower-class laborers, population and the lower-class laborers, began to shear the sheep a little too began to shear the sheep a little too began to shear the sheep a little too close to the skin in an attempt to close to the skin in an attempt to close to the skin in an attempt to maximize their profits. maximize their profits. maximize their profits. I bring this up only to note that with I bring this up only to note that with I bring this up only to note that with everything that happened at the outbreak everything that happened at the outbreak everything that happened at the outbreak of the revolt and beyond, I think it's of the revolt and beyond, I think it's of the revolt and beyond, I think it's fair to say that as much as the unrest fair to say that as much as the unrest fair to say that as much as the unrest was a Jewish revolt against foreign was a Jewish revolt against foreign was a Jewish revolt against foreign occupiers, it was also a civil war occupiers, it was also a civil war occupiers, it was also a civil war within the Jewish community itself within the Jewish community itself within the Jewish community itself between those who were profiting from between those who were profiting from between those who were profiting from the existing political structure and the existing political structure and the existing political structure and those who were not. One of the other important things to One of the other important things to note about why the revolt broke out in note about why the revolt broke out in note about why the revolt broke out in '66 and not some other year '66 and not some other year '66 and not some other year is that according to Josephus, the is that according to Josephus, the is that according to Josephus, the complete rebuild and expansion of the complete rebuild and expansion of the complete rebuild and expansion of the Temple of Jerusalem begun by Herod the Temple of Jerusalem begun by Herod the Temple of Jerusalem begun by Herod the Great was finally completed in 63 AD, Great was finally completed in 63 AD, Great was finally completed in 63 AD, which immediately left thousands of poor which immediately left thousands of poor which immediately left thousands of poor laborers and middle-class artisans out laborers and middle-class artisans out laborers and middle-class artisans out of work.

of work. of work. And basically, anytime you have And basically, anytime you have And basically, anytime you have thousands of young men out of work thousands of young men out of work thousands of young men out of work concentrated in a city center, you are concentrated in a city center, you are concentrated in a city center, you are going to have problems. going to have problems. going to have problems. It took a couple of years scraping by It took a couple of years scraping by It took a couple of years scraping by while continuing to be gouged by the while continuing to be gouged by the while continuing to be gouged by the Roman collaborating tax farmers for Roman collaborating tax farmers for Roman collaborating tax farmers for these men to reach their boiling point, these men to reach their boiling point, these men to reach their boiling point, but when they did, boy, did they ever but when they did, boy, did they ever but when they did, boy, did they ever boil over. boil over. boil over. They finally passed from 99 to 100° C in They finally passed from 99 to 100° C in They finally passed from 99 to 100° C in '66 when the Roman governor decided he '66 when the Roman governor decided he '66 when the Roman governor decided he was running low on funds, the Imperial was running low on funds, the Imperial was running low on funds, the Imperial Treasury having been systematically Treasury having been systematically Treasury having been systematically drained by Nero, drained by Nero, drained by Nero, and decided to simply confiscate all the and decided to simply confiscate all the and decided to simply confiscate all the money the high priest had accumulated in money the high priest had accumulated in money the high priest had accumulated in the great temple. the great temple. the great temple. When word got out that the high priest When word got out that the high priest When word got out that the high priest had allowed the Romans to have the had allowed the Romans to have the had allowed the Romans to have the money, which had been collected from the money, which had been collected from the money, which had been collected from the masses above and beyond the taxes they masses above and beyond the taxes they masses above and beyond the taxes they had already paid to Rome, well, that had already paid to Rome, well, that had already paid to Rome, well, that just about does it, don't you think? just about does it, don't you think? just about does it, don't you think? In August of 66 AD, an armed In August of 66 AD, an armed In August of 66 AD, an armed insurrection seized control of the Roman insurrection seized control of the Roman insurrection seized control of the Roman stronghold at Masada. stronghold at Masada. stronghold at Masada. The men who took Masada were members of The men who took Masada were members of The men who took Masada were members of a splinter group of the most radical a splinter group of the most radical a splinter group of the most radical sect of Judaism, the Zealots.

sect of Judaism, the Zealots. sect of Judaism, the Zealots. These radicals, known as the Sicarii, These radicals, known as the Sicarii, These radicals, known as the Sicarii, which is Latin for daggers, which is Latin for daggers, which is Latin for daggers, were uncompromisingly militant and were uncompromisingly militant and were uncompromisingly militant and planned to settle for nothing less than planned to settle for nothing less than planned to settle for nothing less than the expulsion of the Romans from Judea. the expulsion of the Romans from Judea. the expulsion of the Romans from Judea. From their new base in Masada, this From their new base in Masada, this From their new base in Masada, this group of Sicarii headed north to group of Sicarii headed north to group of Sicarii headed north to Jerusalem, where they confronted the Jerusalem, where they confronted the Jerusalem, where they confronted the high priest who they believed to be a high priest who they believed to be a high priest who they believed to be a corrupt Roman collaborator. corrupt Roman collaborator. corrupt Roman collaborator. In the confrontation that followed, the In the confrontation that followed, the In the confrontation that followed, the high priest was killed and in high priest was killed and in high priest was killed and in retaliation the leader of the Sicarii retaliation the leader of the Sicarii retaliation the leader of the Sicarii himself was assassinated. But, this was himself was assassinated. But, this was himself was assassinated. But, this was only the beginning. only the beginning. only the beginning. As August gave way to September, the As August gave way to September, the As August gave way to September, the small Roman garrison in Jerusalem was small Roman garrison in Jerusalem was small Roman garrison in Jerusalem was besieged, forced to surrender, and then besieged, forced to surrender, and then besieged, forced to surrender, and then hanged by an angry mob. hanged by an angry mob. hanged by an angry mob. With the Roman military presence wiped With the Roman military presence wiped With the Roman military presence wiped out, Jerusalem became an increasingly out, Jerusalem became an increasingly out, Jerusalem became an increasingly dangerous place for Greco-Romans of all dangerous place for Greco-Romans of all dangerous place for Greco-Romans of all types. types. types. Not only were citizens of Rome targeted, Not only were citizens of Rome targeted, Not only were citizens of Rome targeted, but also any Greek-speaking foreigner but also any Greek-speaking foreigner but also any Greek-speaking foreigner who had made the unfortunate decision to who had made the unfortunate decision to who had made the unfortunate decision to settle in the city. settle in the city. settle in the city. And once the foreigners had all been And once the foreigners had all been And once the foreigners had all been purged, the mobs turned on Jews purged, the mobs turned on Jews purged, the mobs turned on Jews identified as collaborators with the identified as collaborators with the identified as collaborators with the Roman regime.

Roman regime. Roman regime. When word came north that the garrison When word came north that the garrison When word came north that the garrison in Jerusalem had all been murdered, the in Jerusalem had all been murdered, the in Jerusalem had all been murdered, the legate of Syria took a legion south into legate of Syria took a legion south into legate of Syria took a legion south into Judea to restore order. Judea to restore order. Judea to restore order. But, in November 66, the revolting Jews But, in November 66, the revolting Jews But, in November 66, the revolting Jews shocked the Romans by ambushing the shocked the Romans by ambushing the shocked the Romans by ambushing the invading legion at the pass at Beth invading legion at the pass at Beth invading legion at the pass at Beth Horon, and not only wiping the Romans Horon, and not only wiping the Romans Horon, and not only wiping the Romans out, but also capturing their legionary out, but also capturing their legionary out, but also capturing their legionary eagle in the process. eagle in the process. eagle in the process. The victory would prove to be a mixed The victory would prove to be a mixed The victory would prove to be a mixed blessing for the Zealots as it blessing for the Zealots as it blessing for the Zealots as it simultaneously convinced them that Rome simultaneously convinced them that Rome simultaneously convinced them that Rome could be beaten, while at the same time could be beaten, while at the same time could be beaten, while at the same time raising Roman ire to the point that they raising Roman ire to the point that they raising Roman ire to the point that they were done taking the insurrection were done taking the insurrection were done taking the insurrection lightly, which basically guaranteed that lightly, which basically guaranteed that lightly, which basically guaranteed that it was going to be crushed. it was going to be crushed. it was going to be crushed. Plans for Roman response were escalated Plans for Roman response were escalated Plans for Roman response were escalated all the way to the Imperial Court and in all the way to the Imperial Court and in all the way to the Imperial Court and in late '66, Nero appointed the general late '66, Nero appointed the general late '66, Nero appointed the general Vespasian to take command of the Vespasian to take command of the Vespasian to take command of the situation in the East and do what was situation in the East and do what was situation in the East and do what was necessary to reassert Rome's dominance necessary to reassert Rome's dominance necessary to reassert Rome's dominance in Judea. Titus Flavius Vespasianus was born in 17 Titus Flavius Vespasianus was born in 17 AD in central Italy and entered public AD in central Italy and entered public AD in central Italy and entered public life for the first time in '36 when he life for the first time in '36 when he life for the first time in '36 when he was elected military tribune in Thrace was elected military tribune in Thrace was elected military tribune in Thrace at the age of 19.

at the age of 19. at the age of 19. His father was of equestrian rank and His father was of equestrian rank and His father was of equestrian rank and his mother was the sister of a senator, his mother was the sister of a senator, his mother was the sister of a senator, so Vespasian was fast-tracked up the so Vespasian was fast-tracked up the so Vespasian was fast-tracked up the cursus honorum and by '40, he had cursus honorum and by '40, he had cursus honorum and by '40, he had already served a quaestorship, an already served a quaestorship, an already served a quaestorship, an aedileship, and a praetorship. aedileship, and a praetorship. aedileship, and a praetorship. He married in 38 AD and had two sons, He married in 38 AD and had two sons, He married in 38 AD and had two sons, Titus born in '41 and Domitian born 10 Titus born in '41 and Domitian born 10 Titus born in '41 and Domitian born 10 years later in '51. years later in '51. years later in '51. The father and two sons would each The father and two sons would each The father and two sons would each eventually sit on the Imperial throne eventually sit on the Imperial throne eventually sit on the Imperial throne and collectively, their so-called and collectively, their so-called and collectively, their so-called Flavian dynasty would rule Rome from '69 Flavian dynasty would rule Rome from '69 Flavian dynasty would rule Rome from '69 to '96 AD, providing the critical bridge to '96 AD, providing the critical bridge to '96 AD, providing the critical bridge between an empire ruled by members of between an empire ruled by members of between an empire ruled by members of the Julio-Claudian family and an empire the Julio-Claudian family and an empire the Julio-Claudian family and an empire ruled by whichever man was strong ruled by whichever man was strong ruled by whichever man was strong enough, smart enough, and savvy enough enough, smart enough, and savvy enough enough, smart enough, and savvy enough to hold on to power. When Claudius ascended to the throne, When Claudius ascended to the throne, Vespasian was able to swing a friendly Vespasian was able to swing a friendly Vespasian was able to swing a friendly relationship with Narcissus into an relationship with Narcissus into an relationship with Narcissus into an appointment as a legate in Germania and appointment as a legate in Germania and appointment as a legate in Germania and then a leading role in the invasion of then a leading role in the invasion of then a leading role in the invasion of Britain a few years later. Britain a few years later. Britain a few years later. Tasked with subduing the southern coast Tasked with subduing the southern coast Tasked with subduing the southern coast of the island after the initial of the island after the initial of the island after the initial invasion, Vespasian was so successful invasion, Vespasian was so successful invasion, Vespasian was so successful that he was awarded the right to wear that he was awarded the right to wear that he was awarded the right to wear triumphal regalia in public. The triumphal regalia in public. The triumphal regalia in public. The triumphal march itself was now reserved triumphal march itself was now reserved triumphal march itself was now reserved exclusively for the emperor.

exclusively for the emperor. exclusively for the emperor. In 51 AD, he capped his public career In 51 AD, he capped his public career In 51 AD, he capped his public career off with a brief consulship. off with a brief consulship. off with a brief consulship. Though he was still young, Vespasian had Though he was still young, Vespasian had Though he was still young, Vespasian had achieved everything an ambitious man in achieved everything an ambitious man in achieved everything an ambitious man in Rome could have ever hoped for. So, when Rome could have ever hoped for. So, when Rome could have ever hoped for. So, when his consulship was up, he retired from his consulship was up, he retired from his consulship was up, he retired from public life. public life. public life. But in 63, he was coaxed out of But in 63, he was coaxed out of But in 63, he was coaxed out of retirement by Nero and appointed retirement by Nero and appointed retirement by Nero and appointed governor of the province of Africa. governor of the province of Africa. governor of the province of Africa. Reports conflict about whether his Reports conflict about whether his Reports conflict about whether his administration was loved or hated by the administration was loved or hated by the administration was loved or hated by the locals. But at the very least, it is locals. But at the very least, it is locals. But at the very least, it is agreed that Vespasian did not take the agreed that Vespasian did not take the agreed that Vespasian did not take the opportunity to extort a personal fortune opportunity to extort a personal fortune opportunity to extort a personal fortune for himself, as was usually the case for himself, as was usually the case for himself, as was usually the case with proconsular appointments, despite with proconsular appointments, despite with proconsular appointments, despite the constant regulatory reforms that the constant regulatory reforms that the constant regulatory reforms that were introduced every few years to were introduced every few years to were introduced every few years to discourage the practice. discourage the practice. discourage the practice. Vespasian instead focused on building a Vespasian instead focused on building a Vespasian instead focused on building a strong social network of clients and strong social network of clients and strong social network of clients and allies. And though we don't know if it allies. And though we don't know if it allies. And though we don't know if it was necessarily on his mind at the time, was necessarily on his mind at the time, was necessarily on his mind at the time, these allies will prove to be invaluable these allies will prove to be invaluable these allies will prove to be invaluable when he makes his move for the imperial when he makes his move for the imperial when he makes his move for the imperial throne just a few years later. throne just a few years later. throne just a few years later. When he was recalled from Africa, When he was recalled from Africa, When he was recalled from Africa, Vespasian joined Nero's imperial Vespasian joined Nero's imperial Vespasian joined Nero's imperial entourage as it toured Greece. And it entourage as it toured Greece. And it entourage as it toured Greece. And it was here that the thus far uniformly was here that the thus far uniformly was here that the thus far uniformly successful career of Vespasian hit a successful career of Vespasian hit a successful career of Vespasian hit a snag.

snag. snag. Apparently, during one of Nero's Apparently, during one of Nero's Apparently, during one of Nero's numerous lyre performances, Vespasian numerous lyre performances, Vespasian numerous lyre performances, Vespasian had paid, "insufficient attention to the had paid, "insufficient attention to the had paid, "insufficient attention to the performance." Read, he fell asleep. performance." Read, he fell asleep. performance." Read, he fell asleep. And immediately lost the emperor's And immediately lost the emperor's And immediately lost the emperor's favor, which made Vespasian a political favor, which made Vespasian a political favor, which made Vespasian a political nonentity. nonentity. nonentity. It speaks volumes then about the esteem It speaks volumes then about the esteem It speaks volumes then about the esteem that he was held in, that ultimately, that he was held in, that ultimately, that he was held in, that ultimately, when the crisis of Judea broke out and when the crisis of Judea broke out and when the crisis of Judea broke out and things started to go poorly for the things started to go poorly for the things started to go poorly for the Romans, that Nero turned back to the man Romans, that Nero turned back to the man Romans, that Nero turned back to the man he had so recently declared persona non he had so recently declared persona non he had so recently declared persona non grata. grata. grata. In other words, Vespasian's grave crime In other words, Vespasian's grave crime In other words, Vespasian's grave crime of dozing off could not outweigh the of dozing off could not outweigh the of dozing off could not outweigh the fact that he was simply the best man for fact that he was simply the best man for fact that he was simply the best man for the job. In April of 67, Vespasian arrived in In April of 67, Vespasian arrived in Ptolemais, a a port on the Mediterranean Ptolemais, a a port on the Mediterranean Ptolemais, a a port on the Mediterranean coast, with two legions, and was shortly coast, with two legions, and was shortly coast, with two legions, and was shortly thereafter joined by a legion led by his thereafter joined by a legion led by his thereafter joined by a legion led by his eldest son Titus. eldest son Titus. eldest son Titus. Coupled with the force led by the Roman Coupled with the force led by the Roman Coupled with the force led by the Roman client king Agrippa II and other client king Agrippa II and other client king Agrippa II and other auxiliary forces, the army led by auxiliary forces, the army led by auxiliary forces, the army led by Vespasian soon numbered some 60,000.

Vespasian soon numbered some 60,000. Vespasian soon numbered some 60,000. The Roman general set about The Roman general set about The Roman general set about systematically subduing the northern systematically subduing the northern systematically subduing the northern half of the province, accepting the half of the province, accepting the half of the province, accepting the surrender of towns that were so surrender of towns that were so surrender of towns that were so inclined, and annihilating towns that inclined, and annihilating towns that inclined, and annihilating towns that refused. refused. refused. By early '68, he held the north, and By early '68, he held the north, and By early '68, he held the north, and from his base in the port city of from his base in the port city of from his base in the port city of Caesarea, began to sweep south along the Caesarea, began to sweep south along the Caesarea, began to sweep south along the coast. coast. coast. His task was made easier by the fact His task was made easier by the fact His task was made easier by the fact that the Jewish resistance was that the Jewish resistance was that the Jewish resistance was internally fractured. internally fractured. internally fractured. Not counting the leaders who wanted no Not counting the leaders who wanted no Not counting the leaders who wanted no part of the war with Rome to begin with, part of the war with Rome to begin with, part of the war with Rome to begin with, there were resistance leaders who there were resistance leaders who there were resistance leaders who counseled for opening talks with the counseled for opening talks with the counseled for opening talks with the Romans immediately, resistance leaders Romans immediately, resistance leaders Romans immediately, resistance leaders who counseled holding out, but only to a who counseled holding out, but only to a who counseled holding out, but only to a certain point, and resistance leaders, certain point, and resistance leaders, certain point, and resistance leaders, among the Zealots especially, who among the Zealots especially, who among the Zealots especially, who thought that any talk of surrender was thought that any talk of surrender was thought that any talk of surrender was proof that you were in league with the proof that you were in league with the proof that you were in league with the Romans and probably ought to just be Romans and probably ought to just be Romans and probably ought to just be killed. killed. killed. All these leaders wound up fleeing to All these leaders wound up fleeing to All these leaders wound up fleeing to Jerusalem throughout the year, where Jerusalem throughout the year, where Jerusalem throughout the year, where they all holed up together behind the they all holed up together behind the they all holed up together behind the reasonably sturdy walls of the city, reasonably sturdy walls of the city, reasonably sturdy walls of the city, where they planned to make their stand. where they planned to make their stand. where they planned to make their stand. Vespasian and his son Titus prepared to Vespasian and his son Titus prepared to Vespasian and his son Titus prepared to lay siege to the city from three sides, lay siege to the city from three sides, lay siege to the city from three sides, when an unexpected piece of news came when an unexpected piece of news came when an unexpected piece of news came that stopped Vespasian in his tracks.

that stopped Vespasian in his tracks. that stopped Vespasian in his tracks. Couriers arrived from Rome with a note. Couriers arrived from Rome with a note. Couriers arrived from Rome with a note. Nero has committed suicide, and Galba Nero has committed suicide, and Galba Nero has committed suicide, and Galba has been declared Caesar. has been declared Caesar. has been declared Caesar. Interesting. Interesting. Interesting. Wrapped up as he was in the far east of Wrapped up as he was in the far east of Wrapped up as he was in the far east of the empire, Vespasian could not have the empire, Vespasian could not have the empire, Vespasian could not have hoped to keep up with the daily hoped to keep up with the daily hoped to keep up with the daily politicking in the west, and when, in a politicking in the west, and when, in a politicking in the west, and when, in a matter of few months, Nero went from matter of few months, Nero went from matter of few months, Nero went from undisputed ruler of the greatest empire undisputed ruler of the greatest empire undisputed ruler of the greatest empire on earth to quivering child, Vespasian on earth to quivering child, Vespasian on earth to quivering child, Vespasian was shocked, but probably not surprised, was shocked, but probably not surprised, was shocked, but probably not surprised, if that makes sense. if that makes sense. if that makes sense. The Great Revolt in Judea will continue The Great Revolt in Judea will continue The Great Revolt in Judea will continue for another few years, but as the next for another few years, but as the next for another few years, but as the next important event in the struggle, the important event in the struggle, the important event in the struggle, the sack of Jerusalem, does not occur for sack of Jerusalem, does not occur for sack of Jerusalem, does not occur for another 18 whole months. I'm going to another 18 whole months. I'm going to another 18 whole months. I'm going to have to return to it after the have to return to it after the have to return to it after the yet-to-be-determined number of episodes yet-to-be-determined number of episodes yet-to-be-determined number of episodes I'll need to get through just the single I'll need to get through just the single I'll need to get through just the single year of 69 AD. year of 69 AD. year of 69 AD. So, before we can keep going with the So, before we can keep going with the So, before we can keep going with the Great Revolt, we're going to have to Great Revolt, we're going to have to Great Revolt, we're going to have to backtrack a little and figure out what backtrack a little and figure out what backtrack a little and figure out what led to the shocking note that Nero had led to the shocking note that Nero had led to the shocking note that Nero had committed suicide. As I said, Nero's erratic behavior was As I said, Nero's erratic behavior was getting really, really old.

getting really, really old. getting really, really old. He was neglecting his official duties, He was neglecting his official duties, He was neglecting his official duties, spending all of his time at chariot spending all of his time at chariot spending all of his time at chariot races, and bankrupting the empire in the races, and bankrupting the empire in the races, and bankrupting the empire in the process. process. process. Not only that, he had initiated his own Not only that, he had initiated his own Not only that, he had initiated his own little reign of terror, and the senators little reign of terror, and the senators little reign of terror, and the senators and generals who made up the backbone of and generals who made up the backbone of and generals who made up the backbone of the Imperial aristocracy all lived in the Imperial aristocracy all lived in the Imperial aristocracy all lived in fear of winding up on Nero's hit list. fear of winding up on Nero's hit list. fear of winding up on Nero's hit list. No less a figure than Corbulo, hero of No less a figure than Corbulo, hero of No less a figure than Corbulo, hero of the war in Armenia, had been ordered to the war in Armenia, had been ordered to the war in Armenia, had been ordered to commit suicide in 67 AD. commit suicide in 67 AD. commit suicide in 67 AD. It was only a matter of time, really, It was only a matter of time, really, It was only a matter of time, really, before Nero paid the price for his before Nero paid the price for his before Nero paid the price for his fear-inducing extravagances. In March of '68, a governor of one of In March of '68, a governor of one of the Gallic provinces, Gaius Julius the Gallic provinces, Gaius Julius the Gallic provinces, Gaius Julius Vindex, had finally had enough. Vindex, had finally had enough. Vindex, had finally had enough. Yet another set of orders had come down, Yet another set of orders had come down, Yet another set of orders had come down, ratcheting up the tax levies to help pay ratcheting up the tax levies to help pay ratcheting up the tax levies to help pay for Nero's total lack of fiscal for Nero's total lack of fiscal for Nero's total lack of fiscal responsibility. responsibility. responsibility. Vindex was a Roman all the way, but he Vindex was a Roman all the way, but he Vindex was a Roman all the way, but he couldn't help but feel for the local couldn't help but feel for the local couldn't help but feel for the local Gauls who were being taxed to the Gauls who were being taxed to the Gauls who were being taxed to the breaking point. breaking point. breaking point. He heard complaint after complaint from He heard complaint after complaint from He heard complaint after complaint from his subjects that things couldn't go on his subjects that things couldn't go on his subjects that things couldn't go on like this, and taking a look around, he like this, and taking a look around, he like this, and taking a look around, he believed them.

believed them. believed them. The empire hadn't grown as large as it The empire hadn't grown as large as it The empire hadn't grown as large as it had, or as strong as it had, by breaking had, or as strong as it had, by breaking had, or as strong as it had, by breaking the backs of those that supported it. the backs of those that supported it. the backs of those that supported it. Vindex decided that Nero, and the health Vindex decided that Nero, and the health Vindex decided that Nero, and the health of the empire, were two ideas that were of the empire, were two ideas that were of the empire, were two ideas that were now mutually exclusive. now mutually exclusive. now mutually exclusive. But surprisingly, when Vindex declared But surprisingly, when Vindex declared But surprisingly, when Vindex declared in March that he was no longer taking in March that he was no longer taking in March that he was no longer taking orders from the emperor, he also orders from the emperor, he also orders from the emperor, he also declared that he himself was not looking declared that he himself was not looking declared that he himself was not looking to become the emperor. to become the emperor. to become the emperor. Instead, he announced that should Instead, he announced that should Instead, he announced that should Servius Sulpicius Galba, the wise and Servius Sulpicius Galba, the wise and Servius Sulpicius Galba, the wise and capable governor of Spain, rise to the capable governor of Spain, rise to the capable governor of Spain, rise to the occasion, that Vindex would back him. occasion, that Vindex would back him. occasion, that Vindex would back him. But Galba was noncommittal, and Vindex But Galba was noncommittal, and Vindex But Galba was noncommittal, and Vindex was left hanging in Gaul by himself. was left hanging in Gaul by himself. was left hanging in Gaul by himself. Nero ordered the governor of Upper Nero ordered the governor of Upper Nero ordered the governor of Upper Germany, Lucius Verginius Rufus, to Germany, Lucius Verginius Rufus, to Germany, Lucius Verginius Rufus, to crush Vindex, and in short order, the crush Vindex, and in short order, the crush Vindex, and in short order, the stronger and more capable Verginius did stronger and more capable Verginius did stronger and more capable Verginius did just that, routing Vindex after a short just that, routing Vindex after a short just that, routing Vindex after a short and decisive battle. and decisive battle. and decisive battle. Vindex committed suicide to avoid Vindex committed suicide to avoid Vindex committed suicide to avoid capture, but his dream of dislodging capture, but his dream of dislodging capture, but his dream of dislodging Nero did not die with him. Nero did not die with him. Nero did not die with him. In the glow of victory, Verginius' In the glow of victory, Verginius' In the glow of victory, Verginius' troops did something unexpected. They troops did something unexpected. They troops did something unexpected. They declared their general imperator and declared their general imperator and declared their general imperator and swore to follow him if he decided to swore to follow him if he decided to swore to follow him if he decided to turn on Nero.

turn on Nero. turn on Nero. But Verginius refused to betray the But Verginius refused to betray the But Verginius refused to betray the emperor. emperor. emperor. In the end, despite having now allied In the end, despite having now allied In the end, despite having now allied himself with Nero, Verginius managed to himself with Nero, Verginius managed to himself with Nero, Verginius managed to escape the chaos of the Year of the Four escape the chaos of the Year of the Four escape the chaos of the Year of the Four Emperors and slip away unnoticed to live Emperors and slip away unnoticed to live Emperors and slip away unnoticed to live another 30 years in quiet anonymity. another 30 years in quiet anonymity. another 30 years in quiet anonymity. Good for him. Good for him. Good for him. Back in Rome, Nero watched all of this Back in Rome, Nero watched all of this Back in Rome, Nero watched all of this unfold with horror, and even though unfold with horror, and even though unfold with horror, and even though Galba had not joined in Vindex's revolt, Galba had not joined in Vindex's revolt, Galba had not joined in Vindex's revolt, it was clear that the old general was a it was clear that the old general was a it was clear that the old general was a rallying point for the emperor's rallying point for the emperor's rallying point for the emperor's enemies. enemies. enemies. So, he declared Galba an enemy of the So, he declared Galba an enemy of the So, he declared Galba an enemy of the state and ordered him arrested. state and ordered him arrested. state and ordered him arrested. But this proved to be a fatal But this proved to be a fatal But this proved to be a fatal miscalculation. miscalculation. miscalculation. Galba had been wavering back and forth Galba had been wavering back and forth Galba had been wavering back and forth on whether or not to be the man so many on whether or not to be the man so many on whether or not to be the man so many seemed to want him to be, seemed to want him to be, seemed to want him to be, but when he got the notice that Nero had but when he got the notice that Nero had but when he got the notice that Nero had declared him an enemy of the state, declared him an enemy of the state, declared him an enemy of the state, well, that really helped make up his well, that really helped make up his well, that really helped make up his mind, didn't it? mind, didn't it? mind, didn't it? When the arrest warrant for Galba was When the arrest warrant for Galba was When the arrest warrant for Galba was announced, things quickly got out of announced, things quickly got out of announced, things quickly got out of hand for Nero. hand for Nero. hand for Nero. One of the Praetorian Prefects, Gaius One of the Praetorian Prefects, Gaius One of the Praetorian Prefects, Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, declared his Nymphidius Sabinus, declared his Nymphidius Sabinus, declared his intention to follow Galba as civil war intention to follow Galba as civil war intention to follow Galba as civil war broke out. broke out. broke out. With a large chunk of the guard With a large chunk of the guard With a large chunk of the guard following their leader, Nero suddenly following their leader, Nero suddenly following their leader, Nero suddenly realized that he was in a very tight realized that he was in a very tight realized that he was in a very tight spot.

spot. spot. Afraid for his life, that happens when Afraid for his life, that happens when Afraid for his life, that happens when your bodyguards start hinting that they your bodyguards start hinting that they your bodyguards start hinting that they too would like to see you dead, Nero too would like to see you dead, Nero too would like to see you dead, Nero fled down the road to the port of Ostia, fled down the road to the port of Ostia, fled down the road to the port of Ostia, where he hoped to lead a fleet east and where he hoped to lead a fleet east and where he hoped to lead a fleet east and regroup. regroup. regroup. But the soldiers at the pier could tell But the soldiers at the pier could tell But the soldiers at the pier could tell which way the wind was blowing, and they which way the wind was blowing, and they which way the wind was blowing, and they refused to obey Nero's orders, taunting refused to obey Nero's orders, taunting refused to obey Nero's orders, taunting him with a line from the Aeneid, "Is it him with a line from the Aeneid, "Is it him with a line from the Aeneid, "Is it so dreadful a thing to die?" so dreadful a thing to die?" so dreadful a thing to die?" Really, really spooked now, Nero Really, really spooked now, Nero Really, really spooked now, Nero returned to Rome and tried to figure out returned to Rome and tried to figure out returned to Rome and tried to figure out how in the hell he was going to get out how in the hell he was going to get out how in the hell he was going to get out of this alive. of this alive. of this alive. He considered throwing himself at He considered throwing himself at He considered throwing himself at Galba's feet and begging for mercy. Then Galba's feet and begging for mercy. Then Galba's feet and begging for mercy. Then he considered throwing himself at the he considered throwing himself at the he considered throwing himself at the people's feet and begging them for people's feet and begging them for people's feet and begging them for mercy, but rejected both of those ideas mercy, but rejected both of those ideas mercy, but rejected both of those ideas as likely to lead to his swift as likely to lead to his swift as likely to lead to his swift execution. So, he then considered execution. So, he then considered execution. So, he then considered fleeing east and asking the Parthian fleeing east and asking the Parthian fleeing east and asking the Parthian king for asylum, but realized that that king for asylum, but realized that that king for asylum, but realized that that too was a ridiculous idea that would too was a ridiculous idea that would too was a ridiculous idea that would never work. He tried to sleep on it in the palace, He tried to sleep on it in the palace, but woke up around midnight and realized but woke up around midnight and realized but woke up around midnight and realized that the guard had all deserted their that the guard had all deserted their that the guard had all deserted their posts. posts. posts. Scared out of his wits, he searched the Scared out of his wits, he searched the Scared out of his wits, he searched the rooms of his friends, but found them all rooms of his friends, but found them all rooms of his friends, but found them all empty as well.

empty as well. empty as well. Nero had been deserted. Nero had been deserted. Nero had been deserted. Recognizing that there was no version of Recognizing that there was no version of Recognizing that there was no version of this story that ended well, Nero called this story that ended well, Nero called this story that ended well, Nero called out for a slave or a gladiator or anyone out for a slave or a gladiator or anyone out for a slave or a gladiator or anyone to kill him, but no one answered, to kill him, but no one answered, to kill him, but no one answered, prompting Nero to exclaim, "Have I prompting Nero to exclaim, "Have I prompting Nero to exclaim, "Have I neither friend nor foe?" neither friend nor foe?" neither friend nor foe?" No one answered him, but I can answer. No one answered him, but I can answer. No one answered him, but I can answer. Nero may have had no friends, but he was Nero may have had no friends, but he was Nero may have had no friends, but he was certainly not wanting for foes. certainly not wanting for foes. certainly not wanting for foes. Finally, Nero was able to connect with a Finally, Nero was able to connect with a Finally, Nero was able to connect with a freedman who agreed to hide the freedman who agreed to hide the freedman who agreed to hide the frightened emperor in a villa 4 miles frightened emperor in a villa 4 miles frightened emperor in a villa 4 miles outside of Rome. outside of Rome. outside of Rome. Accompanied by a few slaves, a disguised Accompanied by a few slaves, a disguised Accompanied by a few slaves, a disguised Nero slipped out of the palace and made Nero slipped out of the palace and made Nero slipped out of the palace and made his way through the gates of the city his way through the gates of the city his way through the gates of the city undetected. undetected. undetected. Upon his arrival at the villa, he Upon his arrival at the villa, he Upon his arrival at the villa, he ordered the slaves to begin digging a ordered the slaves to begin digging a ordered the slaves to begin digging a grave, grave, grave, and allegedly kept repeating over and and allegedly kept repeating over and and allegedly kept repeating over and over again, "What an artist the world is over again, "What an artist the world is over again, "What an artist the world is losing." losing." losing." At some point, a courier arrived and At some point, a courier arrived and At some point, a courier arrived and delivered the news that Nero had been delivered the news that Nero had been delivered the news that Nero had been dreading. dreading. dreading. The Senate had met in emergency session, The Senate had met in emergency session, The Senate had met in emergency session, declared him a public enemy, and declared him a public enemy, and declared him a public enemy, and announced that if found, Nero was to be announced that if found, Nero was to be announced that if found, Nero was to be beaten to death.

beaten to death. beaten to death. He tried to kill himself to avoid He tried to kill himself to avoid He tried to kill himself to avoid capture, but kept losing his nerve. capture, but kept losing his nerve. capture, but kept losing his nerve. When the sound of approaching horses When the sound of approaching horses When the sound of approaching horses began to cut through the night though, began to cut through the night though, began to cut through the night though, Nero was able to focus, and before the Nero was able to focus, and before the Nero was able to focus, and before the soldiers arrived to collect him, Nero soldiers arrived to collect him, Nero soldiers arrived to collect him, Nero stabbed himself in the throat. stabbed himself in the throat. stabbed himself in the throat. When the detachment arrived, they tried When the detachment arrived, they tried When the detachment arrived, they tried to stop the bleeding so Rome could to stop the bleeding so Rome could to stop the bleeding so Rome could extract the full measure of its extract the full measure of its extract the full measure of its vengeance, but Nero was too far gone. vengeance, but Nero was too far gone. vengeance, but Nero was too far gone. As they worked on the wound, he As they worked on the wound, he As they worked on the wound, he whispered, "Too late. This is fidelity." whispered, "Too late. This is fidelity." whispered, "Too late. This is fidelity." Nero died on June 9th, 68 AD at the age Nero died on June 9th, 68 AD at the age Nero died on June 9th, 68 AD at the age of 30. He had ruled Rome for 14 years. of 30. He had ruled Rome for 14 years. of 30. He had ruled Rome for 14 years. The death of Nero marked the end of the The death of Nero marked the end of the The death of Nero marked the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and would usher Julio-Claudian dynasty, and would usher Julio-Claudian dynasty, and would usher in a brief period of chaotic uncertainty in a brief period of chaotic uncertainty in a brief period of chaotic uncertainty known as the Year of the Four Emperors, known as the Year of the Four Emperors, known as the Year of the Four Emperors, which we'll start to get into fully next which we'll start to get into fully next which we'll start to get into fully next week. week. week. The question on the tip of everyone's The question on the tip of everyone's The question on the tip of everyone's tongue was, now that there was no tongue was, now that there was no tongue was, now that there was no Julio-Claudians left, how would Julio-Claudians left, how would Julio-Claudians left, how would legitimacy be conferred upon future legitimacy be conferred upon future legitimacy be conferred upon future emperors? emperors? emperors? Augustus had been able to establish and Augustus had been able to establish and Augustus had been able to establish and maintain imperial authority initially maintain imperial authority initially maintain imperial authority initially through his own personal brand of through his own personal brand of through his own personal brand of ruthless charisma, and the fact that his ruthless charisma, and the fact that his ruthless charisma, and the fact that his reign just kept going and going and reign just kept going and going and reign just kept going and going and going, so that by the time he died, it going, so that by the time he died, it going, so that by the time he died, it seemed natural that his declared heir seemed natural that his declared heir seemed natural that his declared heir Tiberius ought to rule.

Tiberius ought to rule. Tiberius ought to rule. From there, it had just been an unbroken From there, it had just been an unbroken From there, it had just been an unbroken line of inheritance all the way down to line of inheritance all the way down to line of inheritance all the way down to Nero. Nero. Nero. But now that that line of inheritance But now that that line of inheritance But now that that line of inheritance was broken, well, what did that mean? was broken, well, what did that mean? was broken, well, what did that mean? It was like Rome was waking up after It was like Rome was waking up after It was like Rome was waking up after being hypnotized. Suddenly, everyone was being hypnotized. Suddenly, everyone was being hypnotized. Suddenly, everyone was looking at everyone else, blinking, and looking at everyone else, blinking, and looking at everyone else, blinking, and wondering what to do now that the wondering what to do now that the wondering what to do now that the Julio-Claudian spell had been broken. Julio-Claudian spell had been broken. Julio-Claudian spell had been broken. Nero had died with no heir, and there Nero had died with no heir, and there Nero had died with no heir, and there was no mechanism to determine which of was no mechanism to determine which of was no mechanism to determine which of the dozens of highly ambitious men ought the dozens of highly ambitious men ought the dozens of highly ambitious men ought to rule. to rule. to rule. Nor any way to tell whether or not the Nor any way to tell whether or not the Nor any way to tell whether or not the masses would accept someone from outside masses would accept someone from outside masses would accept someone from outside the house of Caesar as their master. the house of Caesar as their master. the house of Caesar as their master. Or how about this? Maybe the Or how about this? Maybe the Or how about this? Maybe the Julio-Claudian period will prove to be a Julio-Claudian period will prove to be a Julio-Claudian period will prove to be a historical aberration. Maybe Rome can historical aberration. Maybe Rome can historical aberration. Maybe Rome can return to its Republican roots. return to its Republican roots. return to its Republican roots. There was no shortage of questions and There was no shortage of questions and There was no shortage of questions and no shortage of ambitious men who claimed no shortage of ambitious men who claimed no shortage of ambitious men who claimed to have the answer. to have the answer. to have the answer. Next week, we'll try to lay the Next week, we'll try to lay the Next week, we'll try to lay the foundation for the seminal year of 69 AD foundation for the seminal year of 69 AD foundation for the seminal year of 69 AD and give a deeper introduction to the and give a deeper introduction to the and give a deeper introduction to the men who will vie for the throne. men who will vie for the throne. men who will vie for the throne. But I can tell you this much already.

But I can tell you this much already. But I can tell you this much already. The correct answer is Vespasian. Hello, Hello, and welcome to the History of Rome. and welcome to the History of Rome. and welcome to the History of Rome. Episode 68, Three Emperors. Episode 68, Three Emperors. Episode 68, Three Emperors. The House of Caesar was no more. The House of Caesar was no more. The House of Caesar was no more. Though the name Caesar would live on as Though the name Caesar would live on as Though the name Caesar would live on as a symbol of power, authority, and a symbol of power, authority, and a symbol of power, authority, and legitimacy, the family itself was now legitimacy, the family itself was now legitimacy, the family itself was now officially defunct. officially defunct. officially defunct. From the moment Julius Caesar crossed From the moment Julius Caesar crossed From the moment Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC to the moment Nero the Rubicon in 49 BC to the moment Nero the Rubicon in 49 BC to the moment Nero committed suicide some 117 years later, committed suicide some 117 years later, committed suicide some 117 years later, Rome had been dominated by the Rome had been dominated by the Rome had been dominated by the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Julio-Claudian dynasty. Julio-Claudian dynasty. No one alive remembered a time before No one alive remembered a time before No one alive remembered a time before they rose to power, and now suddenly, they rose to power, and now suddenly, they rose to power, and now suddenly, without warning, they were gone. without warning, they were gone. without warning, they were gone. Does anyone around here have any idea Does anyone around here have any idea Does anyone around here have any idea what we're supposed to do now? what we're supposed to do now? what we're supposed to do now? The thing was, the initial transition The thing was, the initial transition The thing was, the initial transition from Republic to autocratic empire had from Republic to autocratic empire had from Republic to autocratic empire had been midwifed by Julius Caesar and his been midwifed by Julius Caesar and his been midwifed by Julius Caesar and his adopted son Augustus. Two men with adopted son Augustus. Two men with adopted son Augustus. Two men with personalities so strong that they personalities so strong that they personalities so strong that they couldn't help but shape the whole couldn't help but shape the whole couldn't help but shape the whole governmental apparatus to match their governmental apparatus to match their governmental apparatus to match their own individual quirks, habits, own individual quirks, habits, own individual quirks, habits, strengths, and weaknesses.

strengths, and weaknesses. strengths, and weaknesses. Their descendants had more or less Their descendants had more or less Their descendants had more or less failed to live up to the standards set failed to live up to the standards set failed to live up to the standards set by the two great patriarchs of the by the two great patriarchs of the by the two great patriarchs of the family, but they had also more or less family, but they had also more or less family, but they had also more or less continued the forms and practices of continued the forms and practices of continued the forms and practices of governance that had been handed down to governance that had been handed down to governance that had been handed down to them. them. them. One of the quirks of the initial One of the quirks of the initial One of the quirks of the initial Principate was that the legitimacy and Principate was that the legitimacy and Principate was that the legitimacy and authority of the emperor lay not in authority of the emperor lay not in authority of the emperor lay not in codified rules or a spelled-out job codified rules or a spelled-out job codified rules or a spelled-out job description. description. description. Rather, it rested on an ad hoc Rather, it rested on an ad hoc Rather, it rested on an ad hoc collection of powers that had been collection of powers that had been collection of powers that had been accumulated by Augustus personally accumulated by Augustus personally accumulated by Augustus personally during the constitutional settlements of during the constitutional settlements of during the constitutional settlements of the 20s BC. the 20s BC. the 20s BC. After his death, those powers had been After his death, those powers had been After his death, those powers had been passed along to his descendants for no passed along to his descendants for no passed along to his descendants for no other reason than that they were his other reason than that they were his other reason than that they were his descendants. descendants. descendants. It was an issue not of constitutional It was an issue not of constitutional It was an issue not of constitutional authority, but of family inheritance. authority, but of family inheritance. authority, but of family inheritance. So, now that Nero was dead and there So, now that Nero was dead and there So, now that Nero was dead and there were no more descendants of Augustus, were no more descendants of Augustus, were no more descendants of Augustus, would the collection of powers the would the collection of powers the would the collection of powers the family had accumulated remain bundled family had accumulated remain bundled family had accumulated remain bundled together and handed intact to some together and handed intact to some together and handed intact to some successor outside the family? Or would successor outside the family? Or would successor outside the family? Or would they be broken up with different pieces they be broken up with different pieces they be broken up with different pieces being claimed by different men? being claimed by different men? being claimed by different men? And the biggest question of all, if that And the biggest question of all, if that And the biggest question of all, if that happened, who would put them back happened, who would put them back happened, who would put them back together again?

Without a doubt, the most important Without a doubt, the most important power upon which the emperor's authority power upon which the emperor's authority power upon which the emperor's authority rested was his command over the legions. rested was his command over the legions. rested was his command over the legions. In the constitutional settlements, In the constitutional settlements, In the constitutional settlements, Augustus had made sure that he claimed Augustus had made sure that he claimed Augustus had made sure that he claimed as his own personal jurisdiction any as his own personal jurisdiction any as his own personal jurisdiction any province that contained a significant province that contained a significant province that contained a significant military presence. military presence. military presence. This meant that at the end of the day, This meant that at the end of the day, This meant that at the end of the day, however else you might feel about the however else you might feel about the however else you might feel about the emperor or his policies, you knew that emperor or his policies, you knew that emperor or his policies, you knew that you could never match the literally you could never match the literally you could never match the literally hundreds of thousands of soldiers he hundreds of thousands of soldiers he hundreds of thousands of soldiers he personally commanded. This had a personally commanded. This had a personally commanded. This had a tendency to keep everyone in line. tendency to keep everyone in line. tendency to keep everyone in line. Part and parcel of this authority was Part and parcel of this authority was Part and parcel of this authority was the fact that basically every general the fact that basically every general the fact that basically every general scattered across the empire was scattered across the empire was scattered across the empire was subordinate to the emperor. subordinate to the emperor. subordinate to the emperor. These various generals may have been These various generals may have been These various generals may have been rivals with one another, but they could rivals with one another, but they could rivals with one another, but they could each take comfort in the fact that they each take comfort in the fact that they each take comfort in the fact that they all answered to the same man and were all answered to the same man and were all answered to the same man and were thus, in a sense, all at least equal to thus, in a sense, all at least equal to thus, in a sense, all at least equal to each other. each other. each other. But when Nero died and this uppermost But when Nero died and this uppermost But when Nero died and this uppermost slot in the chain of command was lost, slot in the chain of command was lost, slot in the chain of command was lost, all of those same generals were now, all of those same generals were now, all of those same generals were now, technically, subordinate to no one. technically, subordinate to no one. technically, subordinate to no one. Well, maybe they were subordinate in Well, maybe they were subordinate in Well, maybe they were subordinate in some abstract way to the Senate and the some abstract way to the Senate and the some abstract way to the Senate and the people of Rome, but that was neither people of Rome, but that was neither people of Rome, but that was neither here nor there.

here nor there. here nor there. The Year of the Four Emperors then is The Year of the Four Emperors then is The Year of the Four Emperors then is best understood as a competition between best understood as a competition between best understood as a competition between the leading regional generals of the the leading regional generals of the the leading regional generals of the time to climb into that uppermost slot time to climb into that uppermost slot time to climb into that uppermost slot on the chain of command left vacant by on the chain of command left vacant by on the chain of command left vacant by Nero. Nero. Nero. Galba came from Spain, Vitellius came Galba came from Spain, Vitellius came Galba came from Spain, Vitellius came from the Rhineland, and Vespasian came from the Rhineland, and Vespasian came from the Rhineland, and Vespasian came from the East. from the East. from the East. While the Julio-Claudian emperors had While the Julio-Claudian emperors had While the Julio-Claudian emperors had commanded a force so large it was commanded a force so large it was commanded a force so large it was impossible to match, each of these men impossible to match, each of these men impossible to match, each of these men controlled forces that were large enough controlled forces that were large enough controlled forces that were large enough to prompt high ambition, but not so to prompt high ambition, but not so to prompt high ambition, but not so large that they couldn't be met in the large that they couldn't be met in the large that they couldn't be met in the field by a force of equal size. field by a force of equal size. field by a force of equal size. And as much as regional politics played And as much as regional politics played And as much as regional politics played a role in why the various legions backed a role in why the various legions backed a role in why the various legions backed this or that general, this or that general, this or that general, the individual personalities of each of the individual personalities of each of the individual personalities of each of the four emperors, Galba, Otho, the four emperors, Galba, Otho, the four emperors, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian, played a Vitellius, and Vespasian, played a Vitellius, and Vespasian, played a significant role in how events played significant role in how events played significant role in how events played out. As I mentioned last week, the man who As I mentioned last week, the man who ascended to the throne upon the death of ascended to the throne upon the death of ascended to the throne upon the death of Nero was Servius Sulpicius Galba. Nero was Servius Sulpicius Galba. Nero was Servius Sulpicius Galba. Born in either 3 or 5 BC, he was an old Born in either 3 or 5 BC, he was an old Born in either 3 or 5 BC, he was an old stock patrician and the son of a stock patrician and the son of a stock patrician and the son of a prominent attorney who had served as prominent attorney who had served as prominent attorney who had served as consul during the reign of Augustus.

consul during the reign of Augustus. consul during the reign of Augustus. An undistinguished man, the elder Galba, An undistinguished man, the elder Galba, An undistinguished man, the elder Galba, was best known for the fact that he was was best known for the fact that he was was best known for the fact that he was a hunchback, a birth defect endlessly a hunchback, a birth defect endlessly a hunchback, a birth defect endlessly mocked by the notoriously un-PC Romans. mocked by the notoriously un-PC Romans. mocked by the notoriously un-PC Romans. Augustus himself was even said to have Augustus himself was even said to have Augustus himself was even said to have poked fun at the hunchbacked lawyer. poked fun at the hunchbacked lawyer. poked fun at the hunchbacked lawyer. Galba's mother was the grand daughter of Galba's mother was the grand daughter of Galba's mother was the grand daughter of Quintus Catulus, a giant in the final Quintus Catulus, a giant in the final Quintus Catulus, a giant in the final days of the Republic, who had defeated days of the Republic, who had defeated days of the Republic, who had defeated the post-Sullan coup led by his consular the post-Sullan coup led by his consular the post-Sullan coup led by his consular colleague Lepidus, and then stood firmly colleague Lepidus, and then stood firmly colleague Lepidus, and then stood firmly opposed to Pompey, Crassus, and young opposed to Pompey, Crassus, and young opposed to Pompey, Crassus, and young Julius Caesar as they rose to Julius Caesar as they rose to Julius Caesar as they rose to prominence, and would have been one of prominence, and would have been one of prominence, and would have been one of the first triumvirate's key opponents the first triumvirate's key opponents the first triumvirate's key opponents had he not died just before its official had he not died just before its official had he not died just before its official formation. formation. formation. Galba was proud of his relation to Galba was proud of his relation to Galba was proud of his relation to Catulus and used the great old senator's Catulus and used the great old senator's Catulus and used the great old senator's career as the model for his own life. career as the model for his own life. career as the model for his own life. His mother, however, died shortly after His mother, however, died shortly after His mother, however, died shortly after his birth and young Galba was his birth and young Galba was his birth and young Galba was subsequently raised by his father's subsequently raised by his father's subsequently raised by his father's second wife, a beautiful and wealthy second wife, a beautiful and wealthy second wife, a beautiful and wealthy woman who would posthumously adopt Galba woman who would posthumously adopt Galba woman who would posthumously adopt Galba and leave him a fortune so long as he and leave him a fortune so long as he and leave him a fortune so long as he carried on her family name, which Galba carried on her family name, which Galba carried on her family name, which Galba did, though only officially.

did, though only officially. did, though only officially. He had an older brother who made some He had an older brother who made some He had an older brother who made some attempt at a public career, but was attempt at a public career, but was attempt at a public career, but was plagued by scandal and poor judgment plagued by scandal and poor judgment plagued by scandal and poor judgment until he committed suicide during the until he committed suicide during the until he committed suicide during the reign of Tiberius after being passed reign of Tiberius after being passed reign of Tiberius after being passed over for proconsular promotion one too over for proconsular promotion one too over for proconsular promotion one too many times. Galba himself rose quickly up the ranks Galba himself rose quickly up the ranks serving as praetor in 20 AD and then serving as praetor in 20 AD and then serving as praetor in 20 AD and then consul in 33. consul in 33. consul in 33. During Tiberius' reign, Galba caught the During Tiberius' reign, Galba caught the During Tiberius' reign, Galba caught the eye of the Augusta and was brought into eye of the Augusta and was brought into eye of the Augusta and was brought into her sphere of influence, but of course, her sphere of influence, but of course, her sphere of influence, but of course, this put him at odds with the emperor this put him at odds with the emperor this put him at odds with the emperor who did not get along with his mother at who did not get along with his mother at who did not get along with his mother at all. all. all. When Livia died in 29, she left a When Livia died in 29, she left a When Livia died in 29, she left a generous bequestal to Galba, but as generous bequestal to Galba, but as generous bequestal to Galba, but as executor of his mother's estate, executor of his mother's estate, executor of his mother's estate, Tiberius first cut the number down by a Tiberius first cut the number down by a Tiberius first cut the number down by a third and then simply refused to pay it third and then simply refused to pay it third and then simply refused to pay it out. out. out. When Tiberius died though, one of the When Tiberius died though, one of the When Tiberius died though, one of the first things Caligula did to curry favor first things Caligula did to curry favor first things Caligula did to curry favor with the aristocracy was to restore all with the aristocracy was to restore all with the aristocracy was to restore all those inheritances that Tiberius had those inheritances that Tiberius had those inheritances that Tiberius had canceled or confiscated over the years. canceled or confiscated over the years. canceled or confiscated over the years. This sudden windfall had the attendant This sudden windfall had the attendant This sudden windfall had the attendant effect on Galba and he remained loyal to effect on Galba and he remained loyal to effect on Galba and he remained loyal to Caligula even as the emperor's erratic Caligula even as the emperor's erratic Caligula even as the emperor's erratic behavior became unsustainable.

behavior became unsustainable. behavior became unsustainable. He remained loyal to the Julio-Claudians He remained loyal to the Julio-Claudians He remained loyal to the Julio-Claudians throughout his career and wound up throughout his career and wound up throughout his career and wound up serving administrative and military serving administrative and military serving administrative and military functions in Gaul, Germania, Africa, and functions in Gaul, Germania, Africa, and functions in Gaul, Germania, Africa, and finally Hispania. finally Hispania. finally Hispania. He did however go into retirement during He did however go into retirement during He did however go into retirement during the early years of Nero's reign though the early years of Nero's reign though the early years of Nero's reign though as Agrippina continued to nurse a heavy as Agrippina continued to nurse a heavy as Agrippina continued to nurse a heavy grudge against him because Galba had grudge against him because Galba had grudge against him because Galba had once publicly refused her romantic once publicly refused her romantic once publicly refused her romantic advances. advances. advances. But after Nero killed his mother, Galba But after Nero killed his mother, Galba But after Nero killed his mother, Galba returned to public life and in 61 AD he returned to public life and in 61 AD he returned to public life and in 61 AD he was posted to Hispania Tarraconensis, was posted to Hispania Tarraconensis, was posted to Hispania Tarraconensis, the largest of the Spanish provinces. the largest of the Spanish provinces. the largest of the Spanish provinces. He would serve as governor there for the He would serve as governor there for the He would serve as governor there for the next 7 years until he was declared next 7 years until he was declared next 7 years until he was declared emperor in 68, first by his own men and emperor in 68, first by his own men and emperor in 68, first by his own men and then by the Senate. then by the Senate. then by the Senate. Galba had a reputation for being a Galba had a reputation for being a Galba had a reputation for being a humorless throwback conservative in the humorless throwback conservative in the humorless throwback conservative in the mold of Cato the Elder. mold of Cato the Elder. mold of Cato the Elder. The Romans disliked extremes in either The Romans disliked extremes in either The Romans disliked extremes in either direction. So, while the enormously direction. So, while the enormously direction. So, while the enormously wealthy Galba was always hailed for his wealthy Galba was always hailed for his wealthy Galba was always hailed for his restraint, he was also criticized for restraint, he was also criticized for restraint, he was also criticized for airing too far on the side of frugality. airing too far on the side of frugality. airing too far on the side of frugality. Throughout this period though, he stands Throughout this period though, he stands Throughout this period though, he stands out as one of the few generals who did out as one of the few generals who did out as one of the few generals who did not actively bribe soldiers to join his not actively bribe soldiers to join his not actively bribe soldiers to join his cause, a practice he thought immoral and cause, a practice he thought immoral and cause, a practice he thought immoral and unnecessary.

unnecessary. unnecessary. This refusal to bribe his men gets to This refusal to bribe his men gets to This refusal to bribe his men gets to the heart of another of Galba's most the heart of another of Galba's most the heart of another of Galba's most notable personality traits. notable personality traits. notable personality traits. His belief in strict and unquestioning His belief in strict and unquestioning His belief in strict and unquestioning discipline. discipline. discipline. He did not feel inclined to hand out He did not feel inclined to hand out He did not feel inclined to hand out bribes just because he was a miser, bribes just because he was a miser, bribes just because he was a miser, but also because an army should but also because an army should but also because an army should naturally obey its general. naturally obey its general. naturally obey its general. One should not have to convince soldiers One should not have to convince soldiers One should not have to convince soldiers to fall in line. One should simply order to fall in line. One should simply order to fall in line. One should simply order them to do so. them to do so. them to do so. And not only did Galba expect his men to And not only did Galba expect his men to And not only did Galba expect his men to follow his every command precisely, follow his every command precisely, follow his every command precisely, he also expected them to do no more than he also expected them to do no more than he also expected them to do no more than he had commanded either. he had commanded either. he had commanded either. Disobedience and personal initiative Disobedience and personal initiative Disobedience and personal initiative both were frowned upon in the legions of both were frowned upon in the legions of both were frowned upon in the legions of Galba. Galba. Galba. And as you can imagine, he both And as you can imagine, he both And as you can imagine, he both benefited from and was hurt by this benefited from and was hurt by this benefited from and was hurt by this approach. approach. approach. His reputation as a strict His reputation as a strict His reputation as a strict disciplinarian with an almost naive disciplinarian with an almost naive disciplinarian with an almost naive faith in the power of the chain of faith in the power of the chain of faith in the power of the chain of command is critical to the unfolding command is critical to the unfolding command is critical to the unfolding events of 69 AD. events of 69 AD. events of 69 AD. Following the aborted plot against his Following the aborted plot against his Following the aborted plot against his life in Germania, Caligula had brought life in Germania, Caligula had brought life in Germania, Caligula had brought in Galba to restore order to the legions in Galba to restore order to the legions in Galba to restore order to the legions stationed on the Rhine.

stationed on the Rhine. stationed on the Rhine. Galba had apparently taken such a harsh Galba had apparently taken such a harsh Galba had apparently taken such a harsh tack with the men under his command that tack with the men under his command that tack with the men under his command that 20 years later, those same units would 20 years later, those same units would 20 years later, those same units would refuse to back the man that they had refuse to back the man that they had refuse to back the man that they had learned to hate. learned to hate. learned to hate. Which led first to their attempt to make Which led first to their attempt to make Which led first to their attempt to make Verginius emperor, as I mentioned last Verginius emperor, as I mentioned last Verginius emperor, as I mentioned last week, and then later to their elevation week, and then later to their elevation week, and then later to their elevation of Vitellius. By the time the events that would define By the time the events that would define Galba's career unfolded, he was already Galba's career unfolded, he was already Galba's career unfolded, he was already an old man, about 70 years old, give or an old man, about 70 years old, give or an old man, about 70 years old, give or take. take. take. And as a result, his flagging energy led And as a result, his flagging energy led And as a result, his flagging energy led him to rely more and more on a core him to rely more and more on a core him to rely more and more on a core circle of advisers. circle of advisers. circle of advisers. Ironically, the man who believed so Ironically, the man who believed so Ironically, the man who believed so strongly that every subordinate was strongly that every subordinate was strongly that every subordinate was merely an extension of his own will, was merely an extension of his own will, was merely an extension of his own will, was now widely rumored to be a wholly owned now widely rumored to be a wholly owned now widely rumored to be a wholly owned subsidiary of his three closest subsidiary of his three closest subsidiary of his three closest advisers, who became known as the three advisers, who became known as the three advisers, who became known as the three pedagogues, because they taught Galba pedagogues, because they taught Galba pedagogues, because they taught Galba everything he needed to know. everything he needed to know. everything he needed to know. The most influential was Titus Vinius, a The most influential was Titus Vinius, a The most influential was Titus Vinius, a man of senatorial rank, who was, man of senatorial rank, who was, man of senatorial rank, who was, according to Tacitus, quote, "the most according to Tacitus, quote, "the most according to Tacitus, quote, "the most worthless of mankind." worthless of mankind." worthless of mankind." He was dogged by scandals of all sorts, He was dogged by scandals of all sorts, He was dogged by scandals of all sorts, with Plutarch reporting that he was with Plutarch reporting that he was with Plutarch reporting that he was imprisoned at one point by Caligula, and imprisoned at one point by Caligula, and imprisoned at one point by Caligula, and was later accused of stealing a golden was later accused of stealing a golden was later accused of stealing a golden cup after attending a dinner hosted by cup after attending a dinner hosted by cup after attending a dinner hosted by Claudius.

Claudius. Claudius. He wound up in charge of a legion in He wound up in charge of a legion in He wound up in charge of a legion in Spain, and somehow, though I don't Spain, and somehow, though I don't Spain, and somehow, though I don't really know how or why, he came to exert really know how or why, he came to exert really know how or why, he came to exert enormous influence on Galba, even though enormous influence on Galba, even though enormous influence on Galba, even though the two could not have been more the two could not have been more the two could not have been more different. different. different. Galba hated bribes. Vinius, it was said, Galba hated bribes. Vinius, it was said, Galba hated bribes. Vinius, it was said, would do anything for one. would do anything for one. would do anything for one. Along with Vinius, there was Cornelius Along with Vinius, there was Cornelius Along with Vinius, there was Cornelius Laco, who served as Galba's legal Laco, who served as Galba's legal Laco, who served as Galba's legal adviser. adviser. adviser. In contrast to Vinius, he was an honest, In contrast to Vinius, he was an honest, In contrast to Vinius, he was an honest, if lazy, man. if lazy, man. if lazy, man. When Galba ascended to the throne, he When Galba ascended to the throne, he When Galba ascended to the throne, he would appoint Laco as praetorian would appoint Laco as praetorian would appoint Laco as praetorian prefect, even though Laco had no prefect, even though Laco had no prefect, even though Laco had no military or administrative experience. military or administrative experience. military or administrative experience. Rounding out the trio was a freedman Rounding out the trio was a freedman Rounding out the trio was a freedman adviser named Icelus, who was in Rome adviser named Icelus, who was in Rome adviser named Icelus, who was in Rome when Nero committed suicide, and was the when Nero committed suicide, and was the when Nero committed suicide, and was the one who brought the news to Galba. one who brought the news to Galba. one who brought the news to Galba. For making the trip from Rome to Spain For making the trip from Rome to Spain For making the trip from Rome to Spain in just 7 days, Galba elevated Icelus to in just 7 days, Galba elevated Icelus to in just 7 days, Galba elevated Icelus to equestrian status. equestrian status. equestrian status. The former slave would then spend the The former slave would then spend the The former slave would then spend the rest of his short life accumulating the rest of his short life accumulating the rest of his short life accumulating the money his new rank required, like money his new rank required, like money his new rank required, like Vinius, by any means necessary. Vinius, by any means necessary. Vinius, by any means necessary. The three men were, of course, rivals The three men were, of course, rivals The three men were, of course, rivals for Galba's favor and attention.

for Galba's favor and attention. for Galba's favor and attention. But they transcended their own bickering But they transcended their own bickering But they transcended their own bickering when it came to keeping others locked when it came to keeping others locked when it came to keeping others locked out of the inner circle. out of the inner circle. out of the inner circle. If you wanted to talk to Galba, you had If you wanted to talk to Galba, you had If you wanted to talk to Galba, you had to go through one of them. to go through one of them. to go through one of them. This was why the neighboring governor of This was why the neighboring governor of This was why the neighboring governor of Lusitania was forced to form a Lusitania was forced to form a Lusitania was forced to form a short-lived alliance with Vinius in an short-lived alliance with Vinius in an short-lived alliance with Vinius in an attempt to secure his own adoption by attempt to secure his own adoption by attempt to secure his own adoption by the childless Galba. the childless Galba. the childless Galba. Everyone knew that the old man would be Everyone knew that the old man would be Everyone knew that the old man would be dead soon. So, as soon as Galba came to dead soon. So, as soon as Galba came to dead soon. So, as soon as Galba came to power, it was already time to start power, it was already time to start power, it was already time to start planning for the future. planning for the future. planning for the future. Marcus Salvius Otho, the young governor Marcus Salvius Otho, the young governor Marcus Salvius Otho, the young governor in question, was convinced that he could in question, was convinced that he could in question, was convinced that he could convince Galba to adopt him so that when convince Galba to adopt him so that when convince Galba to adopt him so that when the old man died, he, Otho, would become the old man died, he, Otho, would become the old man died, he, Otho, would become emperor. emperor. emperor. After all, an astrologer had told him After all, an astrologer had told him After all, an astrologer had told him that it would be so. Otho was born in 32 BC, making him by Otho was born in 32 BC, making him by far the youngest of the four emperors. far the youngest of the four emperors. far the youngest of the four emperors. He was descended from Etruscan nobility, He was descended from Etruscan nobility, He was descended from Etruscan nobility, but his family had only reached but his family had only reached but his family had only reached senatorial status with his grandfather, senatorial status with his grandfather, senatorial status with his grandfather, who did so after the Augusta took a who did so after the Augusta took a who did so after the Augusta took a liking to him.

liking to him. liking to him. As a result of this connection, Otho's As a result of this connection, Otho's As a result of this connection, Otho's father became close to Tiberius, and the father became close to Tiberius, and the father became close to Tiberius, and the family thrived under the Julio-Claudian family thrived under the Julio-Claudian family thrived under the Julio-Claudian dynasty. dynasty. dynasty. Otho himself was only 5 years older than Otho himself was only 5 years older than Otho himself was only 5 years older than Nero, and when the teenager became Nero, and when the teenager became Nero, and when the teenager became emperor in 54, Otho was right there by emperor in 54, Otho was right there by emperor in 54, Otho was right there by his side and quickly became one of his side and quickly became one of his side and quickly became one of Nero's most prominent drinking buddies. Nero's most prominent drinking buddies. Nero's most prominent drinking buddies. Together, they would spend their nights Together, they would spend their nights Together, they would spend their nights blowing through money, alcohol, and blowing through money, alcohol, and blowing through money, alcohol, and women. women. women. And Otho earned a reputation as a And Otho earned a reputation as a And Otho earned a reputation as a ringleader of the decadent proceedings. ringleader of the decadent proceedings. ringleader of the decadent proceedings. But in 58, the two had a falling out But in 58, the two had a falling out But in 58, the two had a falling out over Otho's wife, Poppaea Sabina. over Otho's wife, Poppaea Sabina. over Otho's wife, Poppaea Sabina. As I said last week, it is entirely As I said last week, it is entirely As I said last week, it is entirely possible that Poppaea only targeted Otho possible that Poppaea only targeted Otho possible that Poppaea only targeted Otho to get close to Nero, to get close to Nero, to get close to Nero, but it has also been suggested that Nero but it has also been suggested that Nero but it has also been suggested that Nero and Otho had arranged the match to put and Otho had arranged the match to put and Otho had arranged the match to put Poppaea on hold for Nero until the Poppaea on hold for Nero until the Poppaea on hold for Nero until the emperor could figure out how to rid emperor could figure out how to rid emperor could figure out how to rid himself of his wife, Claudia Octavia. himself of his wife, Claudia Octavia. himself of his wife, Claudia Octavia. If this latter version is true, then it If this latter version is true, then it If this latter version is true, then it seems that when it came time to hand seems that when it came time to hand seems that when it came time to hand Poppaea over, Otho had had a change of Poppaea over, Otho had had a change of Poppaea over, Otho had had a change of heart.

heart. heart. However it happened though, However it happened though, However it happened though, Poppaea went over to Nero, and Otho Poppaea went over to Nero, and Otho Poppaea went over to Nero, and Otho wasn't happy about it. wasn't happy about it. wasn't happy about it. To deal with this problem, Nero To deal with this problem, Nero To deal with this problem, Nero appointed Otho governor of Lusitania, appointed Otho governor of Lusitania, appointed Otho governor of Lusitania, which on the one hand was a fat which on the one hand was a fat which on the one hand was a fat promotion, as Otho had only served promotion, as Otho had only served promotion, as Otho had only served previously as a quaestor and didn't previously as a quaestor and didn't previously as a quaestor and didn't qualify for the post, but on the other qualify for the post, but on the other qualify for the post, but on the other hand, it was obviously meant to exile hand, it was obviously meant to exile hand, it was obviously meant to exile him from Rome. him from Rome. him from Rome. Despite everyone's expectations that Despite everyone's expectations that Despite everyone's expectations that this drunken gadabout would prove to be this drunken gadabout would prove to be this drunken gadabout would prove to be a disaster, a disaster, a disaster, Otho emerged as a competent Otho emerged as a competent Otho emerged as a competent administrator, and though he no doubt administrator, and though he no doubt administrator, and though he no doubt longed to get out of his backwater longed to get out of his backwater longed to get out of his backwater province, he seemed to have served his province, he seemed to have served his province, he seemed to have served his time conscientiously. time conscientiously. time conscientiously. But when his neighbor Galba declared his But when his neighbor Galba declared his But when his neighbor Galba declared his intention to take control of the empire intention to take control of the empire intention to take control of the empire though, though, though, Otho seized on his chance not only to Otho seized on his chance not only to Otho seized on his chance not only to revenge himself upon Nero, but also to revenge himself upon Nero, but also to revenge himself upon Nero, but also to free himself from exile. free himself from exile. free himself from exile. He immediately sent word to Galba that He immediately sent word to Galba that He immediately sent word to Galba that the treasury of Lusitania was at the old the treasury of Lusitania was at the old the treasury of Lusitania was at the old man's disposal, an announcement Otho man's disposal, an announcement Otho man's disposal, an announcement Otho hoped would demonstrate some unique hoped would demonstrate some unique hoped would demonstrate some unique level of commitment to the cause, but level of commitment to the cause, but level of commitment to the cause, but apparently Galba received the news apparently Galba received the news apparently Galba received the news blandly, stating in essence, "Well, of blandly, stating in essence, "Well, of blandly, stating in essence, "Well, of course your treasury is at my disposal.

course your treasury is at my disposal. course your treasury is at my disposal. I don't need you to tell me that." I don't need you to tell me that." I don't need you to tell me that." Undeterred, Otho also sent along some of Undeterred, Otho also sent along some of Undeterred, Otho also sent along some of his better slaves who were worthy of his better slaves who were worthy of his better slaves who were worthy of service to a new emperor, service to a new emperor, service to a new emperor, but they were greeted with disdain by but they were greeted with disdain by but they were greeted with disdain by the frugal Galba who disapproved of the the frugal Galba who disapproved of the the frugal Galba who disapproved of the extravagance that was beginning to affix extravagance that was beginning to affix extravagance that was beginning to affix itself to his entourage. itself to his entourage. itself to his entourage. But Otho convinced himself that he had But Otho convinced himself that he had But Otho convinced himself that he had really gotten on Galba's good side with really gotten on Galba's good side with really gotten on Galba's good side with all of these gestures, and set about all of these gestures, and set about all of these gestures, and set about trying to figure a way to convince Galba trying to figure a way to convince Galba trying to figure a way to convince Galba to adopt him so that when Galba died, to adopt him so that when Galba died, to adopt him so that when Galba died, Otho could rise up in his place. Otho could rise up in his place. Otho could rise up in his place. He was especially convinced that this He was especially convinced that this He was especially convinced that this was his destiny because during his time was his destiny because during his time was his destiny because during his time in Lusitania, he had grown enamored with in Lusitania, he had grown enamored with in Lusitania, he had grown enamored with an astrologer who predicted soon after an astrologer who predicted soon after an astrologer who predicted soon after the news came of Nero's death that Otho the news came of Nero's death that Otho the news came of Nero's death that Otho would become emperor soon. would become emperor soon. would become emperor soon. It was Otho himself though who made the It was Otho himself though who made the It was Otho himself though who made the leap to the belief that that meant Galba leap to the belief that that meant Galba leap to the belief that that meant Galba would be adopting him. would be adopting him. would be adopting him. In his excellent 69 AD, The Year of Four In his excellent 69 AD, The Year of Four In his excellent 69 AD, The Year of Four Emperors, which I'll be drawing on Emperors, which I'll be drawing on Emperors, which I'll be drawing on heavily for the next few episodes, Gwyn heavily for the next few episodes, Gwyn heavily for the next few episodes, Gwyn Morgan points out that if this was his Morgan points out that if this was his Morgan points out that if this was his plan, then Otho's power for plan, then Otho's power for plan, then Otho's power for self-deception was unparalleled.

self-deception was unparalleled. self-deception was unparalleled. The taciturn and conservative Galba had The taciturn and conservative Galba had The taciturn and conservative Galba had not risen in revolt against Nero just to not risen in revolt against Nero just to not risen in revolt against Nero just to make sure one of Nero's drinking buddies make sure one of Nero's drinking buddies make sure one of Nero's drinking buddies wound up on the throne. wound up on the throne. wound up on the throne. But Otho was sure he was on the right But Otho was sure he was on the right But Otho was sure he was on the right track and arranged a deal to marry track and arranged a deal to marry track and arranged a deal to marry Vinnius's daughter in exchange for Vinnius's daughter in exchange for Vinnius's daughter in exchange for Vinnius's support on the issue of Vinnius's support on the issue of Vinnius's support on the issue of adoption. adoption. adoption. And in fact, Otho was so convinced that And in fact, Otho was so convinced that And in fact, Otho was so convinced that Galba was going to adopt him that when Galba was going to adopt him that when Galba was going to adopt him that when he learned Galba had chosen the more he learned Galba had chosen the more he learned Galba had chosen the more stable Lucius Calpurnius Piso instead, a stable Lucius Calpurnius Piso instead, a stable Lucius Calpurnius Piso instead, a blindsided Otho flew into such a rage blindsided Otho flew into such a rage blindsided Otho flew into such a rage that he assassinated Galba less than a that he assassinated Galba less than a that he assassinated Galba less than a week later. week later. week later. But we'll get into all that in a bit. So so far, we have here two men. One at So so far, we have here two men. One at the end of his career and convinced that the end of his career and convinced that the end of his career and convinced that it was not just his duty but his right it was not just his duty but his right it was not just his duty but his right to assume the title of Caesar. to assume the title of Caesar. to assume the title of Caesar. And one who had barely started his And one who had barely started his And one who had barely started his career but was crazy ambitious enough to career but was crazy ambitious enough to career but was crazy ambitious enough to believe that he was destined to don the believe that he was destined to don the believe that he was destined to don the purple. purple. purple. Having covered Vespasian, the man who Having covered Vespasian, the man who Having covered Vespasian, the man who would outlast them both last week, would outlast them both last week, would outlast them both last week, though I did botch his birth date, he though I did botch his birth date, he though I did botch his birth date, he was born in 980 not 17, and his son was born in 980 not 17, and his son was born in 980 not 17, and his son Titus was born in 39 not 41. Thanks to Titus was born in 39 not 41. Thanks to Titus was born in 39 not 41. Thanks to alert listener Sarah for catching that.

alert listener Sarah for catching that. alert listener Sarah for catching that. We are left then with just one more We are left then with just one more We are left then with just one more emperor to introduce. The third leg of emperor to introduce. The third leg of emperor to introduce. The third leg of the relay, which as students of track the relay, which as students of track the relay, which as students of track and field will tell you is always the and field will tell you is always the and field will tell you is always the slowest member of the team. slowest member of the team. slowest member of the team. And I don't just mean that figuratively, And I don't just mean that figuratively, And I don't just mean that figuratively, though I do mean it figuratively. though I do mean it figuratively. though I do mean it figuratively. I also mean that literally. Aulus I also mean that literally. Aulus I also mean that literally. Aulus Vitellius was probably one of the Vitellius was probably one of the Vitellius was probably one of the slowest men to ever ascend to the slowest men to ever ascend to the slowest men to ever ascend to the throne. throne. throne. Vitellius was born in 1580 to a family Vitellius was born in 1580 to a family Vitellius was born in 1580 to a family either descended from ancient Latin either descended from ancient Latin either descended from ancient Latin nobility or descended from common stock nobility or descended from common stock nobility or descended from common stock nobodies, depending on whether you were nobodies, depending on whether you were nobodies, depending on whether you were talking to a supporter or an opponent of talking to a supporter or an opponent of talking to a supporter or an opponent of the man. the man. the man. His father was a prominent official who His father was a prominent official who His father was a prominent official who served with distinction under Tiberius, served with distinction under Tiberius, served with distinction under Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius. Caligula, and Claudius. Caligula, and Claudius. Such was the esteem in which the elder Such was the esteem in which the elder Such was the esteem in which the elder Vitellius was held that when he died, Vitellius was held that when he died, Vitellius was held that when he died, Claudius honored him with a state Claudius honored him with a state Claudius honored him with a state funeral. funeral. funeral. Not much is known about the early years Not much is known about the early years Not much is known about the early years of young Aulus, except for the rumor of young Aulus, except for the rumor of young Aulus, except for the rumor that when he was born, the horoscope that when he was born, the horoscope that when he was born, the horoscope taken on the occasion of his birth so taken on the occasion of his birth so taken on the occasion of his birth so horrified his parents that Vitellius' horrified his parents that Vitellius' horrified his parents that Vitellius' father wound up actually trying to father wound up actually trying to father wound up actually trying to hinder his son's career for his own sake hinder his son's career for his own sake hinder his son's career for his own sake and Rome's.

and Rome's. and Rome's. The alleged horoscope stated that if The alleged horoscope stated that if The alleged horoscope stated that if Vitellius was ever put in charge of an Vitellius was ever put in charge of an Vitellius was ever put in charge of an army, that disaster would ensue. army, that disaster would ensue. army, that disaster would ensue. This prophecy hung over Vitellius' head, This prophecy hung over Vitellius' head, This prophecy hung over Vitellius' head, and as I said, his father used what and as I said, his father used what and as I said, his father used what influence he had to make sure that his influence he had to make sure that his influence he had to make sure that his son was always posted to non-military son was always posted to non-military son was always posted to non-military provinces. provinces. provinces. When Galba appointed him to command the When Galba appointed him to command the When Galba appointed him to command the legions of the lower Rhine, it would legions of the lower Rhine, it would legions of the lower Rhine, it would prove to be the first military posting prove to be the first military posting prove to be the first military posting of his career. of his career. of his career. Did disaster ensue? Did disaster ensue? Did disaster ensue? Well, the legions under his command Well, the legions under his command Well, the legions under his command revolted against their emperor, won, revolted against their emperor, won, revolted against their emperor, won, then lost a civil war, and Vitellius then lost a civil war, and Vitellius then lost a civil war, and Vitellius himself was dead just a year after himself was dead just a year after himself was dead just a year after assuming the post. So, yeah, I would assuming the post. So, yeah, I would assuming the post. So, yeah, I would call that disastrous for pretty much call that disastrous for pretty much call that disastrous for pretty much everyone involved. But up until that point, the affable and But up until that point, the affable and non-threatening Vitellius managed to non-threatening Vitellius managed to non-threatening Vitellius managed to thrive in a political environment where thrive in a political environment where thrive in a political environment where talent was viewed with suspicion. And he talent was viewed with suspicion. And he talent was viewed with suspicion. And he rose to the rank of consul during the rose to the rank of consul during the rose to the rank of consul during the reign of Claudius in 48 AD. reign of Claudius in 48 AD. reign of Claudius in 48 AD. More than a decade later, he was named More than a decade later, he was named More than a decade later, he was named proconsul to Africa by Nero in either 60 proconsul to Africa by Nero in either 60 proconsul to Africa by Nero in either 60 or 61.

or 61. or 61. Throughout his career, Vitellius earned Throughout his career, Vitellius earned Throughout his career, Vitellius earned a reputation for good-natured laziness, a reputation for good-natured laziness, a reputation for good-natured laziness, unambitious but honest administration, unambitious but honest administration, unambitious but honest administration, but above all, a massive appetite for but above all, a massive appetite for but above all, a massive appetite for all the finer things in life. all the finer things in life. all the finer things in life. An unrepentant glutton, he banqueted An unrepentant glutton, he banqueted An unrepentant glutton, he banqueted frequently, usually stuffing four full frequently, usually stuffing four full frequently, usually stuffing four full meals into a day. meals into a day. meals into a day. His one major vice, beyond gambling, was His one major vice, beyond gambling, was His one major vice, beyond gambling, was that he would use the men at his that he would use the men at his that he would use the men at his disposal to go out into the wide world disposal to go out into the wide world disposal to go out into the wide world and bring home delicacies from across and bring home delicacies from across and bring home delicacies from across the empire. the empire. the empire. But though he was not cut from the same But though he was not cut from the same But though he was not cut from the same vigorous and athletic mold that perhaps vigorous and athletic mold that perhaps vigorous and athletic mold that perhaps his forebears were, his forebears were, his forebears were, Vitellius was always well-liked by his Vitellius was always well-liked by his Vitellius was always well-liked by his subordinates wherever he went. subordinates wherever he went. subordinates wherever he went. The stories of his arrival on the Rhine The stories of his arrival on the Rhine The stories of his arrival on the Rhine after the ascension of Galba are after the ascension of Galba are after the ascension of Galba are peppered with accounts of his shaking peppered with accounts of his shaking peppered with accounts of his shaking hands with mule drivers, learning the hands with mule drivers, learning the hands with mule drivers, learning the names of slaves, and generally showing names of slaves, and generally showing names of slaves, and generally showing interest in all the various nobodies interest in all the various nobodies interest in all the various nobodies under his command. under his command. under his command. In short, Vitellius was a classic In short, Vitellius was a classic In short, Vitellius was a classic players' coach, players' coach, players' coach, the kind of man you loved to play for, the kind of man you loved to play for, the kind of man you loved to play for, even if he wasn't strict enough to get even if he wasn't strict enough to get even if he wasn't strict enough to get the most out of your team.

the most out of your team. the most out of your team. Discipline was lax and parties were Discipline was lax and parties were Discipline was lax and parties were frequent. frequent. frequent. There could not have been a stronger There could not have been a stronger There could not have been a stronger contrast to the strict and humorless contrast to the strict and humorless contrast to the strict and humorless Galba than the fresh-cheeked and jovial Galba than the fresh-cheeked and jovial Galba than the fresh-cheeked and jovial Vitellius. Vitellius. Vitellius. And the troops along the Rhine did not And the troops along the Rhine did not And the troops along the Rhine did not miss the distinction. miss the distinction. miss the distinction. On the one hand, there was the hated On the one hand, there was the hated On the one hand, there was the hated Galba, who had beaten them and worked Galba, who had beaten them and worked Galba, who had beaten them and worked them and driven them like pack animals. them and driven them like pack animals. them and driven them like pack animals. And on the other hand, was beloved And on the other hand, was beloved And on the other hand, was beloved Vitellius, who joined in their dice Vitellius, who joined in their dice Vitellius, who joined in their dice games, let them off the hook if their games, let them off the hook if their games, let them off the hook if their uniforms were out of order, and shared uniforms were out of order, and shared uniforms were out of order, and shared his table with anyone who wanted to have his table with anyone who wanted to have his table with anyone who wanted to have some good food. some good food. some good food. So on January 1, 69 AD, when the legions So on January 1, 69 AD, when the legions So on January 1, 69 AD, when the legions across the empire were supposed to renew across the empire were supposed to renew across the empire were supposed to renew their oaths to serve the new emperor their oaths to serve the new emperor their oaths to serve the new emperor Galba, the legions on the Rhine refused. Galba, the legions on the Rhine refused. Galba, the legions on the Rhine refused. They were done with Galba. Vitellius was They were done with Galba. Vitellius was They were done with Galba. Vitellius was their man, and they declared him emperor their man, and they declared him emperor their man, and they declared him emperor by acclaim. by acclaim. by acclaim. The man most shocked to find Vitellius The man most shocked to find Vitellius The man most shocked to find Vitellius suddenly leading a full-blown revolt suddenly leading a full-blown revolt suddenly leading a full-blown revolt against Galba? against Galba? against Galba? Vitellius himself, of course. When I return from the break, we'll dive When I return from the break, we'll dive into the guts of the year of the four into the guts of the year of the four into the guts of the year of the four emperors.

emperors. emperors. Galba will ascend to the throne, but as Galba will ascend to the throne, but as Galba will ascend to the throne, but as Tacitus says, everyone agreed that Galba Tacitus says, everyone agreed that Galba Tacitus says, everyone agreed that Galba would make an excellent emperor until he would make an excellent emperor until he would make an excellent emperor until he actually became emperor. actually became emperor. actually became emperor. His short and unpopular reign will be His short and unpopular reign will be His short and unpopular reign will be cut short when Otho assassinates him in cut short when Otho assassinates him in cut short when Otho assassinates him in January of '69. January of '69. January of '69. Otho will wind up committing suicide in Otho will wind up committing suicide in Otho will wind up committing suicide in April after suffering defeat in northern April after suffering defeat in northern April after suffering defeat in northern Italy at the hands of Vitellius's Italy at the hands of Vitellius's Italy at the hands of Vitellius's invading Rhine legions. invading Rhine legions. invading Rhine legions. Vitellius himself will only last until Vitellius himself will only last until Vitellius himself will only last until December. December. December. In over his head and ready to bow to the In over his head and ready to bow to the In over his head and ready to bow to the more formidable Vespasian, more formidable Vespasian, more formidable Vespasian, he will be unnecessarily murdered by he will be unnecessarily murdered by he will be unnecessarily murdered by Flavian partisans just before the Flavian partisans just before the Flavian partisans just before the arrival of the new year. arrival of the new year. arrival of the new year. Vespasian will then emerge into 70 AD as Vespasian will then emerge into 70 AD as Vespasian will then emerge into 70 AD as the founder of a new imperial dynasty. the founder of a new imperial dynasty. the founder of a new imperial dynasty. Next week though, I'm going to pause our Next week though, I'm going to pause our Next week though, I'm going to pause our forward progress and in honor of my own forward progress and in honor of my own forward progress and in honor of my own fast-approaching nuptials, we'll fast-approaching nuptials, we'll fast-approaching nuptials, we'll dedicate an episode to Roman wedding dedicate an episode to Roman wedding dedicate an episode to Roman wedding customs. customs. customs. And if there's not enough material to And if there's not enough material to And if there's not enough material to cover a whole episode, maybe I'll just cover a whole episode, maybe I'll just cover a whole episode, maybe I'll just ramble on a bit about Roman family life. ramble on a bit about Roman family life. ramble on a bit about Roman family life. Should be fun, so join me next week for Should be fun, so join me next week for Should be fun, so join me next week for a History of Rome wedding.

Hello Hello and welcome to the History of Rome. and welcome to the History of Rome. and welcome to the History of Rome. Episode 69, a History of Rome wedding. Episode 69, a History of Rome wedding. Episode 69, a History of Rome wedding. So the History of Rome is getting So the History of Rome is getting So the History of Rome is getting married in a week and a half and to married in a week and a half and to married in a week and a half and to celebrate, today we're going to set celebrate, today we're going to set celebrate, today we're going to set aside the steady march of history and do aside the steady march of history and do aside the steady march of history and do a short episode focused on Roman wedding a short episode focused on Roman wedding a short episode focused on Roman wedding customs. customs. customs. Remember also that after today, we'll be Remember also that after today, we'll be Remember also that after today, we'll be going off the air for 4 weeks while we going off the air for 4 weeks while we going off the air for 4 weeks while we here at the History of Rome do the thing here at the History of Rome do the thing here at the History of Rome do the thing where we get married and then do the where we get married and then do the where we get married and then do the thing where we move to Austin, Texas. thing where we move to Austin, Texas. thing where we move to Austin, Texas. When we come back though, we'll do the When we come back though, we'll do the When we come back though, we'll do the rock'em sock'em drama of 69 AD and then rock'em sock'em drama of 69 AD and then rock'em sock'em drama of 69 AD and then move into the Flavian dynasty on our way move into the Flavian dynasty on our way move into the Flavian dynasty on our way to the five good emperors, the decline to the five good emperors, the decline to the five good emperors, the decline phase into the crisis of the 3rd phase into the crisis of the 3rd phase into the crisis of the 3rd century, and the surprising comeback led century, and the surprising comeback led century, and the surprising comeback led by Diocletian and confirmed by by Diocletian and confirmed by by Diocletian and confirmed by Constantine. Constantine. Constantine. Lots and lots still to come, so please Lots and lots still to come, so please Lots and lots still to come, so please stay tuned. stay tuned. stay tuned. Today though, we've got weddings on the Today though, we've got weddings on the Today though, we've got weddings on the brain. brain. brain. Yesterday, we finalized the floral Yesterday, we finalized the floral Yesterday, we finalized the floral arrangements, picked up my suit from the arrangements, picked up my suit from the arrangements, picked up my suit from the tailor, scrambled for a workable tailor, scrambled for a workable tailor, scrambled for a workable solution to the wedding cake issue, and solution to the wedding cake issue, and solution to the wedding cake issue, and gulp, went down to the giant brick gulp, went down to the giant brick gulp, went down to the giant brick building to pay for and sign an official building to pay for and sign an official building to pay for and sign an official wedding certificate that will formally wedding certificate that will formally wedding certificate that will formally make us husband and wife once it's make us husband and wife once it's make us husband and wife once it's signed by the state-sanctioned official signed by the state-sanctioned official signed by the state-sanctioned official who will perform the wedding ceremony.

who will perform the wedding ceremony. who will perform the wedding ceremony. As it turns out, weddings are confusing As it turns out, weddings are confusing As it turns out, weddings are confusing amalgam of emotion, tradition, and amalgam of emotion, tradition, and amalgam of emotion, tradition, and bureaucratic legalese. bureaucratic legalese. bureaucratic legalese. If that doesn't sound like the Romans, If that doesn't sound like the Romans, If that doesn't sound like the Romans, well, I don't know what does. well, I don't know what does. well, I don't know what does. It goes without saying that we have them It goes without saying that we have them It goes without saying that we have them to thank for a lot of what we all have to thank for a lot of what we all have to thank for a lot of what we all have to put up with when it's time to get to put up with when it's time to get to put up with when it's time to get married. married. married. As an institution, marriage dates back As an institution, marriage dates back As an institution, marriage dates back into prehistory and was codified as a into prehistory and was codified as a into prehistory and was codified as a legal relationship as early as legal relationship as early as legal relationship as early as Hammurabi's code in the 1700s BC. Hammurabi's code in the 1700s BC. Hammurabi's code in the 1700s BC. There are competing theories about where There are competing theories about where There are competing theories about where the institution came from and why it the institution came from and why it the institution came from and why it persists, and I'm basically not going to persists, and I'm basically not going to persists, and I'm basically not going to touch any of that with a 10-ft pole, touch any of that with a 10-ft pole, touch any of that with a 10-ft pole, but I'm just going to say that by the but I'm just going to say that by the but I'm just going to say that by the time the Romans came onto the scene, time the Romans came onto the scene, time the Romans came onto the scene, marriage was a well-established rock marriage was a well-established rock marriage was a well-established rock upon which society was based. upon which society was based. upon which society was based. It was the manner by which property, It was the manner by which property, It was the manner by which property, wealth, rights, responsibilities, and wealth, rights, responsibilities, and wealth, rights, responsibilities, and alliances were transferred from one alliances were transferred from one alliances were transferred from one generation to another. generation to another. generation to another. Because all of this formed the bedrock Because all of this formed the bedrock Because all of this formed the bedrock of an enduring culture, as with most of of an enduring culture, as with most of of an enduring culture, as with most of the ancient world, marriage in Rome was the ancient world, marriage in Rome was the ancient world, marriage in Rome was not seen as the legal expression of love not seen as the legal expression of love not seen as the legal expression of love and commitment, but rather as the and commitment, but rather as the and commitment, but rather as the practical means to a practical end.

practical means to a practical end. practical means to a practical end. The very idea of romantic love was so The very idea of romantic love was so The very idea of romantic love was so divorced from the concept of marriage in divorced from the concept of marriage in divorced from the concept of marriage in fact that those who stumbled into a fact that those who stumbled into a fact that those who stumbled into a union that actually involved romantic union that actually involved romantic union that actually involved romantic love, as with Pompey the Great and love, as with Pompey the Great and love, as with Pompey the Great and Julia, they found themselves the butt of Julia, they found themselves the butt of Julia, they found themselves the butt of jokes rather than celebrated as models jokes rather than celebrated as models jokes rather than celebrated as models to be emulated. to be emulated. to be emulated. At all levels of society, Roman marriage At all levels of society, Roman marriage At all levels of society, Roman marriage was about cementing connections between was about cementing connections between was about cementing connections between families, securing and consolidating families, securing and consolidating families, securing and consolidating property, and creating clear legal lines property, and creating clear legal lines property, and creating clear legal lines of succession and inheritance. of succession and inheritance. of succession and inheritance. Love was left to poets and philosophers. Love was left to poets and philosophers. Love was left to poets and philosophers. Marriage was a serious business. There were different types of marriage There were different types of marriage in ancient Rome, but they broke down in ancient Rome, but they broke down in ancient Rome, but they broke down into two broad categories. into two broad categories. into two broad categories. Marriages where the bride was Marriages where the bride was Marriages where the bride was transferred as property from her father transferred as property from her father transferred as property from her father to her new husband, and those where she to her new husband, and those where she to her new husband, and those where she technically remained under the authority technically remained under the authority technically remained under the authority of her existing pater familias. of her existing pater familias. of her existing pater familias. The former category itself broke down The former category itself broke down The former category itself broke down into three types. One which was into three types. One which was into three types. One which was elaborate and formal, a second which was elaborate and formal, a second which was elaborate and formal, a second which was less formal but involved the ceremonial less formal but involved the ceremonial less formal but involved the ceremonial purchase of a bride by the groom, and purchase of a bride by the groom, and purchase of a bride by the groom, and one which was a sort of variation of one which was a sort of variation of one which was a sort of variation of today's common law marriage that only today's common law marriage that only today's common law marriage that only kicked in once a woman had been living kicked in once a woman had been living kicked in once a woman had been living with a single man for more than a year.

with a single man for more than a year. with a single man for more than a year. The second category, where the wife was The second category, where the wife was The second category, where the wife was not formally subordinated to her new not formally subordinated to her new not formally subordinated to her new husband, was known as a free marriage. husband, was known as a free marriage. husband, was known as a free marriage. And in some cases, the woman became And in some cases, the woman became And in some cases, the woman became subordinate only to herself if their subordinate only to herself if their subordinate only to herself if their father died and had stipulated such father died and had stipulated such father died and had stipulated such freedom in the will. Roman women, or should I say Roman Roman women, or should I say Roman girls, were eligible for marriage at 12. girls, were eligible for marriage at 12. girls, were eligible for marriage at 12. And Roman men, or should I say Roman And Roman men, or should I say Roman And Roman men, or should I say Roman punk teenagers, were ready at 14. punk teenagers, were ready at 14. punk teenagers, were ready at 14. Most of the time, marriages were set up Most of the time, marriages were set up Most of the time, marriages were set up between boys and girls close in age. But between boys and girls close in age. But between boys and girls close in age. But often an older man marrying for the often an older man marrying for the often an older man marrying for the second or third time would use a much second or third time would use a much second or third time would use a much younger wife. younger wife. younger wife. Though there was no real legal Though there was no real legal Though there was no real legal restrictions to this, or even very restrictions to this, or even very restrictions to this, or even very strict social taboos, men like Cicero strict social taboos, men like Cicero strict social taboos, men like Cicero still found themselves made fun of for still found themselves made fun of for still found themselves made fun of for the huge age discrepancies between the huge age discrepancies between the huge age discrepancies between themselves and their chosen wives. themselves and their chosen wives. themselves and their chosen wives. What really was taboo though, was for a What really was taboo though, was for a What really was taboo though, was for a man to marry a woman older than him. And man to marry a woman older than him. And man to marry a woman older than him. And it was a striking exception that it was a striking exception that it was a striking exception that Octavian's first marriage was to the Octavian's first marriage was to the Octavian's first marriage was to the much older Scribonia.

The matches would be arranged by the The matches would be arranged by the pater familiae or fathers of the family pater familiae or fathers of the family pater familiae or fathers of the family of the prospective bride and groom. of the prospective bride and groom. of the prospective bride and groom. Though the women of the families did not Though the women of the families did not Though the women of the families did not officially have any say in who would officially have any say in who would officially have any say in who would marry their sons and daughters, marry their sons and daughters, marry their sons and daughters, Roman matrons did exert considerable Roman matrons did exert considerable Roman matrons did exert considerable informal power over the process. informal power over the process. informal power over the process. Particularly in the case of brides, it Particularly in the case of brides, it Particularly in the case of brides, it was customary for the pater familias to was customary for the pater familias to was customary for the pater familias to consult with the mother of the bride consult with the mother of the bride consult with the mother of the bride when working up a list of potential when working up a list of potential when working up a list of potential candidates for her daughter to marry. candidates for her daughter to marry. candidates for her daughter to marry. The pater familias was not, of course, The pater familias was not, of course, The pater familias was not, of course, legally obligated to consult with the legally obligated to consult with the legally obligated to consult with the mother of the bride, but, you know, he mother of the bride, but, you know, he mother of the bride, but, you know, he did so at his own peril. did so at his own peril. did so at his own peril. In order for a marriage to be arranged In order for a marriage to be arranged In order for a marriage to be arranged and recognized, both the groom-to-be and and recognized, both the groom-to-be and and recognized, both the groom-to-be and bride-to-be were required to have bride-to-be were required to have bride-to-be were required to have something called conubium or the right something called conubium or the right something called conubium or the right to marry. to marry. to marry. Basically, this meant answering the Basically, this meant answering the Basically, this meant answering the questions, are they old enough? questions, are they old enough? questions, are they old enough? Are they Roman citizens? And are they Are they Roman citizens? And are they Are they Roman citizens? And are they presently married to someone else? presently married to someone else? presently married to someone else? The Romans had no truck with polygamy as The Romans had no truck with polygamy as The Romans had no truck with polygamy as it muddled up inheritance lines, and it muddled up inheritance lines, and it muddled up inheritance lines, and they did not, except under certain they did not, except under certain they did not, except under certain special circumstances, recognize special circumstances, recognize special circumstances, recognize marriage to foreigners.

marriage to foreigners. marriage to foreigners. As you'll recall, this latter point As you'll recall, this latter point As you'll recall, this latter point formed the basis for Octavian's attacks formed the basis for Octavian's attacks formed the basis for Octavian's attacks on Mark Antony after Antony took up with on Mark Antony after Antony took up with on Mark Antony after Antony took up with the foreigner Cleopatra at the expense the foreigner Cleopatra at the expense the foreigner Cleopatra at the expense of his citizen wife Octavia. of his citizen wife Octavia. of his citizen wife Octavia. But beyond these technical requirements But beyond these technical requirements But beyond these technical requirements that answered the question, can I marry that answered the question, can I marry that answered the question, can I marry this man or can I marry this woman? this man or can I marry this woman? this man or can I marry this woman? There was the social requirements. There was the social requirements. There was the social requirements. Should I marry this man or should I Should I marry this man or should I Should I marry this man or should I marry this woman? marry this woman? marry this woman? In the upper classes, this was In the upper classes, this was In the upper classes, this was especially important. But up and down especially important. But up and down especially important. But up and down the line, Roman mothers and fathers the line, Roman mothers and fathers the line, Roman mothers and fathers fretted over finding the right match for fretted over finding the right match for fretted over finding the right match for their children. their children. their children. That husband or that wife who would That husband or that wife who would That husband or that wife who would elevate their social status or bring in elevate their social status or bring in elevate their social status or bring in a particularly large dowry or gain them a particularly large dowry or gain them a particularly large dowry or gain them entrance into a prominent family. In the early days, you'll recall that In the early days, you'll recall that there were all kinds of rules about who there were all kinds of rules about who there were all kinds of rules about who could marry who, with patricians and could marry who, with patricians and could marry who, with patricians and plebs not allowed to intermarry. plebs not allowed to intermarry. plebs not allowed to intermarry. When those restrictions were lifted, it When those restrictions were lifted, it When those restrictions were lifted, it became a really big deal for a plebeian became a really big deal for a plebeian became a really big deal for a plebeian family to hook one of their daughters up family to hook one of their daughters up family to hook one of their daughters up to a patrician man, or to bring a to a patrician man, or to bring a to a patrician man, or to bring a patrician daughter into their house.

patrician daughter into their house. patrician daughter into their house. On the other side though, the patricians On the other side though, the patricians On the other side though, the patricians were never particularly excited to be were never particularly excited to be were never particularly excited to be sending one of their own off to join a sending one of their own off to join a sending one of their own off to join a plebeian family, or to be bringing in plebeian family, or to be bringing in plebeian family, or to be bringing in some commoner into their distinguished some commoner into their distinguished some commoner into their distinguished line. line. line. But practical economics trumped But practical economics trumped But practical economics trumped aristocratic snobbery, as the aristocratic snobbery, as the aristocratic snobbery, as the cross-caste unions usually proved to be cross-caste unions usually proved to be cross-caste unions usually proved to be economic windfalls for many impoverished economic windfalls for many impoverished economic windfalls for many impoverished patrician families. patrician families. patrician families. After all the centuries of After all the centuries of After all the centuries of intermarriage, by the time of the late intermarriage, by the time of the late intermarriage, by the time of the late Republic and early Empire, the most Republic and early Empire, the most Republic and early Empire, the most important thing was not necessarily important thing was not necessarily important thing was not necessarily whether a candidate was patrician or whether a candidate was patrician or whether a candidate was patrician or pleb, but how distinguished their pleb, but how distinguished their pleb, but how distinguished their ancestral line was. ancestral line was. ancestral line was. For the upper classes, it was all about For the upper classes, it was all about For the upper classes, it was all about counting the offices held by your counting the offices held by your counting the offices held by your ancestors. ancestors. ancestors. If you were a young man from a If you were a young man from a If you were a young man from a distinguished family who could point to distinguished family who could point to distinguished family who could point to say four consulships and 16 praetorships say four consulships and 16 praetorships say four consulships and 16 praetorships held by your various ancestors, then you held by your various ancestors, then you held by your various ancestors, then you were looking pretty good. were looking pretty good. were looking pretty good. Bonus points were given or taken away Bonus points were given or taken away Bonus points were given or taken away depending on how recently such offices depending on how recently such offices depending on how recently such offices were held. So, if the young bride's were held. So, if the young bride's were held. So, if the young bride's father had been a consul, then that father had been a consul, then that father had been a consul, then that would be a pretty sought-after young would be a pretty sought-after young would be a pretty sought-after young woman. But if her family was still woman. But if her family was still woman. But if her family was still clinging to the one consulship they had clinging to the one consulship they had clinging to the one consulship they had held in 436 BC, well, people were just held in 436 BC, well, people were just held in 436 BC, well, people were just going to roll their eyes at that.

going to roll their eyes at that. going to roll their eyes at that. Over the course of the Second Punic War, Over the course of the Second Punic War, Over the course of the Second Punic War, most of the upper class men who could most of the upper class men who could most of the upper class men who could point to distinguished lineages were point to distinguished lineages were point to distinguished lineages were wiped out, and Rome saw the arrival of wiped out, and Rome saw the arrival of wiped out, and Rome saw the arrival of the novus homo, which led to the the novus homo, which led to the the novus homo, which led to the wholesale intermingling of lines. wholesale intermingling of lines. wholesale intermingling of lines. The young man who sought to be the first The young man who sought to be the first The young man who sought to be the first in his family to reach the consulship, in his family to reach the consulship, in his family to reach the consulship, sought a bride who would connect him sought a bride who would connect him sought a bride who would connect him into a prominent, if depleted, into a prominent, if depleted, into a prominent, if depleted, aristocratic family. aristocratic family. aristocratic family. And that same aristocratic family was And that same aristocratic family was And that same aristocratic family was looking for men of merit, and more looking for men of merit, and more looking for men of merit, and more importantly, men of wealth, who would importantly, men of wealth, who would importantly, men of wealth, who would help maintain the family's place at the help maintain the family's place at the help maintain the family's place at the top of the food chain. top of the food chain. top of the food chain. A perfect example of this is Gaius A perfect example of this is Gaius A perfect example of this is Gaius Marius, a young plebeian man of talent Marius, a young plebeian man of talent Marius, a young plebeian man of talent and ambition, whose marriage into the and ambition, whose marriage into the and ambition, whose marriage into the ancient but floundering Julian line took ancient but floundering Julian line took ancient but floundering Julian line took his career and their political status to his career and their political status to his career and their political status to the next level. the next level. the next level. The lower classes worked in much the The lower classes worked in much the The lower classes worked in much the same way, but instead of playing in the same way, but instead of playing in the same way, but instead of playing in the VIP room, they played at the dollar VIP room, they played at the dollar VIP room, they played at the dollar tables. Not that the competition was any tables. Not that the competition was any tables. Not that the competition was any less fierce. less fierce. less fierce. Everyone was trying to find the perfect Everyone was trying to find the perfect Everyone was trying to find the perfect match to raise the whole family up from match to raise the whole family up from match to raise the whole family up from where they had been previously, where they had been previously, where they had been previously, politically, economically, and socially.

politically, economically, and socially. politically, economically, and socially. One of the overriding goals of a Roman One of the overriding goals of a Roman One of the overriding goals of a Roman man was to outdo the accomplishments of man was to outdo the accomplishments of man was to outdo the accomplishments of his ancestors, and marriage was another his ancestors, and marriage was another his ancestors, and marriage was another tool in his kit to help him accomplish tool in his kit to help him accomplish tool in his kit to help him accomplish this ever-present goal. Beyond the lineage stuff and the Beyond the lineage stuff and the economic stuff, character actually economic stuff, character actually economic stuff, character actually played a pretty large role in the played a pretty large role in the played a pretty large role in the selection of brides and grooms. selection of brides and grooms. selection of brides and grooms. Roman society centered around public Roman society centered around public Roman society centered around public praise and public shame. praise and public shame. praise and public shame. So, the serious young man who seemed to So, the serious young man who seemed to So, the serious young man who seemed to be a natural leader of men was more be a natural leader of men was more be a natural leader of men was more prized than the lazy man who seemed to prized than the lazy man who seemed to prized than the lazy man who seemed to be a natural drinker of drink. be a natural drinker of drink. be a natural drinker of drink. The former would create maximum praise, The former would create maximum praise, The former would create maximum praise, the latter maximum shame. the latter maximum shame. the latter maximum shame. For the women, it was all about being a For the women, it was all about being a For the women, it was all about being a dutiful, obedient, and loyal wife. dutiful, obedient, and loyal wife. dutiful, obedient, and loyal wife. Outspoken, uninhibited women were looked Outspoken, uninhibited women were looked Outspoken, uninhibited women were looked upon with suspicion, as again, the upon with suspicion, as again, the upon with suspicion, as again, the former would bring much praise, the former would bring much praise, the former would bring much praise, the latter much shame. As I think continues to be the case As I think continues to be the case today, physical beauty was more highly today, physical beauty was more highly today, physical beauty was more highly sought after in women than in men.

sought after in women than in men. sought after in women than in men. A pretty girl from a nobody family could A pretty girl from a nobody family could A pretty girl from a nobody family could catch the eye of some rich aristocrat catch the eye of some rich aristocrat catch the eye of some rich aristocrat and suddenly find herself elevating her and suddenly find herself elevating her and suddenly find herself elevating her family well above their rank as a result family well above their rank as a result family well above their rank as a result of a marriage proposal. of a marriage proposal. of a marriage proposal. For the man from nowhere, though, good For the man from nowhere, though, good For the man from nowhere, though, good looks were not his ticket to the top, looks were not his ticket to the top, looks were not his ticket to the top, but rather his promise. but rather his promise. but rather his promise. If he fought well, and spoke well, and If he fought well, and spoke well, and If he fought well, and spoke well, and carried himself well, and possessed an carried himself well, and possessed an carried himself well, and possessed an ambition to succeed in public life, ambition to succeed in public life, ambition to succeed in public life, he might just find himself skipping he might just find himself skipping he might just find himself skipping ahead of men with better pedigrees but ahead of men with better pedigrees but ahead of men with better pedigrees but worse habits. Once a marriage was arranged, it was Once a marriage was arranged, it was time to announce the happy news. time to announce the happy news. time to announce the happy news. One way a new couple could signal their One way a new couple could signal their One way a new couple could signal their intention to marry was to simply appear intention to marry was to simply appear intention to marry was to simply appear in public holding hands. in public holding hands. in public holding hands. But often a formal engagement party was But often a formal engagement party was But often a formal engagement party was thrown by the pater familias of the thrown by the pater familias of the thrown by the pater familias of the bride with the groom-to-be seated as the bride with the groom-to-be seated as the bride with the groom-to-be seated as the guest of honor. guest of honor. guest of honor. At this party, the couple formally At this party, the couple formally At this party, the couple formally announced their consent to be wed and announced their consent to be wed and announced their consent to be wed and the final details of the dowry, if there the final details of the dowry, if there the final details of the dowry, if there was one, were worked out between the two was one, were worked out between the two was one, were worked out between the two pater familiae. pater familiae. pater familiae. As a visible symbol of the engagement, As a visible symbol of the engagement, As a visible symbol of the engagement, brides-to-be would often be given brides-to-be would often be given brides-to-be would often be given engagement rings, which they would wear, engagement rings, which they would wear, engagement rings, which they would wear, as they do today, on the ring finger of as they do today, on the ring finger of as they do today, on the ring finger of the left hand, believed to be linked the left hand, believed to be linked the left hand, believed to be linked directly with the heart.

directly with the heart. directly with the heart. So, I suppose I can't say that it was So, I suppose I can't say that it was So, I suppose I can't say that it was all business. all business. all business. Though a formal ceremony was not Though a formal ceremony was not Though a formal ceremony was not required to legalize a marriage, a required to legalize a marriage, a required to legalize a marriage, a wedding was as good a time as any to wedding was as good a time as any to wedding was as good a time as any to throw a party. So, the happy occasion throw a party. So, the happy occasion throw a party. So, the happy occasion was often celebrated with a ceremony and was often celebrated with a ceremony and was often celebrated with a ceremony and reception held at the father of the reception held at the father of the reception held at the father of the bride's house. bride's house. bride's house. When picking out a day for the ceremony, When picking out a day for the ceremony, When picking out a day for the ceremony, the superstitious Romans studiously the superstitious Romans studiously the superstitious Romans studiously avoided the calends, nones, and ides of avoided the calends, nones, and ides of avoided the calends, nones, and ides of any given month, which, for example, any given month, which, for example, any given month, which, for example, would be the 1st, 5th, and 13th of would be the 1st, 5th, and 13th of would be the 1st, 5th, and 13th of September, September, September, and refused to marry in the unlucky and refused to marry in the unlucky and refused to marry in the unlucky months of February and May. months of February and May. months of February and May. June was considered to be the best month June was considered to be the best month June was considered to be the best month within which to marry, which may be the within which to marry, which may be the within which to marry, which may be the origin of the old "a June bride" origin of the old "a June bride" origin of the old "a June bride" expression. expression. expression. Once they successfully navigated the Once they successfully navigated the Once they successfully navigated the lock and unlock of the calendar, the lock and unlock of the calendar, the lock and unlock of the calendar, the families would set the date and send out families would set the date and send out families would set the date and send out invitations. invitations. invitations. For these types of aristocratic For these types of aristocratic For these types of aristocratic weddings, 10 people were required to weddings, 10 people were required to weddings, 10 people were required to attend to fulfill the witness attend to fulfill the witness attend to fulfill the witness requirement. requirement. requirement. On the day of the wedding, the bride On the day of the wedding, the bride On the day of the wedding, the bride would ritually give away all her would ritually give away all her would ritually give away all her childhood toys and clothes and then be childhood toys and clothes and then be childhood toys and clothes and then be dressed by her mother in a single-piece, dressed by her mother in a single-piece, dressed by her mother in a single-piece, floor-length, white gown with a floor-length, white gown with a floor-length, white gown with a ceremonial, knotted belt believed to ceremonial, knotted belt believed to ceremonial, knotted belt believed to bring good luck, that only her new bring good luck, that only her new bring good luck, that only her new husband could undo.

husband could undo. husband could undo. Her hair would be parted by a ceremonial Her hair would be parted by a ceremonial Her hair would be parted by a ceremonial spear tip, be separated into six locks, spear tip, be separated into six locks, spear tip, be separated into six locks, and then topped by a floral veil. and then topped by a floral veil. and then topped by a floral veil. The groom, his family, and other guests The groom, his family, and other guests The groom, his family, and other guests would arrive in the father of the would arrive in the father of the would arrive in the father of the bride's home, and after the auspices bride's home, and after the auspices bride's home, and after the auspices were taken one more time to ensure that were taken one more time to ensure that were taken one more time to ensure that all was well metaphysically, all was well metaphysically, all was well metaphysically, the parents of the bride would hand her the parents of the bride would hand her the parents of the bride would hand her over to the groom. over to the groom. over to the groom. During the ceremony, the bride and groom During the ceremony, the bride and groom During the ceremony, the bride and groom would stand before a priest holding would stand before a priest holding would stand before a priest holding hands, and they would exchange vows that hands, and they would exchange vows that hands, and they would exchange vows that usually included the line, "Where you usually included the line, "Where you usually included the line, "Where you are Gaius, I am Gaia." are Gaius, I am Gaia." are Gaius, I am Gaia." Gaius being a name that held some Gaius being a name that held some Gaius being a name that held some particular luck for these types of particular luck for these types of particular luck for these types of occasions. occasions. occasions. After the vows were exchanged, the After the vows were exchanged, the After the vows were exchanged, the couple would offer a sacrifice to couple would offer a sacrifice to couple would offer a sacrifice to Jupiter in the form of either a pig, or Jupiter in the form of either a pig, or Jupiter in the form of either a pig, or as most of us are now used to, some type as most of us are now used to, some type as most of us are now used to, some type of cake. of cake. of cake. Following the signing of the paperwork Following the signing of the paperwork Following the signing of the paperwork and exchange of presents, the guests and exchange of presents, the guests and exchange of presents, the guests would sit down to a meal and prepare would sit down to a meal and prepare would sit down to a meal and prepare themselves for the upcoming wedding themselves for the upcoming wedding themselves for the upcoming wedding procession. procession. procession. The procession was the key to the whole The procession was the key to the whole The procession was the key to the whole shebang, and served as the ritual shebang, and served as the ritual shebang, and served as the ritual transference of authority from the transference of authority from the transference of authority from the father of the bride to the husband.

father of the bride to the husband. father of the bride to the husband. The bride would be guided out of her The bride would be guided out of her The bride would be guided out of her father's house by three boys, and would father's house by three boys, and would father's house by three boys, and would lead the guests on a walk to her new lead the guests on a walk to her new lead the guests on a walk to her new husband's home. husband's home. husband's home. One of these boys would bear a torch One of these boys would bear a torch One of these boys would bear a torch that signified her father's authority that signified her father's authority that signified her father's authority over her, lit from the pater familias' over her, lit from the pater familias' over her, lit from the pater familias' hearth. hearth. hearth. As the procession wound through the As the procession wound through the As the procession wound through the streets, the train would grow larger and streets, the train would grow larger and streets, the train would grow larger and larger as the general public, often just larger as the general public, often just larger as the general public, often just for the fun of it, joined in the march. for the fun of it, joined in the march. for the fun of it, joined in the march. Along the way, onlookers would throw Along the way, onlookers would throw Along the way, onlookers would throw nuts, a symbol of fertility. At some point in all of this, the groom At some point in all of this, the groom would split off from the party and hurry would split off from the party and hurry would split off from the party and hurry ahead to his house, where he would ahead to his house, where he would ahead to his house, where he would formally greet his new wife into their formally greet his new wife into their formally greet his new wife into their home. home. home. When she arrived at the threshold, some When she arrived at the threshold, some When she arrived at the threshold, some more rituals were performed, including more rituals were performed, including more rituals were performed, including the ceremonial snuffing out of the torch the ceremonial snuffing out of the torch the ceremonial snuffing out of the torch and tossing it to the assembled guests. and tossing it to the assembled guests. and tossing it to the assembled guests. And then the bride would carefully step And then the bride would carefully step And then the bride would carefully step through the door. through the door. through the door. The Romans were particularly The Romans were particularly The Romans were particularly superstitious about doorways, though, superstitious about doorways, though, superstitious about doorways, though, and just as often as not, the husband and just as often as not, the husband and just as often as not, the husband would pick up his new wife and carry her would pick up his new wife and carry her would pick up his new wife and carry her inside so that she did not trip on her inside so that she did not trip on her inside so that she did not trip on her way in, which would have been a sign way in, which would have been a sign way in, which would have been a sign that the gods did not approve of the that the gods did not approve of the that the gods did not approve of the union.

union. union. Once inside, the general public would go Once inside, the general public would go Once inside, the general public would go about their business while the wedding about their business while the wedding about their business while the wedding guests would continue to feast and guests would continue to feast and guests would continue to feast and celebrate. celebrate. celebrate. When the time came, the couple would When the time came, the couple would When the time came, the couple would head off to a ceremoniously decorated head off to a ceremoniously decorated head off to a ceremoniously decorated wedding bed and consummate the marriage. wedding bed and consummate the marriage. wedding bed and consummate the marriage. Though not legally required, Though not legally required, Though not legally required, consummation on the night of the wedding consummation on the night of the wedding consummation on the night of the wedding was expected and signaled that the two was expected and signaled that the two was expected and signaled that the two now held between them a contract of now held between them a contract of now held between them a contract of fidelity. fidelity. fidelity. The next morning, the bride would emerge The next morning, the bride would emerge The next morning, the bride would emerge from their room and begin her new life from their room and begin her new life from their room and begin her new life as a matron in her husband's family. as a matron in her husband's family. as a matron in her husband's family. Though affection and kinship kept her Though affection and kinship kept her Though affection and kinship kept her tied to her old family, legally, she was tied to her old family, legally, she was tied to her old family, legally, she was now the property of her husband. now the property of her husband. now the property of her husband. It goes without saying that the very, It goes without saying that the very, It goes without saying that the very, very soon-to-be Mrs. History of Rome very soon-to-be Mrs. History of Rome very soon-to-be Mrs. History of Rome does not subscribe to this theory at does not subscribe to this theory at does not subscribe to this theory at all. Even in jest. I'm serious. Make all. Even in jest. I'm serious. Make all. Even in jest. I'm serious. Make that joke around here sometime. that joke around here sometime. that joke around here sometime. So, that's how the Romans got married. So, that's how the Romans got married. So, that's how the Romans got married. The modern Western world still holds to The modern Western world still holds to The modern Western world still holds to some of the traditions or variations some of the traditions or variations some of the traditions or variations thereof, and everything that I just thereof, and everything that I just thereof, and everything that I just described actually seems pretty similar described actually seems pretty similar described actually seems pretty similar to everything that I'm planning on doing to everything that I'm planning on doing to everything that I'm planning on doing in a few weeks.

in a few weeks. in a few weeks. The engagement ring, the white dress, The engagement ring, the white dress, The engagement ring, the white dress, the veil, the offering of cake, the the veil, the offering of cake, the the veil, the offering of cake, the throwing of rice, the tossing of a throwing of rice, the tossing of a throwing of rice, the tossing of a bouquet. bouquet. bouquet. Like so much else in our culture, Like so much else in our culture, Like so much else in our culture, because that's how the Romans did it, is because that's how the Romans did it, is because that's how the Romans did it, is the answer to the question of why we do the answer to the question of why we do the answer to the question of why we do all of the crazy things that we do when all of the crazy things that we do when all of the crazy things that we do when it's time to get married. it's time to get married. it's time to get married. So, that's it for now. I'll see you all So, that's it for now. I'll see you all So, that's it for now. I'll see you all again in 4 weeks from the new head again in 4 weeks from the new head again in 4 weeks from the new head office in Austin, Texas. office in Austin, Texas. office in Austin, Texas. I want to thank everyone for their well I want to thank everyone for their well I want to thank everyone for their well wishes on the wedding and the move, and wishes on the wedding and the move, and wishes on the wedding and the move, and to those of you who have donated money, to those of you who have donated money, to those of you who have donated money, I want to say that none of it would have I want to say that none of it would have I want to say that none of it would have been possible without you. been possible without you. been possible without you. I haven't touched a dime of the money I haven't touched a dime of the money I haven't touched a dime of the money that has come in, and it's been sitting that has come in, and it's been sitting that has come in, and it's been sitting in a honeymoon fund that has, in the in a honeymoon fund that has, in the in a honeymoon fund that has, in the past few months, been renamed the moving past few months, been renamed the moving past few months, been renamed the moving fund. fund. fund. To those of you who have thought about To those of you who have thought about To those of you who have thought about donating but maybe haven't gotten around donating but maybe haven't gotten around donating but maybe haven't gotten around to it, well, we're about to pick up and to it, well, we're about to pick up and to it, well, we're about to pick up and move across the country and technically move across the country and technically move across the country and technically neither one of us has landed a job yet. neither one of us has landed a job yet. neither one of us has landed a job yet. So, yeah, now is the time. So, yeah, now is the time. So, yeah, now is the time. thehistoryofrome.typepad.com thehistoryofrome.typepad.com thehistoryofrome.typepad.com Jupiter smiles on all of you.